Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Syntax:
Recursion, Conjunction, and
Constituency
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Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Supplementary Readings
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The following readings have been posted to the Moodle
course site:
I
Language Files: Chapter 5 (pp. 204-215, 216-220)
I
Language Instinct: Chapter 4 (pp. 74-99)
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Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
An Interesting Property of our PS Rules
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
An Interesting Feature of These Rules:
As we saw last time, these rules allow sentences to contain
other sentences.
I A sentence must have a VP in it.
I A VP can have a CP in it.
I A CP must have an S in it.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
An Interesting Property of our PS Rules
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
An Interesting Feature of These Rules:
Auxiliary Verbs
As we saw last time, these rules allow sentences to contain
other sentences.
S
NP
N
Dave
VP
V
CP
thinks C
S
that
he is cool
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
An Interesting Property of our PS Rules
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Another Interesting Feature of These Rules:
These rules also allow noun phrases to contain other noun
phrases.
I
An NP can contain an (optional) PP.
I
A PP can contain an (optional) NP.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
An Interesting Property of our PS Rules
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Another Interesting Feature of These Rules:
These rules also allow noun phrases to contain other noun
phrases.
NP
D
N
PP
the man P
NP
with a telescope
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Recursion
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Vocabulary:
Recursion is when an expression of some type contains
another expression of that same type
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Recursion
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Vocabulary:
Recursion is when an expression of some type contains
another expression of that same type
I Sentences containing other sentences
I
I
I
Dave thinks that he is cool
Dave wonders if he is cool
That he is not cool surprises Dave.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Recursion
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Vocabulary:
Recursion is when an expression of some type contains
another expression of that same type
I Sentences containing other sentences
I
I
I
Dave thinks that he is cool
Dave wonders if he is cool
That he is not cool surprises Dave.
I Noun Phrases (NPs) containing other NPs
I
I
I
The man with a telescope
The rock near the tree
Some dogs outside this house
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
So what? What’s so neat about ‘recursion’?
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
So what? What’s so neat about ‘recursion’?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 1:
Recursion
Once recursion gets started, it never has to stop.
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
So what? What’s so neat about ‘recursion’?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 1:
Recursion
Once recursion gets started, it never has to stop.
Conjunction
I Once the rules allow a sentence inside a sentence...
Constituency Tests
(Dave thinks that he is cool)
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
So what? What’s so neat about ‘recursion’?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 1:
Recursion
Once recursion gets started, it never has to stop.
Conjunction
I Once the rules allow a sentence inside a sentence...
Constituency Tests
(Dave thinks that he is cool)
Auxiliary Verbs
I ...then they also allow a sentence in a sentence in a sentence...
(Mary said that Dave thinks that he is cool)
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
So what? What’s so neat about ‘recursion’?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 1:
Recursion
Once recursion gets started, it never has to stop.
Conjunction
I Once the rules allow a sentence inside a sentence...
Constituency Tests
(Dave thinks that he is cool)
Auxiliary Verbs
I ...then they also allow a sentence in a sentence in a sentence...
(Mary said that Dave thinks that he is cool)
I ...and a sentence in a sentence in a sentence in a sentence...
(John wonders if Mary said that Dave thinks that he is cool)
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
So what? What’s so neat about ‘recursion’?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 1:
Recursion
Once recursion gets started, it never has to stop.
Conjunction
I Once the rules allow a sentence inside a sentence...
Constituency Tests
(Dave thinks that he is cool)
Auxiliary Verbs
I ...then they also allow a sentence in a sentence in a sentence...
(Mary said that Dave thinks that he is cool)
I ...and a sentence in a sentence in a sentence in a sentence...
(John wonders if Mary said that Dave thinks that he is cool)
I ...and so on, and so on....
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
But what’s so great about that?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 1:
Recursion
Once recursion gets started, it never has to stop.
Conjunction
I Once the rules allow a sentence inside a sentence...
Constituency Tests
(Dave thinks that he is cool)
Auxiliary Verbs
I ...then they also allow a sentence in a sentence in a sentence...
(Mary said that Dave thinks that he is cool)
I ...and a sentence in a sentence in a sentence in a sentence...
(John wonders if Mary said that Dave thinks that he is cool)
I ...and so on, and so on....
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
But what’s so great about that?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 2:
Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible
English sentences.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
But what’s so great about that?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 2:
Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible
English sentences.
I After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English
sentences.
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Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
But what’s so great about that?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 2:
Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible
English sentences.
I After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English
sentences.
I Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S.
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Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
But what’s so great about that?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 2:
Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible
English sentences.
I After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English
sentences.
I Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S.
I But, we could always make a longer sentence by embedding S:
(Dave thinks that S)
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Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
But what’s so great about that?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 2:
Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible
English sentences.
I After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English
sentences.
I Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S.
I But, we could always make a longer sentence by embedding S:
(Dave thinks that S)
I Therefore, there is no ‘longest possible’ English sentence
(Just like there is no ‘biggest number’)
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Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Question:
But what’s so great about that?
Supplementary
Readings
Answer, Part 2:
Thanks to this, there are literally an infinite number of possible
English sentences.
I After all, suppose there were only finitely many possible English
sentences.
I Then, there’d necessarily be a longest English sentence, S.
I But, we could always make a longer sentence by embedding S:
(Dave thinks that S)
I Therefore, there is no ‘longest possible’ English sentence
(Just like there is no ‘biggest number’)
I Therefore, the number of possible English sentences is infinite!
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Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Consequences of Recursion
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
The Main Importance of Recursion:
Conjunction
Recursion seems to make human language fundamentally
different from other kinds of animal communication.
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
I Other organisms have complex ‘languages’ (bees, dolphins)
I But none of them have been found to exhibit recursion (so far)
I So recursion may be part of what makes human language so
special...
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Noun Phrases
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Problem:
Auxiliary Verbs
Our rules won’t let us make sentences like the following:
I Bill and Dave danced.
I The dog chased the young cat and the ugly boy.
I Dave walked past the school and the church.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Noun Phrases
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
The Pattern:
Wherever English allows one NP, it also allows two NPs joined
by ‘and’.
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Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Noun Phrases
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
The Pattern:
Wherever English allows one NP, it also allows two NPs joined
by ‘and’.
Temporary Solution:
Let’s introduce the following, additional rule for NPs:
NP → NP and NP
(An NP can be formed from two other NPs joined by ‘and’).
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Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Noun Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
We can now form those sentences that we couldn’t before:
S
NP
VP
NP and NP
V
N
N
Bill
Dave
danced
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.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Noun Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
S
NP
VP
N
V
Dave
walked
PP
P
NP
past NP
and
NP
the school
.
the church
.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Verb Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Problem:
These rules still won’t let us make sentences like the following:
I Dave dances and smokes cigars.
I Tom walked into the house and sat down.
I Mary screamed and said her ankle hurt.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Verb Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
The Pattern:
Wherever English allows one VP, it also allows two VPs joined
together by ‘and’.
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.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Verb Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
The Pattern:
Wherever English allows one VP, it also allows two VPs joined
together by ‘and’.
Temporary Solution:
Let’s introduce the following, additional rule for VPs:
VP → VP and VP
(A VP can be formed from two other VPs joined by ‘and’).
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.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Noun Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → VP and VP
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
We can now form those sentences that we couldn’t before:
S
NP
N
VP
VP and
Dave V
dances
VP
V
NP
smokes
cigars
.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Prepositional Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → VP and VP
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Problem:
These rules still won’t let us make sentences like the following:
I Dave walked out the door and into the yard.
I People with guns and without licenses will be arrested .
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.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Prepositional Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → VP and VP
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
The Pattern:
Wherever English allows one PP, it also allows two PPs joined
together by ‘and’.
Temporary Solution:
Let’s introduce the following, additional rule for PPs:
PP → PP and PP
(A PP can be formed from two other PPs joined by ‘and’).
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.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction of Prepositional Phrases
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → VP and VP
PP → P (NP)
PP → PP and PP
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
S
NP
N
VP
V
PP
Dave walked
PP
and
P
NP
out
the door
.
PP
P
NP
into
.
.
the yard
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Summary of Our Conjunction Rules
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → VP and VP
PP → P (NP)
PP → PP and PP
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Summary:
So far, we’ve added three different rules to our system:
I NP → NP and NP
I VP → VP and VP
I PP → PP and PP
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Summary of Our Conjunction Rules
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → VP and VP
PP → P (NP)
PP → PP and PP
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Problem:
These three separate rules are missing an obvious pattern!
I
Wherever you can have any category X, you can also
have ‘X and X’ .
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Summary of Our Conjunction Rules
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
NP → NP and NP
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → VP and VP
PP → P (NP)
PP → PP and PP
CP → C S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’:
X → X and X
(Where X can be any category (N, V, A, D, P, C) or any phrase
(S, NP, VP, PP, CP, etc.))
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
How to Read Our New Rule:
“For any label X, this is a rule of the syntax: X → X and X”
I
So, our new ‘meta-rule’ makes all the following PS rules:
I
I
I
NP → NP and NP
VP → VP and VP
PP → PP and PP
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Our ‘meta-rule’ also makes some other PS rules we need:
.
.
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.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Conjunction of Sentences:
S → S and S
Auxiliary Verbs
S
NP
N
Dave
VP
V
CP
thinks C
S
that
S
and
he sucks .
S
.
Joe. rules.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Conjunction of CPs:
CP → CP and CP
Auxiliary Verbs
S
NP
N
Dave
VP
V
CP
thinks
CP
and
CP
C
S
C
that
he sucks .
that
.
S
.
Joe. rules.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Conjunction of Ns:
N → N and N
Auxiliary Verbs
S
NP
VP
D
some
N
N
dogs
V
and
N
fight
cats
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Conjunction of Vs:
V → V and V
Auxiliary Verbs
S
NP
VP
N
Dave
V
V
and
cooked
NP
V
the carrots
sliced
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Conjunction of Ps:
P → P and P
Auxiliary Verbs
S
NP
N
Dave
VP
V
PP
walked
P
P
in
NP
and
P
around
.
the house
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Conjunction ‘Meta-Rule’
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
The Conjunction
‘Meta-Rule’
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Vocabulary:
If two things are joined together by “and”, they are said to be:
I
conjoined
I
coordinated
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Phrases and ‘Constituents’
Vocabulary:
If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own,
they are said to be a constituent.
Illustration:
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
“Dave likes the happy man.”
Conjunction
S
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
NP
Degree Expressions (Deg)
VP
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
N
V
Dave
likes
NP
D
A
N
the
happy
man
I ‘the happy man’ is a constituent
(Those words together on their own form a phrase in the
sentence: the NP)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Phrases and ‘Constituents’
Vocabulary:
If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own,
they are said to be a constituent.
Illustration:
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
“Dave likes the happy man.”
Conjunction
S
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
NP
Degree Expressions (Deg)
VP
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
N
V
Dave
likes
NP
D
A
N
the
happy
man
I ‘likes the happy man’ is a constituent
(Those words together on their own form a phrase in the
sentence: the VP)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Phrases and ‘Constituents’
Vocabulary:
If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own,
they are said to be a constituent.
Illustration:
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
“Dave likes the happy man.”
Conjunction
S
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
NP
Degree Expressions (Deg)
VP
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
N
V
Dave
likes
NP
D
A
N
the
happy
man
I ‘the happy’ is not a constituent
(Those words on their own don’t form a phrase in the sentence)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Phrases and ‘Constituents’
Vocabulary:
If a group of words in a sentence form a phrase on their own,
they are said to be a constituent.
Illustration:
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
“Dave likes the happy man.”
Conjunction
S
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
NP
Degree Expressions (Deg)
VP
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
N
V
Dave
likes
NP
D
A
N
the
happy
man
I ‘likes the’ is not a constituent
(Those words on their own don’t form a phrase in the sentence)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Tests for Constituency
Question:
I
I
Supplementary
Readings
Suppose I don’t already know the right structure for a
sentence...
Recursion
How can I tell whether some bunch of words is
actually a constituent of not?
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Tests for Constituency
Question:
I
I
Supplementary
Readings
Suppose I don’t already know the right structure for a
sentence...
Recursion
How can I tell whether some bunch of words is
actually a constituent of not?
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Answer:
There are some tests you can use!
I
Linguists call these ‘constituency tests’.
I
The first involves ‘conjunction’
(joining things with ‘and’)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
X → X and X
Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction:
I
This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two
phrases of the same type.
I
I
I
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
NP → NP and NP
VP → VP and VP
PP → PP and PP
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
X → X and X
Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction:
I
This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two
phrases of the same type.
I
I
I
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
NP → NP and NP
VP → VP and VP
PP → PP and PP
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Auxiliary Verbs
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
X → X and X
Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction:
I
This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two
phrases of the same type.
I
I
I
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
NP → NP and NP
VP → VP and VP
PP → PP and PP
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
Auxiliary Verbs
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
X → X and X
Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction:
I
This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two
phrases of the same type.
I
I
I
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
NP → NP and NP
VP → VP and VP
PP → PP and PP
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
Auxiliary Verbs
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
I
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
X → X and X
Our ‘Meta-Rule’ for Conjunction:
I
This rule says that ‘and’ can only go between two
phrases of the same type.
I
I
I
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
NP → NP and NP
VP → VP and VP
PP → PP and PP
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
Auxiliary Verbs
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
.
.
.
.
Supplementary
Readings
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
Illlustration:
Supplementary
Readings
“Dave likes the happy man”
.
.
.
.
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
Illlustration:
Supplementary
Readings
“Dave likes the happy man”
I ‘The happy man’ is a constituent (an NP).
.
.
.
.
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then, our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
Illlustration:
Supplementary
Readings
“Dave likes the happy man”
I ‘The happy man’ is a constituent (an NP).
I And, so we can follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same categories:
(Dave likes the happy man and some angry cat)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
Illlustration:
Supplementary
Readings
“Dave likes the happy man”
I ‘Likes the happy man’ is a constituent (a VP).
.
.
.
.
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
Illlustration:
Supplementary
Readings
“Dave likes the happy man”
I ‘Likes the happy man’ is a constituent (a VP).
I And, so we can follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same categories:
(Dave likes the happy man and hates some angry cat)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
Illlustration:
Supplementary
Readings
“Dave likes the happy man”
I ‘The happy’ is not a constituent.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
I
I
Illlustration:
Supplementary
Readings
“Dave likes the happy man”
I ‘The happy’ is not a constituent.
I And so we can’t follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same categories.
(*Dave likes the happy and some angry man)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
Supplementary
Readings
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
Recursion
I
I
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
Illlustration:
.
.
Conjunction
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
“Dave likes the happy man”
.
Constituency Tests
Degree Expressions (Deg)
I ‘Likes the’ is not a constituent.
.
Conjunction
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Conjunction as Constituency Test
Important Consequence of the ‘Meta-Rule’:
I
Suppose some words ‘X Y Z’ are a constituent.
Supplementary
Readings
I
Then, they together form a phrase of some type ‘XP’
Then our conjunction rule would let you join together two
such XPs with ‘and’
Recursion
I
I
So, you should be able to follow ‘X Y Z’ with
I ‘and’, followed by
I Another bunch of words ‘A B C’ of the same
categories as ‘X Y Z’
Illlustration:
Question by Repetition
I And so we can’t follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same categories.
(*Dave likes the and saw the happy man)
.
.
Conjunction
Auxiliary Verbs
“Dave likes the happy man”
.
Constituency Tests
Degree Expressions (Deg)
I ‘Likes the’ is not a constituent.
.
Conjunction
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Applying the Test to a New Case
The Main Consequence:
If we’re not sure if some bunch of words forms a constituent,
we can use conjunction as a test:
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Applying the Test to a New Case
The Main Consequence:
If we’re not sure if some bunch of words forms a constituent,
we can use conjunction as a test:
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
I Take that sequence of words, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence
of words of the same categories.
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
I
I
If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
.
.
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Applying the Test to a New Case
The Main Consequence:
If we’re not sure if some bunch of words forms a constituent,
we can use conjunction as a test:
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
I Take that sequence of words, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence
of words of the same categories.
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
I
I
If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Let’s now try this out on a new case!
Degree Expressions:
I
“The very tall man left.”
I
The category of ‘very’ is a ‘Degree Expression’ (Deg).
Other Degs include: too, kinda, more, most, least, ...
I
.
.
.
.
.
.
Degs and Constituency
Question:
In the sentence “The very tall man left”, do the Deg ‘very’
and the adjective ‘tall’ form a constituent?
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
.
.
.
.
.
.
Degs and Constituency
Question:
In the sentence “The very tall man left”, do the Deg ‘very’
and the adjective ‘tall’ form a constituent?
I That is, which of these tree structures is correct?:
S
S
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
NP
NP
VP
VP
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
D
Deg
A
The
very
tall
N
V
man left
D
AP
The Deg
A
very
.
.
N
V
man left
tall
.
.
.
.
Auxiliary Verbs
Degs and Constituency
Question:
In the sentence “The very tall man left”, do the Deg ‘very’
and the adjective ‘tall’ form a constituent?
I That is, which of these tree structures is correct?:
S
S
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
NP
NP
VP
VP
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
D
Deg
A
The
very
tall
N
V
man left
D
AP
The Deg
N
A
very
V
man left
tall
Our ‘Conjunction Test’:
Take that sequence of words, follow it with ‘and’ plus a
sequence of words of the same categories.
I If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
I If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
.
.
.
.
.
.
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Degs and Constituency
Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.”
Take “very tall”, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same category (a Deg and an A).
I If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
I If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Degs and Constituency
Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.”
Take “very tall”, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same category (a Deg and an A).
I If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
I If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Result: “very tall” passes the test!
Auxiliary Verbs
I The following sentence sounds totally fine:
“The very tall and kinda handsome man left.”
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Degs and Constituency
Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.”
Take “very tall”, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same category (a Deg and an A).
I If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
I If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
S
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
NP
D
VP
AP
The
AP
and
AP
N
V
man
left
Deg
A
Deg
A
very
tall
kinda
handsome
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Degs and Constituency
Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.”
Take “very tall”, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same category (a Deg and an A).
I If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
I If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Result: “very tall” passes the test!
Auxiliary Verbs
I The following sentence sounds totally fine:
“The very tall and kinda handsome man left.”
.
.
.
.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Degs and Constituency
Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.”
Take “very tall”, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same category (a Deg and an A).
I If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
I If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Result: “very tall” passes the test!
Auxiliary Verbs
I The following sentence sounds totally fine:
“The very tall and kinda handsome man left.”
Question:
In the sentence “The very tall man left”, do the Deg ‘very’
and the adjective ‘tall’ form a constituent?
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Degs and Constituency
Our ‘Conjunction Test’: “The very tall man left.”
Take “very tall”, follow it with ‘and’ plus a sequence of words of
the same category (a Deg and an A).
I If it sounds good, it’s a constituent!
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
I If it sounds bad, it’s not a constituent!
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Result: “very tall” passes the test!
Auxiliary Verbs
I The following sentence sounds totally fine:
“The very tall and kinda handsome man left.”
Question:
In the sentence “The very tall man left”, do the Deg ‘very’
and the adjective ‘tall’ form a constituent?
Answer:
Yes; ‘very’ and ‘tall’ do form a constituent in this sentence!
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Adjective Phrases
Question:
What’s the rule that combines a Deg (‘very’) and an A (‘tall’)
into a phrase?
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Adjective Phrases
Question:
What’s the rule that combines a Deg (‘very’) and an A (‘tall’)
into a phrase?
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Answer:
Constituency Tests
I We’ll call this type of a phrase an Adjective Phrase (AP)
Conjunction
I Since it consists of a Deg and an A, the PS rule would be:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
AP → (Deg) A
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Adjective Phrases
Question:
What’s the rule that combines a Deg (‘very’) and an A (‘tall’)
into a phrase?
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Answer:
Constituency Tests
I We’ll call this type of a phrase an Adjective Phrase (AP)
Conjunction
I Since it consists of a Deg and an A, the PS rule would be:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
AP → (Deg) A
Auxiliary Verbs
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (AP*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
AP → (Deg) A
X → X and X
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
I
Besides this, linguists have many other ‘tests’ for
whether a bunch of words forms a constituent.
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
I
Question by Repetition
In this class, we’ll learn just one more...
(More are discussed in the reading...)
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Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Crucial Fact:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
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Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Crucial Fact:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
I Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.”
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Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Crucial Fact:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
I Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.”
I Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?”
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Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Crucial Fact:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
I Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.”
I Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?”
I Person 2: “The happy man?!?”
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.
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Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Crucial Fact:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
I Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.”
I Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?”
I Person 2: “The happy man?!?”
I Person 2: * “the happy?!?”
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Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Crucial Fact:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
I Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.”
I Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?”
I Person 2: “The happy man?!?”
I Person 2: * “the happy?!?”
I Person 2: * “likes the?!?”
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.
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Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Basic Fact:
We can ‘call things into question’ by repeating them in a
quizzical fashion:
Supplementary
Readings
I Person 1: “Dave is dating a lawyer.”
Recursion
I Person 2: “A lawyer?!?”
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Crucial Fact:
Degree Expressions (Deg)
In such dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
I Person 1: “Dave likes the happy man.”
I Person 2: “Likes the happy man?!?”
I Person 2: “The happy man?!?”
I Person 2: * “the happy?!?”
I Person 2: * “likes the?!?”
The Rationale:
If something is not a ‘constituent’, then it’s not a full phrase,
and it’s ‘weird’ not to speak in full phrases...
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Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Crucial Fact:
In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Crucial Fact:
In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
Supplementary
Readings
The Constituency Test:
Recursion
If we’re not sure if some bunch of words forms a constituent,
we can use ‘quizzical repetition’ as a test:
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Conjunction
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Crucial Fact:
In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
Supplementary
Readings
The Constituency Test:
Recursion
If we’re not sure if some bunch of words forms a constituent,
we can use ‘quizzical repetition’ as a test:
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
I Imagine someone says the sentence, and then try to ‘quizzically
I
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
repeat’ those words.
I
Conjunction
Auxiliary Verbs
If it sounds natural, then those words form a constituent!
If it doesn’t, they they don’t form a constituent!
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.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Crucial Fact:
In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
Supplementary
Readings
The Constituency Test:
Recursion
If we’re not sure if some bunch of words forms a constituent,
we can use ‘quizzical repetition’ as a test:
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
I Imagine someone says the sentence, and then try to ‘quizzically
I
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
repeat’ those words.
I
Conjunction
Auxiliary Verbs
If it sounds natural, then those words form a constituent!
If it doesn’t, they they don’t form a constituent!
Illustration: “Dave walked into the house”
I Our rules predict that ‘walked’ and ‘into the house’ form a
constituent (VP).
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Questioning by Repetition
Crucial Fact:
In dialogs, we can only ‘quizzically repeat’ a constituent.
Supplementary
Readings
The Constituency Test:
Recursion
If we’re not sure if some bunch of words forms a constituent,
we can use ‘quizzical repetition’ as a test:
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
I Imagine someone says the sentence, and then try to ‘quizzically
I
Auxiliary Verbs
If it sounds natural, then those words form a constituent!
If it doesn’t, they they don’t form a constituent!
Illustration: “Dave walked into the house”
I Our rules predict that ‘walked’ and ‘into the house’ form a
constituent (VP).
I Our ‘repetition test’ for constituency confirms this.
I
I
Degree Expressions (Deg)
Question by Repetition
repeat’ those words.
I
Conjunction
Person 1: Dave walked into the house.
Person 2: Walked into the house?!?
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Sentences With Multiple Verbs
Our Current PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (AP*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
AP → (Deg) A
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Problem:
I
Our PS rules only let a single sentence have a single V:
I
However, sentences can seem to have more than one V:
I
I
I
I
Dave has bought a car.
Dave did buy a car.
Dave is buying a car.
Dave will buy a car.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Auxiliary Verbs
The Challenge:
Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible:
Supplementary
Readings
I Dave has bought a car.
Recursion
I Dave did buy a car.
Conjunction
I Dave is buying a car.
Constituency Tests
I Dave will buy a car.
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Auxiliary Verbs
The Challenge:
Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible:
Supplementary
Readings
I Dave has bought a car.
Recursion
I Dave did buy a car.
Conjunction
I Dave is buying a car.
Constituency Tests
I Dave will buy a car.
Auxiliary Verbs
Key Observation:
I In these kinds of Ss, the first V isn’t just any old verb of English.
I Rather, it can only be one of very limited group:
(has, did, is, will, can, must, should, ...)
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Auxiliary Verbs
The Challenge:
Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible:
Supplementary
Readings
I Dave has bought a car.
Recursion
I Dave did buy a car.
Conjunction
I Dave is buying a car.
Constituency Tests
I Dave will buy a car.
Auxiliary Verbs
Key Observation:
I In these kinds of Ss, the first V isn’t just any old verb of English.
I Rather, it can only be one of very limited group:
(has, did, is, will, can, must, should, ...)
Vocabulary
Auxiliary Verb (Aux) =
a V that can directly precede another V in an English sentence
(has, did, is, will, can, must, should, ...)
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Auxiliary Verbs
The Challenge:
Fix our rules so that sentences with multiple Vs are possible:
Supplementary
Readings
I Dave has bought a car.
Recursion
I Dave did buy a car.
Conjunction
I Dave is buying a car.
Constituency Tests
I Dave will buy a car.
Auxiliary Verbs
Key Question:
In sentences like those above, does the Aux form a constituent
with the VP?
S
S
NP
Aux
VP
NP
N
has
bought a car
N
Dave
??
Dave
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Aux
VP
has
bought a car
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Applying Our Constituency Tests!
Key Fact:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests!
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Applying Our Constituency Tests!
Key Fact:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests!
Supplementary
Readings
1. The Conjunction Test:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be followed by ‘and’ plus another
‘Aux VP’ sequence:
I
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Dave has bought a car and will buy a house.
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Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Applying Our Constituency Tests!
Key Fact:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests!
Supplementary
Readings
1. The Conjunction Test:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be followed by ‘and’ plus another
‘Aux VP’ sequence:
I
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Dave has bought a car and will buy a house.
Auxiliary Verbs
2. The Repetition Test:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be ‘quizzically repeated’
I
I
Person 1: ‘Dave will buy a house.”
Person 2: ‘Will buy a house?!?”
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Applying Our Constituency Tests!
Key Fact:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ does pass our constituency tests!
Supplementary
Readings
1. The Conjunction Test:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be followed by ‘and’ plus another
‘Aux VP’ sequence:
I
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Dave has bought a car and will buy a house.
Auxiliary Verbs
2. The Repetition Test:
The sequence ‘Aux VP’ can be ‘quizzically repeated’
I
I
Person 1: ‘Dave will buy a house.”
Person 2: ‘Will buy a house?!?”
Conclusion:
The ‘Aux’ does form a constituent with the VP that follows it.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Rule for Auxiliary Verbs
Conclusion:
The ‘Aux’ does form a constituent with the VP that follows it.
Supplementary
Readings
S
Recursion
NP
??
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
N
Aux
VP
Dave
has
bought a car
.
Auxiliary Verbs
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Rule for Auxiliary Verbs
Conclusion:
The ‘Aux’ does form a constituent with the VP that follows it.
Supplementary
Readings
S
Recursion
NP
??
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
N
Aux
VP
Dave
has
bought a car
Auxiliary Verbs
Question:
What is the type of phrase that the Aux and the VP make?
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Rule for Auxiliary Verbs
Conclusion:
The ‘Aux’ does form a constituent with the VP that follows it.
Supplementary
Readings
S
Recursion
NP
??
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
N
Aux
VP
Dave
has
bought a car
Auxiliary Verbs
Question:
What is the type of phrase that the Aux and the VP make?
Answer:
Well, it looks like just another VP!
I It comes together with an NP or CP to make an S
I Wherever you have a ‘plain VP’, you can have ‘Aux VP’
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Rule for Auxiliary Verbs
Conclusion:
The ‘Aux’ does form a constituent with the VP that follows it.
Supplementary
Readings
S
Recursion
NP
VP
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
N
Aux
VP
Dave
has
bought a car
Auxiliary Verbs
Question:
What is the type of phrase that the Aux and the VP make?
Answer:
Well, it looks like just another VP!
I It comes together with an NP or CP to make an S
I Wherever you have a ‘plain VP’, you can have ‘Aux VP’
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
The Rule for Auxiliary Verbs
Conclusion:
The ‘Aux’ does form a constituent with the VP that follows it.
Supplementary
Readings
S
Recursion
NP
VP
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
N
Aux
VP
Dave
has
bought a car
Auxiliary Verbs
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (AP*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → Aux VP
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
AP → (Deg) A
X → X and X
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Recursion in the VP
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (AP*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → Aux VP
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
AP → (Deg) A
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Interesting Consequence:
Our new VP rule creates another case of recursion:
I According to the rule, a VP can directly contain another VP
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Recursion in the VP
Our Updated PS Rules:
S → { NP , CP } VP
NP → (D) (AP*) N (CP) (PP*)
VP → V (NP) { (NP) (CP) } (PP*)
VP → Aux VP
PP → P (NP)
CP → C S
AP → (Deg) A
X → X and X
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
Interesting Consequence:
Our new VP rule creates another case of recursion:
I According to the rule, a VP can directly contain another VP
Important Prediction:
Because this recursion, our new PS rule lets us have multiple
Aux’s in a single sentence!
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Recursion in the VP
Important Prediction:
Our new PS rule for auxiliaries (VP → Aux VP) lets us have
multiple Aux’s in a single sentence.
Supplementary
Readings
S
Recursion
Conjunction
NP
Constituency Tests
VP
Auxiliary Verbs
N
Aux
Dave
might
VP
Aux
have
VP
Aux
VP
been
drinking whiskey
.
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Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Limits to Recursion in the VP
Problematic Prediction:
Our PS rule for auxiliaries (VP → Aux VP) wrongly allows us
to have an unlimited number of Aux’s in a single sentence.
S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
NP
VP
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
N
Aux
Dave
might
VP
Aux
will
VP
Aux
VP
have
.
Aux
VP
been
drinking whiskey
.
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.
.
.
Syntax:
Recursion,
Conjunction, and
Constituency
Limits to Recursion in the VP
Problematic Prediction:
Our PS rule for auxiliaries (VP → Aux VP) wrongly allows us
to have an unlimited number of Aux’s in a single sentence.
S
Supplementary
Readings
Recursion
Conjunction
NP
VP
Constituency Tests
Auxiliary Verbs
N
Aux
Dave
might
VP
Aux
will
VP
Aux
VP
have
Aux
VP
been
drinking whiskey
The Solution?
You’ll have to take Linguistics 401 (Introduction to Syntax)
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