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Cambridge Translations from Greek Drama
Sophocles
Electra
A new translation and
commentary by Eric Dugdale
Introduction to the Greek Theatre
by P.E. Easterling
Series Editors: John Harrison and Judith Affleck
© Cambridge University Press
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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Cambridge University Press
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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521678261
© Cambridge University Press 2008
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the
provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of
any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge
University Press.
First published 2008
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-0-521-67826-1 paperback
AC K N OW L E D G E M E N T S
Thanks are due to the following for permission to reproduce photographs:
p. 1 Oxford Playhouse and the Farber Foundry, 2008, Jabulike Tshabalala
(Elektra), Sandile Matsheni (Orestes); pp. 13, 96 RSC, The Pit (Barbican Centre,
London), 1988, Fiona Shaw (Electra), Piers Ibbotson (Orestes) © Donald
Cooper/Photostage; pp. 20, 109 © 2008 Museum of Fine Arts Boston; p. 47
Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy/ The Bridgeman Art Library; p. 55
© The Trustees of the British Museum; p. 84 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien;
p. 92 Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali – Soprintendenza per i Beni
Archeologici del Piemonte e del Museo Antichità Egizie; p. 103 The J. Paul Getty
Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California.
Every effort has been made to reach copyright holders. The publishers would be
glad to hear from anyone whose rights they have unknowingly infringed.
The cover image of Electra Receiving the Ashes of her Brother, Orestes by Jean
Baptiste Joseph Wicar (1762–1834) is reproduced by kind permission of
Worcester Art Museum, Massachusetts, USA/The Bridgeman Art Library.
PERFORMANCE
For permission to give a public performance of this translation of Electra,
please write to the Permissions Department, Cambridge University Press,
The Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8RU.
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Contents
Preface
Background to the story of Electra
Further reading
Genealogical table
Map of Ancient Greece
List of characters
Commentary and translation
Synopsis of the play
Pronunciation of names
Introduction to the Greek Theatre
Time line
Index
© Cambridge University Press
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Preface
The aim of the series is to enable students to approach Classical
plays with confidence and understanding: to discover the play within
the text.
The translations are new. Many recent versions of Greek tragedy
have been produced by poets and playwrights who do not work from
the original Greek. The translators of this series aim to bring readers,
actors and directors as close as possible to the playwrights’ actual
words and intentions: to create translations which are faithful to the
original in content and tone; and which are speakable, with all the
immediacy of modern English.
The notes are designed for students of Classical Civilisation and
Drama, and indeed anyone who is interested in theatre. They address
points which present difficulty to the reader of today: chiefly relating
to the Greeks’ religious and moral attitudes, their social and political
life, and mythology.
Our hope is that students should discover the play for themselves.
The conventions of the Classical theatre are discussed, but there is no
thought of recommending ‘authentic’ performances. Different groups
will find different ways of responding to each play. The best way of
bringing alive an ancient play, as any other, is to explore the text
practically, to stimulate thought about ways of staging the plays today.
Stage directions in the text are minimal, and the notes are not
prescriptive; rather, they contain questions and exercises which
explore the dramatic qualities of the text. Bullet points introduce
suggestions for discussion and analysis; open bullet points focus on
more practical exercises.
If the series encourages students to attempt a staged production,
so much the better. But the primary aim is understanding and
enjoyment.
This translation of Electra is based on the Greek text edited by Hugh
Lloyd-Jones and Nigel Wilson for Oxford University Press (1990).
John Harrison
Judith Affleck
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Background to the story of Electra
The names of characters who appear in this play are printed in bold.
The play takes place in the aftermath of the Trojan War. Its setting is
the palace at Mycenae. Agamemnon, king of Argos (the territory in
which Mycenae is located), led an expedition of Greeks against Troy
because the Trojan prince Paris had abducted Helen, the wife of his
brother Menelaus. During his absence on campaign Agamemnon’s
wife Clytaemnestra took a lover, Aegisthus (Agamemnon’s cousin).
The two of them murdered Agamemnon on his return and ruled as
usurpers. The play stages the return of Orestes, Agamemnon’s exiled
son, to reclaim his rightful throne and avenge his father’s murder.
Violence in the royal house of Argos goes back several generations
and repeats itself, with one violent act engendering another.
Agamemnon’s great-grandfather Tantalus cut up his own son Pelops
and served him to the gods to test their divinity. The gods realised and
refused to eat the meat they had been served. They restored Pelops to
life and punished Tantalus with eternal suffering in Hades (where he
was tantalised by food and drink just out of his reach).
Pelops took part in a contest for the hand of Hippodamia, daughter
of Oenomaus, king of Pisa, who had promised his daughter in
marriage to whoever could beat him in a chariot race (see 498–502),
the price of failure being the suitor’s death. Pelops defeated Oenomaus
through trickery, bribing Oenomaus’ charioteer Myrtilus to sabotage
his chariot by loosening the linchpins in his chariot wheels (or by
replacing them with wax replicas, according to a different version of
the story). Oenomaus suffered a fatal crash in the race, and cursed his
charioteer as he died. Pelops subsequently killed his accomplice
Myrtilus, hurling him from his chariot into the Aegean Sea (either
because he did not want to pay him his reward or because Myrtilus
had insulted or tried to seduce Hippodamia). Myrtilus cursed Pelops
and his descendants (see 503–10) as he fell to his death.
Pelops’ descendants continued to be plagued by family strife. His
sons, Atreus and Thyestes, fought for the throne of Argos, which an
oracle had declared to belong to ‘a son of Pelops’. The brothers agreed
that whoever acquired a golden-fleeced ram should become king. The
elder brother Atreus got the fleece, but Thyestes seduced Atreus’ wife,
Aerope, and persuaded her to steal the fleece. After a period of exile
Atreus returned and retook the throne. He got his revenge by feigning
reconciliation and inviting Thyestes to a banquet, then killing
Thyestes’ sons and serving them to him to eat. When Thyestes realised
what he had eaten, he cursed Atreus and went into exile.
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The feud between Atreus and Thyestes was, in turn, continued by
their respective sons, Agamemnon and Aegisthus. Aegisthus took
revenge on Agamemnon by seducing his wife, Clytaemnestra, then
killing him on his return. Clytaemnestra, for her part, was angry with
Agamemnon for killing their daughter Iphigeneia, whom he had
sacrificed to appease the goddess Artemis and gain favourable winds
that would allow the Greek expedition to sail to Troy.
Electra saved her brother Orestes from the hands of Aegisthus and
Clytaemnestra by giving him to their old Tutor to take to Phocis for
safe-keeping. He was reared by Strophius, a friend and loyal relative of
Agamemnon. Strophius’ son Pylades accompanied Orestes on his
mission to Argos, which, according to Orestes, was mandated by
Apollo’s oracle (see 32–8). In the Fourth Episode of the play Orestes
and Pylades pretend to be messengers sent by Phanoteus bringing
news of Orestes’ death; Phanoteus was the brother and bitter rival of
Pylades’ grandfather Crisus, and was an ally of Aegisthus.
The story of the royal family of Argos was well known, told by many
poets beginning with Homer. Versions of the story told by each of the
three major Athenian tragedians – Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides
– survive, allowing us to compare the ways in which each playwright
developed the myth. Sophocles, for example, gave a particularly
prominent role to Orestes’ sister Electra, and added their sister
Chrysothemis as a character. Aeschylus’ Oresteia, produced a
generation or so before Sophocles, was written as a trilogy, while the
versions by Sophocles and Euripides were single plays. It is still a
matter of debate whether Sophocles’ play or Euripides’ play came first.
Further reading
Mary Whitlock Blundell, Helping Friends and Harming Enemies: A
Study in Sophocles and Greek Ethics, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1991, pp. 149–83.
Anne P. Burnett, Revenge in Attic and later Tragedy, Berkeley CA,
University of California Press, 1998.
Edith Hall, ‘Sophocles’ Electra in Britain’, in J. Griffin (ed.), Sophocles
Revisited, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 261–306.
Michael Lloyd, Sophocles: Electra, London, Duckworth, 2005.
Mark Ringer, Electra and the Empty Urn, Chapel Hill NC, University of
North Carolina Press, 1998.
Charles Segal, Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles,
Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1999, pp. 249–91.
J. Michael Walton, Greek Theatre Practice, revised edition, London,
Methuen, 1991.
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Tantalus
Phanoteus
Phocus
Iphigeneia Electra Chrysothemis Orestes Iphianassa
Niobe
Anaxibia = Strophius
(see below)
Erigone Aletes
Aegisthus
liaison with
Clytaemnestra
Thyestes = Pelopia
Pylades (= Electra in some versions)
Strophius = Anaxibia (sister of Agamemnon and Menelaus)
Crisus
Hermione
Menelaus = Helen
Pelops = Hippodamia
Atreus = Aerope
Agamemnon = Clytaemnestra
Genealogical table
Some minor characters are not shown.
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Map of Ancient Greece
Troy
Mt Sipylus
Athens
Barca
N il e
LIB YA
EG YPT
Mt Olympus
M
G
A
N
Aegean Sea
E
SI
THESSALY
A
AETOLIA
AENIS
PHOCIS
Delphi
BOEOTIA
ACHAEA
PELO
Mycenae
PO Argos
Aulis
Thebes
Athens
E SE
NN
Sparta
0
150 km
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List of characters
Non-speaking parts are marked with an asterisk.
TUTOR
servant of the royal family of Argos
ORESTES
son of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra
PYLADES*
relative, ally, and travel companion of Orestes
ELECTRA
elder sister of Orestes
CHORUS
townswomen of Mycenae
CHRYSOTHEMIS
younger sister of Electra
CLYTAEMNESTRA
queen of Argos, wife of Agamemnon
ATTENDANTS*
in the service of Clytaemnestra and Orestes
AEGISTHUS
cousin of Agamemnon, lover of Clytaemnestra
Elektra and Orestes in the recognition scene from Molora, an
adaptation of the Orestes myth by Yael Farber related to the Truth and
Reconciliation process in South Africa. Scene from the production at
the Barbican Centre, London, 2008.
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PROLOGUE (1–118)
There were no programmes handed out at the original performances
of Greek tragedies. Instead the background of the play was provided
in the opening lines of the prologue. Here the Tutor provides the
essential information, identifying his addressee, the setting, and the
main elements of the plot.
Setting the scene
The Tutor leads Orestes and Pylades into the orche-stra (see Fig. B on
page 114). In the original production they would have come in from
the entrance (parodos) that represented the far distance.
1 Son of Agamemnon Orestes, like other sons of famous Greek
heroes of the Trojan War (Odysseus’ son Telemachus in Homer’s
Odyssey and Achilles’ son Neoptolemus in Sophocles’ Philoctetes), is to
a great extent defined by his parentage, as emphasised by the
postponement of his name until line 6.
4 ancient Argos … the plain The Tutor is referring to the land of
Argos, within which are located the cities of Argos and Mycenae (9).
Mycenae, site of the palace of Agamemnon, gave its name to the
Bronze Age Mycenaean civilisation, and is six miles north of Argos. By
the fifth century BC Argos had become an important military power,
whereas the site of Mycenae had been abandoned.
5 daughter of Inachus Io, daughter of the river god Inachus and
priestess of the temple of Hera (see 8), was seduced by Zeus, then
transformed into a cow when Hera detected the affair. The bovine Io
was driven into a frenzy by a stinging gadfly sent by Hera. After
wandering all over the earth, she eventually found relief and returned
to Argos. The allusion to the plain of Argos reminds us of Io’s
sufferings that occurred there.
6 Lycean market-place Located in the city of Argos and bordered by a
temple of Apollo. Lycean was an epithet applied to Apollo, which
Sophocles here derives from the Greek for wolf (lukos). The title with
which a god was addressed was selected from a range of titles
belonging to him, chosen according to the capacity in which he was
being invoked. One of Apollo’s functions was to protect flocks; here
his description as ‘wolf-slaying’ (7) strikes an ominous note.
10 house of Pelops This refers to both the palace at Mycenae and its
inhabitants, the descendants of Pelops. For the genealogy of the royal
house at Mycenae, see Genealogical table, page vii. For the story of its
violent past, including Agamemnon’s murder, see Background to the
story, page v.
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TUTOR Son of Agamemnon, who commanded at Troy,
Now you can see at first hand
What you have always been yearning for.
This is ancient Argos, which you’ve longed to see, the plain
Of the daughter of Inachus, who was stung by the gadfly;
That, Orestes, is the Lycean market-place, named after
The wolf-slaying god; here to the left
Is the famous temple of Hera; from where we are now
You can say you’re looking at Mycenae, rich in gold,
And this is the house of Pelops, rich in destruction.
Lines 1–10 [Greek text 1–10]
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Agamemnon’s children (12–14)
The Tutor makes a first reference to Electra, the eldest of Orestes’ three
living sisters. Orestes was an infant when Agamemnon left for Troy.
Troy fell in the tenth year of the war and, according to tradition,
Orestes returned to avenge Agamemnon in the eighth year after his
murder. Thus the Orestes on stage is probably a man in his prime (14,
154), aged 19 or so. Electra is likely to be in her mid to late 20s, given
that she was old enough to look after Orestes as an infant and rescue
him in the aftermath of Agamemnon’s death (1124, 1141).
Chrysothemis is younger than Electra but older than Orestes; like
Electra she is past her teenage years (952–3), the traditional age of
marriage for women. Iphianassa – mentioned once (153) – may be
taken as being younger than Chrysothemis since the latter is
mentioned first. Iphigeneia was said to have been of marriageable age
when she was sacrificed by Agamemnon (see Background to the story,
page vi); this would make her the eldest of the siblings (but
Iphigeneia, who is not mentioned in Homer, is usually considered a
later replacement in the mythical tradition for Iphianassa).
● Why do you think the Tutor spends so much time introducing
particular places in the first half of his speech, and what symbolic
meanings might these convey?
15 avenger of your father’s murder The duty of the son to avenge his
father defines Orestes and provides the motivation for the entire plot
of the play.
16 my dear friend Pylades The Greek xenos, here translated as
‘friend’, refers to a guest–host relationship that was an important
component of social interaction between aristocrats in archaic Greece.
For Pylades’ identity, see Background to the story, page vi.
The Pythian oracle (32–8)
People travelled from all over the Greek-speaking world to consult the
famous oracle of Phoebus Apollo at Delphi. The god foretold the future
through his priestess, known as the Pythia. She responded to visitors’
questions while in a trance; her inarticulate cries were interpreted and
recorded by an official interpreter, who composed them into poetry.
The oracle’s responses were notoriously ambiguous, and the oracle
given to Orestes (36–7) is no exception. Its wording could represent
either an order (Apollo said that he should do x) or a statement
(Apollo said that he would do x). The term ‘hand of justice’ could
justify the killing or simply be describing an act of vengeance. Orestes
asks how to get revenge (33–4), not whether he should do so.
● What is the significance of the first line (36)?
● Do Apollo’s words sound to you like a clear command?
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Here, at the scene of your father’s murder,
Your own sister handed you to me;
I took you, kept you safe,
And raised you to grow up with the strength
To be the avenger of your father’s murder.
So now, Orestes, and you too, my dear friend Pylades,
Our plans must be laid – and fast.
Already the bright rays of the sun
Stir clear morning bird-calls
And the dark starry night is gone.
Before someone comes out of the house,
Put together a plan.
This is no time to hesitate. It’s time to act!
ORESTES Dear servant, how clearly
You show your loyalty to me.
Just as a thoroughbred, even an old one,
Does not lose heart in times of danger,
But pricks up its ears, just so
You spur me on and are among the first to follow.
Well then, I will tell you what I have decided. Listen carefully
And, if I miss the mark, correct me.
When I went to the Pythian oracle
To find out how I could
Take vengeance for my father on his murderers,
Phoebus gave me the following prophecy:
‘Without protection of shields or army, through trickery and
stealth,
You are to accomplish killings with the hand of justice.’
That was the oracle I heard.
Then go into the house when the time is right,
And find out what is going on,
So that you can report to us with certainty.
They won’t recognise you, at your age, after all this time;
With your white hair they won’t even suspect you.
Lines 11–43 [Greek text 11–43]
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45 Phanoteus of Phocis Phanoteus was the brother of Pylades’
grandfather Crisus and lived near Delphi. Phanoteus and Crisus were
bitter rivals; here Phanoteus is represented as supporting Aegisthus’
rival claim to the throne of Argos (see Background to the story, page vi)
while Crisus, his son Strophius and his grandson Pylades remain loyal
to Agamemnon and Orestes. The Greek word translated as ‘ally’ is
doruxenos and literally means ‘spear-friend’: a friend who has pledged
to bring military aid in time of need (see 16n).
46 swear to it Orestes is quick to instruct the Tutor to lie on oath, a
serious offence potentially open to punishment by Zeus, guardian of
oaths. In contrast to Aeschylus and Euripides, Sophocles presents an
Orestes who is supremely confident, and who believes that the end
justifies the means. There is no doubt in Orestes’ mind that the oracle
gives him unqualified approval for his plan of revenge and that he is
on a divine mission (68–9).
48 Pythian Games These took place at Delphi every four years, and
rivalled the Olympic Games in scale. One of the most prestigious
events was the chariot race that took place in the valley of Crisa below
the sanctuary of Apollo.
Burial customs (50–1)
Greeks made offerings to the dead (321, 405–6, 431–3, 447–52, 906)
that included libations (water, wine, oil, milk or honey poured onto
the ground). They also placed wreaths, locks of their hair or other
mementos on the tombs of their loved ones as gifts to the dead. The
lock that Orestes places on Agamemnon’s tomb will later prove
significant (see 892–925).
52 the bronze urn Homeric heroes who died away from home were
usually cremated; their ashes were then placed in an urn to be
returned home for burial.
Words and deeds (57–8)
The Greeks were fond of antithesis; their liking for juxtaposed pairs of
opposites is reflected in their sentence structure. Here (‘in word … in
fact’) we have one of the most frequent antitheses (see also 311–12,
354–5, 1042, 1283–7, 1360–1, 1373–4, 1499–1500), contrasting words
(logoi) and actions (erga). Orestes’ plot will largely depend on a series
of false stories (logoi) for its success.
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Say this: that you are a foreigner come from
Phanoteus of Phocis – he is their greatest ally.
Tell them – and swear to it –
That Orestes is dead, killed in an accident.
Say he fell from a speeding chariot at the Pythian Games.
Make that your story.
Meanwhile, we will first crown the tomb of my father
With libations and shining locks of hair, as the god
commanded;
Then we’ll come back, carrying the bronze urn, which
As you know lies hidden in the bushes,
And deceive them with our story by bringing them
Welcome news – that my body has already been
Consumed by flames and reduced to ashes.
For how can it hurt me to die in word
If in fact I am safe and winning glory for myself?
Lines 44–58 [Greek text 44–60]
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Self-interest (59–60)
Orestes’ comment raises a debate current at the time when Sophocles
wrote this play, when Athens was fighting a long war against Sparta
and her allies (the Peloponnesian War, 431–404 BC). Some Athenian
politicians, such as Cleon, argued that policy should be decided on the
basis of self-interest rather than on moral principle. Orestes is taking a
similar stance, blurring the normal distinction between what is right
and what is advantageous. His radical approach is similar to that of
sophists or professional teachers of rhetoric like Protagoras (late fifth
century), who famously claimed that he could make the worse
argument seem the better; Orestes’ similarly bold claim (59–60)
influences our view of his character and of the play’s moral issues.
74 the time is right Orestes’ speech, like that of the Tutor before him,
closes with an appeal to timeliness (see ‘Time’, page 92), an indication
to the audience that a new development is imminent.
81 Loxias Loxias is a title for Apollo, god of prophecy (see 6n). The
Tutor’s words may suggest that Apollo’s prophecy included
instructions beyond what Orestes has divulged.
The opening scene (1–84)
● Why do you think Orestes invents a false story (44–9)? What
particular details does he choose to include?
● Orestes ends his speech with a prayer for success (66–71). What
does he invoke, and why?
● What are your first impressions of the Tutor and Orestes? What is
their relationship, and does it change over the course of the scene?
Who is in charge?
● How would you stage the interrupted departure of the Tutor,
●
Orestes and Pylades, and the entrance of Electra? At what point
should Electra emerge from the palace?
Lyric
From Electra’s very first cry of misery (76), her words are expressed in
song or lyric poetry (centred in this text). Greek plays consisted of a
combination of spoken and sung verse. Not only the Chorus but also
the actors sang at certain points (see Parodos, page 14). Often, as here,
the actors’ songs took the form of a soliloquy, but sometimes dialogue
also was sung. Lyric poetry was accompanied by music and arranged
in rhythms very different from the iambic metre used to represent
ordinary spoken dialogue. It often conveyed intensity of emotion.
Electra’s song is both a lament and a prayer.
● Explore different ways to convey the musical element to Electra’s
●
words.
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To my way of thinking, there’s nothing wrong
With a tale that brings advantage.
I know of many men –
Wise ones, too – who were falsely reported dead,
Only to return home to even greater honour.
I am confident that, through this story, I too
Shall blaze forth alive, like a star upon my enemies.
So now, my fatherland and gods of this place,
Welcome me with good fortune on this journey of mine –
You too, my ancestral home; for I come with justice
To purify you, sped on my way by the gods.
Don’t send me away from this land dishonoured;
But let me be master of my wealth and restore my house.
I’ve said what I have to say. As for you, old man,
Go and see to your part.
The two of us will be on our way, for the time is right,
And in men’s affairs timing is everything.
ELECTRA
Oh, oh! How I suffer!
TUTOR Listen, child, I thought I heard one of the servants
Moaning softly behind that door.
ORESTES Is it poor Electra?
Shall we stay and listen to her weeping?
TUTOR No, let’s attempt nothing till we’ve followed Loxias’
orders –
Let us begin there,
By pouring libations to your father:
That’s what will bring us victory and success in our enterprise.
Lines 59–84 [Greek text 61–85]
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85 O sacred light Electra comes out of the house, the usual place for
women in ancient Greece (see 323n), and addresses the sun, air and
(indirectly) earth as witnesses of her troubles. It is not unusual to
invoke the elements as witnesses since they are omnipresent deities. In
Electra’s case the appeal emphasises her isolation.
90 all-night vigils Electra’s unending grief and association with the
night contrast with the characterisation of the male characters, their
focus on the dawning of a new day (18–20) and concern with the
critical moment for action (23, 74–5).
Mourning
In ancient Greece (as in many cultures today) it was the duty of
female relatives of the deceased to express their grief in ritualised
mourning. This included outbursts of grief (76), funereal songs (87),
beating of the breasts, self-laceration (88) and other practices such as
tearing the hair. Electra’s mourning is unusually prolonged – it has
been nearly eight years since her father’s death.
94–5 bloody Ares / Who welcomed Ares was the god of war.
Agamemnon did not die in battle at Troy, but was killed by his wife
and her lover Aegisthus on his return home to Mycenae (see
‘Agamemnon’s murder’, page 18, and Background to the story, page v).
Electra uses the Greek word xenizein (literally ‘to welcome or offer
hospitality to a guest’) ironically (95). In Aeschylus’ earlier play
Agamemnon, Clytaemnestra kills her husband in the bath after giving
him a hero’s welcome.
106 Like the nightingale Electra is referring to the myth of Procne
(see also 143–5, 1068), wife of Tereus. Tereus raped Procne’s sister,
Philomela, then attempted to cover up his crime by cutting out her
tongue; but Philomela conveyed her story to Procne by weaving it into
a tapestry. Procne then killed her own son Itys and served him up to
her husband Tereus as a punishment. When Tereus chased the women,
he was turned into a hoopoe; Philomela was transformed into a
swallow and Procne into a nightingale.
● Explore the points of intersection between Electra’s situation and
the myth of Procne.
108 for all to hear Electra’s lament is motivated by her desire to
shame Clytaemnestra and Aegisthus as well as her wish to honour the
memory of Agamemnon (see ‘Friends and enemies’, page 28).
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Electra
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