Arab J Geosci
DOI 10.1007/s12517-009-0100-y
ORIGINAL PAPER
Tectonic process analysis in Zagros Mountain with the aid
of drainage networks and topography maps dated 1950–2001
in GIS
Saied Pirasteh & Biswajeet Pradhan & Syed M. Rizvi
Received: 4 June 2009 / Accepted: 10 October 2009
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2009
Abstract In this study, a digital elevation model was used
for hydrological study/watershed management, topography,
geology, tectonic geomorphology, and morphometric analysis. Geographical information system provides a specialized set of tools for the analysis of topography, watersheds,
and drainage networks that enables to interpret the tectonic
activities of an area. The drainage system maps of Zagros
Mountains in southwest Iran have been produced using
multi-temporal datasets between 1950 and 2001 to establish
the changes between geomorphic signatures and geomorphic aspect during time and to correlate them with recent
neo-tectonics. This paper discusses the role of drainage for
interpreting the scenario of the tectonic processes as one of
important signatures. The study shows variation in drainage
network derived from topography maps. Thus, changes in
drainage pattern, stream length, stream gradient, and the
number of segment drainage order from 1950 to 2001
indicate that Zagros Mountain has been subjected to recent
neo-tectonic processes and emphasized to be a newly active
zone.
S. Pirasteh
Spatial and Numerical Modeling Labarotory,
Institute of Advance Technology, University Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM. Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: moshaver1380@yahoo.co.uk
B. Pradhan (*)
Institute of Cartography, Dresden University of Technology,
01062 Dresden, Germany
e-mail: Biswajeet.Pradhan@mailbox.tu-dresden.de
S. M. Rizvi
Department of Geology, Remote sensing Application Center,
Aligarh, U.P., India
Keywords Tectonic analysis . Remote sensing . GIS .
Zagrous Mountain
Introduction
The Zagros Mountains are parts of Alpine–Himalayan
orogenic system. The Zagros Fold Belt (ZFB) is one the
best exposed fold-thrust belts in structural and tectonic
perspective. Geology of ZFB was studied by Stocklin and
Steudehnia (1977). Falcon (1974) has divided the orogen
into three structural zones, such as (1) an inner crystalline
zone of overthrusting, (2) an imbricate belt, and (3) zone of
folding often referred to the simply folded belt. Later the
geology of the Zagros structural belt (ZSB) was studied by
many other researchers (Berberian 1976; Berberian 1995;
Colman-Sadd 1978; Darvishzadeh 1992; Blanc et al. 2003;
Pirasteh and Ali 2005). Based on the above literature the
ZSB has been divided into four units as follows:
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Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone
Imbricate Zone
Zagros Fold Belt
Molasse Cover Sequence which are characterized by
distinct geological and geophysical signatures.
Mountain topography is the result of highly scaledependent interaction involving tectonic and surface processes. In ZFB, the bulk of the relief in mountainous region
has been formed by uplift along thrust faults striking subparallel to trace of the thrust zones. Therefore, there is an
intimate link between uplift rates, material distribution
rates, erosion, and topography due to geomorphic processes
and the morphology of the area (Pirasteh and Ali 2005;
Pirasteh et al. 2009a, 2009b). By quantifying stream length,
stream gradient, the number of drainage segment order,
Arab J Geosci
drainage texture, and pattern of two different dates (1950
and 2001) tectonic processes are inferred.
The evidence of neo-tectonic activities is commonly
available through various geomorphic signatures (stream
length, stream gradient, number of the stream segment
order) and geomorphic aspects i.e. stream drainage texture
and pattern (Pradhan 2009; Youssef et al 2009). Thus,
drainage networks can be used as variable to interpret the
structural and tectonic behavior of the area (Pradhan et al.
2006). Numerous studies have been made to develop
relationships between tectonics and morphology in ZSB
(Mohr 1967; Almaz 1998; Arnett 1971). In order to study
the tectonic behavior of the ZFB morphometric parameters
of the drainage systems such as stream length, stream
gradient, number of drainage segment orders, and pattern
were taken in consideration. Tectonic geomorphology was
used to study the variation and changes in drainages during
1950 to 2001. Topography maps of the study area in scale
1:50,000 dated 1950 are scanned and digitized in geographical information system (GIS). Digital topography
maps in scale 1:25,000 dated 2001 of the area were used.
The digital elevation model (DEM) of area was prepared
using the data for both dates and was used to calculate the
synthetic drainage network through which the water runs.
The grid-based terrain model of the ZFB which was used in
this case represents the continuous surface of the terrain.
Each cell has eight adjoining cells and eight possible
drainage directions. The direction of the drainages based on
the cell’s elevation value with the values of the adjoining
Fig. 1 Location map of study area
cells. The drainage networks in the ZFB could be
automatically vectorized in GIS environment. The digital
terrain model made for the area has become a useful tool
for the study of drainage morphometry.
DEM of the area is prepared for two different dates.
Spatial analysis in GIS environment is approached to
extract the length of the drainages, stream gradient, number
of the segment streams order, and further interpretation
used to define changes in patterns of the drainages from
1950 to 2001. With significant improvement in resolution
of available DEM and computing drainage network in ZFB
the evaluation of morphotectonic in a GIS environment
tends to be quantitative and more precise. Therefore, the
study could evaluate the changes in drainage network from
1950 to 2001 and correlate it to tectonic evolution.
Study area
The study area (Fig. 1) extends from Dezful in north
Khuzestan province to Khorramabad and Doorud-Brojerd
in north Lorestan province. These two provinces are most
important from geology and geomorphology point of view.
It is located in such a way that is belonging to ZSB. Both
the provinces have different lithostratigraphy and geomorphological setting. The study area varies in elevation from
142 to 4,200 m m.s.l. The study area is bounded by
longitude 47°58′1.42″–49°18′50.63″ E and latitude 32°21′
40.94″–34°00′00″. It is covered by digital toposheets of
Arab J Geosci
Dezful and Khorramabad blocks from Iranian Surveying
Organization (ISO) numbers (5654, 5655, 5656, 5657,
5755, 5756, 5757, 5855, and 5856) on scale 1:25,000.
Materials and methodology
Topography maps of the study area in scale 1:50,000 and
1:25,000 of two dates (1950 and 2001, respectively) were
used for the study. In order to generate DEM, x,y, and z
attributes in text format are introduced to Rivertools
software. The pixel size of proposed DEM was given on
the basis of contour interval as 20 m to increase accuracy.
The methodology consists of two steps: (1) extraction and
analysis of Dez basin drainage system based on scale
1:50,000 and 1:25,000 dated 1950 and 2001, respectively.
In the present study drainage maps were prepared from
DEM using toposheets with the help of GIS software.
Drainage networks of the study area of 1950 and 2001 were
superimposed to emphasis the changes in stream length,
number of drainage segment orders, and drainages pattern.
(2) Dez river profile was digitally drawn on DEM dated
2001 to calculate the stream gradient. This is done in
Rivertools software added with the field observations. This
technique allows analysts to point out structural features
such as faults and folds. Faults and folds are recognized in
the DEM on the basis of tone, slope, linearity, changes in
topography, and drainages direction. However, geomorphic
signatures and aspects were keys to interpret the tectonic
activity in ZFB. Broadly the methodology is defined as
follows:
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The topography map of 1950 was scanned and digitally
drawn in the form of vectors and points to define x, y,
and z attributes using ER-mapper 6.1, Arcview 3.2 and
Arcinfo softwares.
Adequate attributes were assigned and subsequently
vectors are introduced to Microstation J to export into
text format
Delineation of drainage networks for toposheet dated
1950. Simultaneously, the text formats were introduced
to other GIS software in Rivertools 2.4 to create DEM
(Fig. 2) for analyzing the drainage networks (Fig. 3).
Morphometry analysis helps analysts to analyze and
interpret tectonic geomorphology of the ZFB. Extraction of drainage networks involves three conditioning
processes. They are:
1. Flow grid generation—the objective of the first step in
the conditioning phase is to create an adjusted
“depression-less” raise to the lowest elevation value
on the rim of the depression. Each cell in the
depression-less digital elevation data set will then be
part of cells leading to an age of the data set. A path is
Fig. 2 Digital elevation model of the study area showing different
structural units
composed of cells that are adjacent horizontally,
vertically, or diagonally in the raster (eight-way
connectedness) and with steady decrease in value. The
purpose of this routine is to extract a flow grid from a
DEM grid.
2. Basin outlet—this is a graphic routine that allows one
to specify the basin that one wants to analyze by
providing Rivertools with the precise location of the
basin’s outlet. In the present study the complete DEM
was used. Therefore, an outlet was specified in the GIS
environment on DEM on the basis of filed observations.
3. RT Treefile—this routine creates a Rivertools “treefile”
for one or more of the basins in the DEM, from a
Rivertools flow grid. The treefile is a vector format file,
which can store data for many disjoint basins. Every
pixel in the particular basin is the outlet pixel for a subbasin that is contained in that basin.
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The digital topography map dated to 2001 was
provided by the ISO in scale 1:25,000 were
converted to text format in the form of x, y, and z
using Microstation J.
Delineation of drainage networks for toposheet
dated 2001 (the same procedure as for toposheet
dated 1950) was applied for morphometric analysis
and to generate the drainage networks map
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 3 Stream gradient map of the study area derived from topography map dated 2001-ZFB southwest Iran
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Visual interpretation of the topography map. Field
observations using global positioning system (GPS)
to obtain elevation, faults, folds, and drainage
length. Dez river profile is interpreted (Burbank
and Anderson 2001) to evaluate the structural and
tectonic behaviors in ZSB.
Superimposing two drainage networks to highlight
the changes of the drainages from 1950 to 2001.
Finally, the difference between drainage networks
dated 1950 and 2001 was interpreted to evaluate
tectonic processes in ZFB.
carried out. Drainages in the study area also often shift the
direction of flow due to folding, thrusting, and rock type
variations as the orogen is exhumed (Fig. 4).
The influence of topography on drainage morphometry
has been well known for decades or even centuries. The
idea of behavior on drainage is given in this paper by trying
to correlate individual topography morphological attributes
and the processes of tectonics and rock faulting. Among
Table 1 Comparative geomorphic parameters showing data summery
for the Dez river basin, ZSB, SW Iran (depicted from DEM dated
1950 and 2001)
Geomorphology and morphometric analysis
Stream order
No. of streams
Stream length (km)
Tectonic force is an impulsive event that occurs at the
beginning of the geomorphic cycle. Subsequently, geomorphic process attack and degrade the topography. Since
tectonic activities in the area started during Triassic to Late
Cretaceous (Pirasteh and Ali 2005) then the oldest
geomorphic features have formed in the ZFB and resulted
to rugged topography. The tectonic activity in ZFB is more
than the rate of erosion therefore erosion may change the
topography and uplifting (Pirasteh et al. 2008) as stream
length, stream orders (Table 1), and drainage patterns are
1950
1950
2001
1950
2001
32,319
7,789
1,624
354
82
22
4
1
36,725
7,940
1,743
382
90
24
4
1
13,056.201
5,621.14
2,791.21
1,315.73
629.51
312.91
153.12
195
13,436.694
5,981.485
2,843.47
1,355.688
680.595
353.431
169.930
198
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2001
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Arab J Geosci
works in ZSB display many types of quantitative regularity
that are useful in analyzing tectonics evolution. One very
useful property is the pattern of dissection. Basically it
summarized the geological significance of various drainage
patterns. Dendritic patterns occur in the presence of
structural control, as on the ZFB. Areas of trellis and subparallel drainage include central ZFB and the high Zagros,
respectively.
Stream length
Fig. 4 Structural zone and transverse drainage of the Zagros
Mountains (Oberlander 1965)
morphological attributes, the most important for the study
of tectonics are probably stream length, stream gradient,
and other geomorphic features as pointed out by Burbank
and Anderson (2001). Currently, advantages of GIS have
allowed many investigators to contrast digital elevation
model and extract drainage morphometry attributes in order
to study the correlation between topography and drainage
morphometric. In this study, we relied on this approach as
there are advantages of GIS on how topographic attributes
and comparison of two topography maps in different dates
can be linked to interpret tectonic processes and tectonic
evolution in ZFB. A quantitative, morphometric analysis of
a drainage basin of two different dates is considered to be
the most satisfactory method to tectonic processes interpretation. It enables us (1) to understand the relationships
among different aspects of the drainage pattern of the basin,
(2) to make a comparative evaluation of drainage derived
from different topography maps and DEMs (dated 1950 and
2001). The morphometric parameters computed include
number of stream segment order, stream gradient, stream
length (Table 1), and drainage patterns. The morphological
attributes displayed by channel length, stream gradient, etc.
at each segment order for morphological evolution.
Geomorphologically the overall drainage pattern of the
basin is sub-dendritic indicating the heterogeneity of rocks
and gradual slope towards the main stream. At places parallel
to sub-parallel, trellis and dendritic type of network is seen.
In order to determine the relationships between tectonic
activity and drainage systems or to find the present day
morphometric behavior of the study area, the geomorphology parameters are studied.
Drainage networks
The fluvial dissection of the landscape consists of valleys
and their included channel ways organized into a system of
connection known as a drainage network. Drainage net-
The stream length of the drainages in ZSB is varying in
each segment order. It is depending on slope, lithology, and
structural features. Generally, stream length of the first
segment order is greater than steam length of the second
segment order and so on (Table 1). But it is seen that the
length of seventh order stream is less than eight order for
both the drainage systems (1950 and 2001). It is probably
because of faulting and folding as field observation
suggested. However, the comparison of stream length for
two drainage systems depicted from DEMs suggests that
drainage length is increased.
Stream gradient
The zone of rapid rock uplift had a steeper gradient, higher
relief, and higher gradient indices (Burbank and Anderson
2001). In order to calculate the stream gradient the Dez
river profile was digitally drawn on DEM dated 2001 from
Chalanchoolan police station near Brojerd city. The total
length of the stream is approximated to 165 km (Fig. 5).
The profile was divided into three sectors such as (1) high
Zagros (Imbricate Zone), (2) folded Zagros, and (3) folded
Zagros towards Dezful embayment in south of Shahbazan
station (Figs. 6 and 7).
Steplike river profile of the study area is predicted to
approach a graded profile which indicates that area has
been tectonically disturbed. Stream gradient indices deduced in each part of the profile, shows variation from
806 m to about 142 m per kilometers during the geological
time scale which means that the river profile is experiencing
a regarding stages.
The high index shows the steeper gradient and high
tectonic activities are mainly with thrusting and faulting
like Main Zagros Thrust, Hoor thrust, Chamsangar fault,
Shahbazan strike-slip fault, and Baraftab fault. The Dez
river profile indicated that the most active tectonic zone
falls in folded Zagros where the stream gradient indices
vary from 806 to 165 m per kilometers (Fig. 7b). It also
evaluated that the reduction in gradient towards the Dezful
embayment may point towards lesser tectonic activities.
The different formations dominating various type of
rocks like limestone and evaporates in Gachsaran forma-
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 5 The Dez river and structural features on DEM of the study area
Fig. 6 Channel profile of Dez river in the study area
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 7 Channel profile and stream gradient indices in the study area a topography profile for high Zagrous, b topography profile for folded
Zagrous, c topography profile for ZSB-folded Zagros towards Dezful embayment
tion, shale of Aghajari formation, marls of Kashkan
formation, Cretaceous calcareous in contact of the Imbricate Zone, and ZFB with Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone may also
approaching graded profile of Dez river during the
geological time scale in the study area.
For the disturbed rivers profile the high SL values or
stream gradient may indicate high tectonic activities. The
systematic stream gradient map (Fig. 8) of the Zagros
Structural Belt in GIS environment was made to interpret
tectonic correlation. Hence, it is resulted that the SanandajSirjan Zone exhibits 0 to 0.441 and has low tectonic
activity. It also reveals that the ZFB exhibits 0.441 to 4.268
and has higher tectonic activity than other lithotectonic
units in the ZSB. These activities in the Zagros Mountains
generate terraces.
When a river that is flanked by flight of fluvial terraces
is also oriented at a high angle to strike-slip fault (Burbank
and Anderson 2001), the terraces displayed by the fault
provide an excellent record of progressive offsets. These
terraces have been seen in the study area by changing in river
course on the basis of two DEMs dated 1950 and 2001.
Because of changes in river course of the Dez river through
time in the ZSB the height of steps between terraces along
strike-slip faults is a general guide to correlate terraces. The
vertical (dip-slip) displacement along the faults is responsible
to river height and variation as well.
The Dez river in the ZSB cross an active folds, so fluvial
terraces is recorded as progressive displacement. The
presence of fault and continuation in tectonic activities,
rupture the surface. The growth of the structure itself was
tectonically pulsed, such that terraces formed during
intervals of reduced deformation rates (Medwedeff 1992).
It is expected that the age and height of the terrace
generally correlate with the magnitude of displacement.
The field checks show that in the ZSB where the folding
and faulting are closely spaced, a single terrace is displaced
by several faults.
Geological settings
Geologically, the study area consists of various lithological
units, ranging in age from Cretaceous units of in contact with
the SSZ in the northeast, dominated by calcareous strata, and
sub-recent and recent units in the ZSB in the southern part of
the study area (Pirasteh and Ali 2005). A generalized
stratigraphic column for the Zagros Simple Folded Belt,
showing Cretaceous through Miocene strata grouped into
four units according to relative resistance to erosion.
The area is mostly dominated by calcareous Cretaceous,
dolomite, limestone, shale, and marls in north, and
evaporates (such as gypsum) and highly cemented con-
Arab J Geosci
Fig. 8 Superimposed drainage networks derived from DEM for two dates (1950–2001) southwest
glomerate of the Pliocene Bakhtiari formation in the south.
The closure of the Zagros basin during Cretaceous–
Miocene time generated diverse styles of folding and
faulting. These structures, especially in the ZFB exhibit
tight, NW–SE-trending folds with closely spaced fracture
systems. These types of geological setting have facilitated
severe erosion and the formation of rugged and immature
topography and a closed drainage system.
Structural and tectonics
Drainage may adjust passively to varying resistance of
geologic materials, or it may be actively induced to follow a
particular course by tectonism. Examples of the latter
include faulting, as in the Shahbazan fault. Growing folds
and lineaments have affected drainage in the ZSB.
Streams that emerge from mountain fronts onto surrounding plains display a fascinating array of structural and
tectonic controls. Where mountain fronts are erosional
because of a complex interplay of geomorphic variables,
they may develop flanking surfaces of plantation called
pediments. Deposition at the mountain front produces
alluvial fans and knickpoints (Ahmad and Pirsasteh 2003,
2004) because of the tremendous increase in width as a
stream emerges from a mountain canyon through the
geological time scale.
Passive adjustment to structure is a quality of nearly all
the study areas. Perhaps the most interesting situations,
however, are drainage anomalies, where streams cut across
structural zones. Some streams appear to take the most
difficult routes possible through fold belts.
Results and discussion
This study began with topography maps of the area in two
dates (1950 and 2001). The drainage networks of the study
area of different dates were extracted using DEM in GIS
environment. The study reflects changes in geomorphology
parameters that lead the analyst to define the tectonic
processes in the ZFB.
Arab J Geosci
Spatial analysis of DEMs in conjunction with the field
observations by GPS and in GIS provides a mean for
characterizing tectonic activity of ZFB in a quantitative
way. Using DEMs data (1950 and 2001) and software tools
have made the study easy and accessible everywhere.
Under the frame work of GIS analysis of geomorphology
spatial data (stream length, stream gradient, and number of
stream segment) and drainage pattern to derive relationships between tectonics and geomorphology parameters
becomes increasingly important.
Superposition of the drainage networks (Fig. 8) of the
area derived from DEMs shows that the drainages form
straight line for 1950 (dated 1950), but in case of drainage
network (dated 2001), it is seen that almost changes have
been tried to become non-straight line and has lost the
previous straight direction line. The analysis of two
topography maps in GIS environment suggests that drainage networks are following the slope and structural features
in ZFB. Present drainages pattern in the study area is
dendritic to sub-dendritic and parallel to sub-parallel. The
comparative study of topography and drainage system
dated 1950 with topography and drainage system dated
2001 represents that the drainage patterns has been also
subjected to some changes due to tectonic activities. For
example the trellis drainage pattern changes to sub-parallel
and sub-dendritic pattern (Fig. 8).
The total length of the drainage is 25,001.386 km. The
spatial analysis in GIS environment calculated the drainage
basin to be 8,109.680 km2. It is seen that the number of the
first order streams segment are increased. Morphometric
analysis is also suggested that the second order streams
segment derived from DEM (dated 2001) are increased to
7,940 (Table 1). It also shows that length of the first order,
second order, third order , forth order, fifth order, and sixth
order streams obtained from DEM ( dated 2001) is
increased as compare to length of the streams in 1950. An
interesting result is seen for the length of seventh and
eighth drainage segment order. Morphometrically, the
eighth drainage order should be less than seventh stream
order while in the study area it is not seen. This reason
indicates that ZFB has also been subjected to tectonic
activity from 1950 to 2001. Thus, it is called recent neotectonic activities. The pattern of the drainages is also
suggests that the area is new and tectonically active.
The systematic stream gradient map (Fig. 3) of the ZSB
in GIS environment was made to interpret tectonic
correlation. From the map (Fig. 3), it is resulted that the
Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone that exhibits 0 to 0.441 has low
tectonic activity. High stream gradient values have generally been associated with high rates of tectonic activity.
Stream gradient map derived from topography map dated
2001 and 1950 shows variation and changes in stream
gradient values. It is seen that stream gradient values
derived from DEM dated 2001 has higher stream gradient
values than the one dated 1950. It is also observed that the
ZFB (0.441 to 4.268), has higher tectonic activity than
other lithotectonic units in the ZFB. As a result, these
activities in the Zagros Mountains have generated terraces.
However, increasing in length of the stream, number of the
drainage segment order, stream gradient reveals that the
area has subjected to tectonic activity during past 51 years.
Conclusion
Tectonic activities and rock faulting have great influence on
stream gradient and stream length. The strong variation and
changes in stream segment order and other geomorphic
parameters indicates that tectonic processes and evolution
in ZFB (Table 1). The study shows the evolution of
drainages in ZFB as well as its partial correlation with
tectonic processes.
Utility of DEM and GIS techniques for regional scale
tectonic studies has been shown in this paper. With the help
of digital terrain data, important morphometric parameters
are calculated for interpreting tectonic processes. Both the
morphometric parameters of Dez drainage basin in 1950–
2001 and stream gradient indices were investigated in detail
and found to be in agreement with the existing superimposed
drainage basin map. This type of analysis can be used in
cross-disciplinary study of landslide hazards, earthquake, and
geotechnical studies in tectonically active ZFB.
Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to Prof. S.M. Ramasamy
director of remote sensing, University of Bharathidasan, Tamilnau,
India for giving his valuable ideas and comments. The reviewers’
comments were very useful in bringing the manuscript into its present
form.
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