BIOLOGY
Higher 2 (2016)
(Syllabus 9648)
CONTENTS
Page
PREAMBLE
2
INTRODUCTION
3
AIMS
3
ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
4
SCHEME OF ASSESSMENT
6
MARKS ALLOCATED TO ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
8
DISALLOWED SUBJECT COMBINATIONS
8
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
8
NOTES ON THE USE OF STATISTICS IN BIOLOGY
9
STRUCTURE OF SYLLABUS
10
PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
22
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
24
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN SCIENCE PAPERS
27
SPECIAL NOTE
28
Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board
 MOE & UCLES 2014
1
9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
PREAMBLE
This preamble sets out the approach, objectives, directions and philosophy of the H2 Biology syllabus.
With recent advancements in the Life Sciences, changes in knowledge have been tremendous. Many new
and important fields of Biology have emerged as evident from the sprouting of scientific journals catering to
niche areas of study and research. This poses a challenge in the development of Biology education in
integrating the fundamental concepts, skills and new knowledge in Biology into a framework that is
accessible to students at different levels. At the same time, the vast amount of knowledge needs to be
refined and updated so that students can keep up with the relevant knowledge in preparation for their
participation in a technologically driven economy.
With this in mind, Biology education from Primary to A Levels has been organised in the following manner:
(a) Primary 3 to Primary 6: How life works at the systems level
(b) Lower Secondary Science to O Level Biology: How life works at the physiological level
(c) A Level: How life works at the cellular and molecular level.
The proposed framework will chart a new direction in Biology education in schools. Starting at the Primary
school levels, the focus has been for the students to be exposed at the systems level. At the Secondary
school levels, the syllabus will help the students relate concepts at the system level to the micro-level. In
addition, at the A Level, the syllabus will encourage the students to look deeper (at the molecular level),
yet balanced with the study of Diversity and Evolution.
In teaching the H2 syllabus, the following should be noted:
(a) H2 Biology should provide the fundamental knowledge to enable students to understand the major
emerging fields of knowledge in Biology
(b) H2 Biology should equip the students with scientific skills and abilities relevant to the study and practice
of biological science
(c) The Biology syllabus is developed as a continuum from the O to A Levels. The H2 and O Level
syllabuses are designed to be seamless without the need for topics to be revisited at the A Level. The
O Level syllabus is foundational and thus should provide the necessary background for the study at the
A Level
(d) The teaching of H2 Biology should relate information on the cellular and molecular level to the systems
level
(e) The H2 Biology syllabus is moving away from the previous syllabus model that was based on a ‘survey’
of topics.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
INTRODUCTION
Candidates will be assumed to have knowledge and understanding of O Level Biology, as a single subject or
as part of a balanced science course.
The syllabus has been arranged in the form of Core and Applications content to be studied by all candidates.
Experimental work is an important component and should underpin the teaching and learning of Biology.
The syllabus places emphasis on the applications of Biology and the impact of recent developments on the
needs of contemporary society.
All candidates following this syllabus should be encouraged to:
•
use secondary sources of information
•
use information technology (I.T.) to analyse, store and retrieve data and to model biological phenomena
•
communicate biological information orally, as well as in writing.
It is intended to keep the syllabus under frequent review, to ensure that it keeps abreast of knowledge in the
biological sciences and other needs.
AIMS
The syllabus aims to:
1.
provide, through well designed studies of experimental and practical biological science, a worthwhile
educational experience for all students, whether or not they go on to study Biology beyond this level
and, in particular, to enable them to acquire sufficient understanding and knowledge to:
1.1 become confident citizens in a technological world, able to take or develop an informed interest in
matters of scientific import
1.2 recognise the usefulness, and limitations, of scientific method and to appreciate its applicability in
other disciplines and in everyday life
1.3 be suitably prepared for studies beyond A Level in biological sciences, in further higher education,
and for professional courses.
2.
stimulate students, create and sustain their interest in Biology, and understand its relevance to society.
3.
develop abilities and skills that:
3.1 are relevant to the study and practice of biological science
3.2 are useful in everyday life
3.3 encourage efficient and safe practice
3.4 encourage effective communication.
4.
develop attitudes relevant to Biology such as:
4.1 concern for accuracy and precision
4.2 objectivity
4.3 integrity.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
5.
assist the development of:
5.1 the skills of scientific inquiry
5.2 initiative
5.3 inventiveness.
6.
stimulate interest in and care for the local and global environment, and understand the need for
conservation.
7.
promote an awareness:
7.1 that scientific theories and methods have developed, and continue to do so, as a result of
co-operative activities of groups and individuals
7.2 that the study and practice of biological science is subject to social, economic, technological,
ethical and cultural influences and limitations
7.3 that the applications of biological science may be both beneficial and detrimental to the individual,
the community and the environment
7.4 that biological science transcends national boundaries and that the language of science, correctly
and rigorously applied, is universal
7.5 of the importance of the use of I.T. for communication, as an aid to experiments and as a tool for
the interpretation of experimental and theoretical results.
ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
These describe the knowledge, skills and abilities which candidates are expected to demonstrate at the end
of the course. They reflect those aspects of the aims which will be assessed.
A
Knowledge with understanding
Students should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding in relation to:
1.
biological phenomena, facts, laws, definitions, concepts, theories
2.
biological vocabulary, terminology, conventions (including symbols, quantities and units)
3.
scientific instruments and apparatus used in biology, including techniques of operation and aspects of
safety
4.
scientific quantities and their determination
5.
biological and technological applications with their social, economic and environmental implications.
The syllabus content, examples and elaborations define the factual materials that candidates need to recall
and explain. Examiners will assume that the candidates have studied these and questions may refer to
content, examples and elaborations. Questions testing the objectives above will often begin with one of the
following words: define, state, name, describe, explain or outline. (See the Glossary of Terms.)
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
B
Handling information and solving problems
Students should be able – using written, symbolic, graphical and numerical material – to:
1.
locate, select, organise and present information from a variety of sources
2.
translate information from one form to another
3.
manipulate numerical and other data
4.
use information to identify patterns, report trends, draw inferences and report conclusions
5.
present reasoned explanations for phenomena, patterns and relationships
6.
make predictions and propose hypotheses
7.
apply knowledge, including principles, to novel situations
8.
solve problems.
The assessment objectives above cannot be precisely specified in the syllabus content because questions
testing such skills are often based on information which is unfamiliar to the candidate. In answering such
questions, candidates are required to use principles and concepts that are within the syllabus and apply them
in a logical, deductive manner. Questions testing these objectives may begin with one of the following words:
discuss, predict, suggest, calculate or determine. (See the Glossary of Terms.)
C
Experimental skills and investigations
Students should be able to:
1.
devise and plan investigations, select techniques, apparatus and materials
2.
use techniques, apparatus and materials safely and effectively
3.
make and record observations, measurements and estimates
4.
interpret and evaluate observations and experimental data
5.
evaluate methods and techniques, and suggest possible improvements.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
SCHEME OF ASSESSMENT
All school candidates are required to enter for Papers 1, 2, 3 and 4.
All private candidates are required to enter for Papers 1, 2, 3 and 5.
Paper
Type of Paper
1
Multiple Choice
2
Core Paper. Structured and free-response
questions
3
Applications Paper. Structured and freeresponse questions
Duration
Marks
Weighting (%)
1 hour 15 minutes
40
20
2 hours
100
35
60
25
12
5
–
40
15
1 hour 50 minutes
36
15
2 hours
Planning Question
4
School-based Science Practical
Assessment (SPA)
5
Practical Paper
Paper 1 (1 h 15 min, 40 marks)
This paper consists of 40 compulsory multiple choice questions. All questions will be of the direct choice type
with four options.
Paper 2 (2 h, 100 marks)
This paper consists of a variable number of structured questions, all compulsory and two free-response
questions of 20 marks each, from which candidates will choose one. These include questions which require
candidates to integrate knowledge and understanding from different areas of the syllabus. All questions will
be based on material in the Core syllabus.
Paper 3 (2 h, 72 marks)
This paper consists of a variable number of structured questions, all compulsory, including data-based or
comprehension-type questions, one free-response question of 20 marks and one planning question of 12
marks. The planning question will assess appropriate aspects of objectives C1 to C5. Paper 3 will include
questions which require candidates to integrate knowledge and understanding from different areas of the
syllabus. Knowledge of Core material may be required.
Paper 4 (40 marks)
The School-based Science Practical Assessment (SPA) will take place over an appropriate period that the
candidates are following the course. There are two compulsory assessments which will assess appropriate
aspects of objectives C1 to C5 in the following skill areas:
•
Manipulation, measurement and observation (MMO)
•
Presentation of data and observations (PDO)
•
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation (ACE).
Each assessment assesses these three skill areas, MMO, PDO and ACE, which may not be necessarily
equally weighted, to a total of 20 marks. The range of marks for the three skill areas are as follows:
MMO, 4–8 marks; PDO, 4–8 marks; ACE, 8–10 marks.
The assessment of PDO and ACE may also include questions on data-analysis which do not require
practical equipment and apparatus. Candidates will not be permitted to refer to books and laboratory
notebooks during the assessment.
Refer to the Revised SPA Handbook for more detailed information on the conduct of SPA.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
Paper 5 (1 h 50 min, 36 marks)
For private candidates, a timetabled practical paper will assess appropriate aspects of objectives C1 to C5 in
the following skill areas:
•
Manipulation, measurement and observation (MMO)
•
Presentation of data and observations (PDO)
•
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation (ACE).
Each of these skill areas will be approximately equally weighted to a total of 36 marks. This paper may
include data handling/interpretation questions that do not require apparatus, in order to test the skill areas of
PDO and ACE.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
MARKS ALLOCATED TO ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
This is given in the following Assessment Grid.
Assessment Objective
Weighting (%)
Assessment Components
A
Knowledge with understanding
44
Papers 1, 2, 3
B
Handling information and solving problems
36
Papers 1, 2, 3
C
Experimental skills and investigations
20
Papers 3, 4
or
Papers 3, 5
Fifteen percent of the total marks will be awarded for awareness of the social, economic, environmental and
technological implications and applications of Biology. These will be awarded within the ‘Knowledge with
understanding’ and the ‘Handling information and solving problems’ categories.
DISALLOWED SUBJECT COMBINATIONS
Candidates may not simultaneously offer Biology at H1 and H2 levels.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Modern biological sciences draw extensively on concepts from the physical sciences. It is desirable therefore
that, by the end of the course, candidates should have knowledge of the following topics, sufficient to aid
understanding of biological systems. No questions will be set directly on them.
The electromagnetic spectrum
Energy changes (potential energy, activation energy, chemical bond energy)
Molecules, atoms, ions, electrons
Acids, bases, pH, buffers
Isotopes, including radioactive isotopes
Oxidation and reduction
Hydrolysis, condensation
Questions set in the examination may involve the basic processes of mathematics for the calculation and use
of decimals, means, ratios and percentages. Students will be expected to be familiar with the nomenclature
used in the syllabus. The proposals in ‘Signs, Symbols and Systematics’ (The Association for Science
Education Companion to 16–19 Science, 2000) and the recommendations on terms, units and symbols
in ‘Biological Nomenclature’ (2000) published by the Institute of Biology, in conjunction with the ASE, will
generally be adopted although the traditional names sulfate, sulfite, nitrate, nitrite, sulfurous acid and nitrous
acid will be used in question papers. Sulfur (and all compounds of sulfur) will be spelt with f (not with ph) in
question papers, however students can use either spelling in their answers.
Candidates may be required to (i) construct graphs or present data in other suitable graphical forms,
(ii) calculate rates of processes. Candidates should be aware of the problems of drawing conclusions from
limited data and should appreciate levels of significance, standard deviation and probability, and the use of
chi-squared tests.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
NOTES ON THE USE OF STATISTICS IN BIOLOGY
Candidates should know how to apply a chi-squared test, which allows the evaluation of the results of
breeding experiments and ecological sampling. The chi-squared test is dealt with fully in many books on
statistics for Biology.
Candidates should know how to use the chi-squared test to test the significance of differences between
observed and expected results. Candidates are not expected to remember the following equations nor to
remember for what the symbols stand. They are expected to be able to use the equations to calculate
standard deviations and to perform a chi-squared test on suitable data from genetics or ecology. Candidates
will be given access to the equations, the meaning of the symbols and a chi-squared table.
standard deviation
s=
χ 2 test
χ2 = Σ
Σ( x - x ) 2
n −1
(O − E) 2
E
v = c −1
Key to symbols
s* = standard deviation
n = sample size (number of
observations)
∑
v = number of degrees of freedom
= ‘sum of’
x = observation
c = number of classes
x = mean
O = observed ‘value’
E = expected ‘value’
*Candidates should note that on some calculators the symbol σ may appear instead of the symbol s.
Candidates are not expected to appreciate the difference between sn ( σ n) and sn–1 ( σ n–1). χ 2 tests will only
be expected on one row of data. Candidates should have a brief understanding of what is meant by the term
normal distribution and appreciate levels of significance. (Tables will be provided.) Questions involving the
use of a χ 2 test may be set on Papers 2 or 3.
Electronic calculators will be allowed in the examination subject to the UCLES general regulations. Any
calculator used must be on the Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board list of approved calculators.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
STRUCTURE OF SYLLABUS
The syllabus is divided into two parts: the Core syllabus and the Applications syllabus, to be studied by all
candidates.
A.
B.
The Core syllabus. There are 7 Core topics:
1.
Cellular Functions
2.
DNA and Genomics
3.
Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
4.
Organisation and Control of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Genomes
5.
Genetic Basis for Variation
6.
Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry
7.
Diversity and Evolution
The Applications syllabus. There are 2 Applications topics:
8.
Isolating, Cloning and Sequencing DNA
9.
Applications of Molecular and Cell Biology
10
OVERALL FRAMEWORK FOR BIOLOGY H2 LEVEL SYLLABUS FOR 2016
UNDERSTANDING THE DIVERSITY OF
ORGANISMS
HOW LIFE WORKS
Cellular Functions
DNA and Genomics
Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
Organisation and Control of
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Genomes
Genetic Basis for Variation
Cellular Physiology and
Biochemistry
Diversity and Evolution
Isolating, Cloning and Sequencing
DNA
Applications of Molecular and Cell
Biology
9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
11
RELEVANCE TO ONESELF AND SOCIETY
9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
A
CORE SYLLABUS
1
Cellular Functions
Content
•
Detailed structure of typical animal and plant cells, as seen under the electron microscope
•
Outline functions of organelles in plant and animal cells
•
The structure of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins and their roles in living organisms
•
Mode of action of enzymes
•
Replication and division of nuclei and cells
•
Understanding of chromosome number and variation
•
Effect of meiosis on chromosome number and variation
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe and interpret drawings and photographs of typical animal and plant cells as seen under the
electron microscope, recognising the following membrane systems and organelles: rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, chloroplasts, cell surface
membrane, nuclear envelope, centrioles, nucleus and nucleolus (knowledge of the principles of TEM
and SEM are not required) (for practical assessment, students may be required to operate a light
microscope, mount slides and use a graticule)
(b) outline the functions of the membrane systems and organelles listed in (a)
(c) describe the formation and breakage of a glycosidic bond
(d) analyse the molecular structure of a triglyceride and a phospholipid, and relate these structures to their
functions in living organisms
(e) describe the structure of an amino acid and the formation and breakage of a peptide bond
(f)
explain the meaning of the terms primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and
quaternary structure of proteins, and describe the types of bonding (hydrogen, ionic, disulfide and
hydrophobic interactions) which hold the molecule in shape
(g) analyse the molecular structure of a protein with a quaternary structure, e.g. haemoglobin, as an
example of a globular protein, and collagen, as an example of a fibrous protein, and relate these
structures to their functions
(h) explain the mode of action of enzymes in terms of an active site, enzyme/substrate complex, lowering of
activation energy and enzyme specificity
(i)
follow the time course of an enzyme-catalysed reaction by measuring rates of formation of products
(e.g. using catalase) or rate of disappearance of substrate (e.g. using amylase)
(j)
investigate and explain the effects of temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and substrate
concentration on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions, and explain these effects
(k) explain the effects of competitive and non-competitive inhibitors (including allosteric inhibitors) on the
rate of enzyme activity
(l)
explain the importance of mitosis in growth, repair and asexual reproduction
(m) explain the need for the production of genetically identical cells and fine control of replication
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
(n) explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in cancer, and identify causative factors (e.g. genetic,
chemical carcinogens, radiation, loss of immunity) which can increase the chances of cancerous growth
(knowledge that dysregulation of checkpoints of cell division can result in uncontrolled cell division and
cancer is required, but detail of the mechanism is not required)
(o) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the behaviour of chromosomes during the mitotic cell cycle and the
associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, cell membrane and centrioles (names of the main stages
are expected)
(p) explain what is meant by homologous pairs of chromosomes
(q) explain the need for reduction division (meiosis) prior to fertilisation in sexual reproduction
(r)
explain how meiosis and random fertilisation can lead to variation
(s) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis, and the associated
behaviour of the nuclear envelope, cell membrane and centrioles (names of the main stages are
expected, but not the sub-divisions of prophase).
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
2
DNA and Genomics
Content
•
DNA – structure and function
•
Central dogma – DNA to RNA, RNA to protein
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the structure and roles of DNA and RNA (tRNA, rRNA and mRNA) (mitochondrial DNA is not
required)
(b) describe the process of DNA replication and the experimental evidence for semi-conservative
replication
(c) describe how the information on DNA is used to synthesise polypeptides in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
(description of the processes of transcription, formation of mRNA from pre-mRNA and translation is
required)
(d) explain how a change in the sequence of the DNA nucleotide (gene mutation) may affect the amino acid
sequence in a protein, and hence the phenotype of the organism, e.g. sickle cell anaemia and cystic
fibrosis (knowledge of substitution, addition, deletion and frameshift mutations may be required).
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
3
Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
Content
•
The genetics of viruses
•
The genetics of bacteria
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) discuss whether viruses are living or non-living organisms and explain why viruses are obligate
parasites
(b) describe the structural components of viruses
(c) describe the reproductive cycles of the following virus types:
(i)
bacteriophages that reproduce via a lytic cycle, e.g. T4 phage
(ii)
bacteriophages that reproduce via a lysogenic cycle, e.g. lambda phage
(iii) an enveloped virus, e.g. influenza
(iv) retroviruses, e.g. HIV
(d) explain how viral infections cause disease in animals, e.g. mammals, through the disruption of host
tissue and functions (e.g. HIV and T helper cells [details of the immune system are not required],
influenza and epithelial cells of the respiratory tract)
(e) describe the structure of a bacterial chromosome including the arrangement of DNA within bacterial
cells
(f)
describe the processes of binary fission, transformation, transduction and conjugation in bacteria and
explain the role of F plasmids in bacterial conjugation (knowledge of Hfr is not required)
(g) distinguish between structural and regulatory genes: a structural gene is a region of DNA that codes for
a protein or RNA molecule that forms part of a structure or has an enzymatic function (e.g. lacY, lacZ,
lacA, but excludes lacI); a regulatory gene codes for a specific protein product that regulates the
expression of the structural genes (e.g. lacI)
(h) distinguish between the concepts of repressible and inducible systems of gene regulation using trp and
lac operons as examples respectively (attenuation of trp operon is not required)
(i)
describe the concept of a simple operon (using lac operon as an example).
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
4
Organisation and Control of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Genomes
Content
•
The structure of eukaryotic chromatin
•
Genome organisation at the DNA level
•
The control of gene expression
•
The molecular biology of cancer
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) compare the structure and organisation of prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes, in terms of size,
packing of DNA, linearity/circularity, presence of introns and type of regulatory sequences
(b) describe the structure and function of the portions of eukaryotic DNA that do not encode for protein or
RNA, with reference to intron, centromere, telomere, promoter, enhancer and silencer (knowledge of
transposon, satellite DNA, pseudogenes and duplication of segments is not required)
(c) describe the role of telomeres and centromeres
(d) describe the process and significance of gene amplification within cells, for example in amplification of
the genes that code for ribosomes early in cell development, to ensure that sufficient ribosomes can be
made to synthesise the proteins that make up the cell
(e) describe the eukaryotic processing of pre-mRNA in terms of intron splicing, polyadenylation and 5′
capping
(f)
define control elements and explain how control elements (e.g. promoter, silencer and enhancers) and
other factors (e.g. transcription factors, repressors, histone modification and DNA methylation) influence
transcription
(g) state the various ways in which gene expression may be controlled at the translational level (e.g. half
life of RNA, 5′ capping, initiation of translation) and post-translational level (e.g. biochemical modification
and protein degradation)
(h) outline the differences between prokaryotic control of gene expression and the eukaryotic model
(i)
describe the functions of common proto-oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes (limited to ras and
p53) and explain how loss of function mutation and gain of function mutation can contribute to cancer
(j)
describe the development of cancer as a multi-step process.
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
5
Genetic Basis for Variation
Content
•
The passage of information from parent to offspring
•
Genotypes and phenotypes
•
Dihybrid crosses
•
Mutations
•
The effect of genotype and environment on phenotype
•
Interaction between loci
•
Linkage and crossing-over
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) explain the terms, locus, allele, dominant, recessive, codominant, homozygous, heterozygous,
phenotype and genotype
(b) explain how genotype is linked to phenotype and how genes are inherited from one generation to the
next via the germ cells or gametes
(c) explain, with examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype
(d) use genetic diagrams to solve problems in dihybrid crosses, including those involving sex linkage,
autosomal linkage, epistasis, codominance and multiple alleles
(e) use genetic diagrams to solve problems involving test crosses
(f)
explain the meaning of the terms linkage and crossing-over and explain the effect of linkage and
crossing-over on the phenotypic ratios from dihybrid crosses
(g) explain what is meant by the terms gene mutation and chromosome aberration (for chromosome
aberration, knowledge of numerical [aneuploidy] and structural [translocation, duplication, inversion,
deletion] changes is required)
(h) describe the differences between continuous and discontinuous variation and explain the genetic basis
of continuous variation (many additive genes control a characteristic) and discontinuous variation (one
or few genes control a characteristic)
(i)
describe the causes of genetic variation in a population
(j)
describe the interaction between loci (epistasis) and predict phenotypic ratios in problems involving
epistasis (knowledge of the expected ratio for various types of epistasis is not required; the focus of this
section is on problem solving)
(k) use the chi-squared test to test the significance of differences between observed and expected results.
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
6
Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry
Content
•
The need for energy in living organisms
•
Photosynthesis as an energy-trapping process
•
Respiration as an energy-releasing process
•
Aerobic respiration
•
Anaerobic respiration
•
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
•
Homeostasis
•
Electrical and chemical signalling
•
Nervous and hormonal control
•
An overview of cell signalling and communication
–
signal reception and the initiation of transduction
–
signal transduction pathways
–
cellular responses to signals
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) with reference to the chloroplast structure, explain the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis (no
biochemical details are needed but will include the outline of cyclic and non-cyclic light dependent
reactions and the transfer of energy for the subsequent manufacturing of carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide)
(b) outline the three phases of the Calvin cycle: (i) CO2 uptake, (ii) carbon reduction and (iii) ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration and indicate the roles of ATP and NADP in the process
(c) discuss limiting factors in photosynthesis and carry out investigations on the effects of limiting factors,
such as light intensity, CO2 concentration and temperature, on the rate of photosynthesis
(d) list and give an overview of the four stages of aerobic respiration and indicate where each stage takes
place in eukaryotic cells and mitochondria, and add up the energy captured (as ATP, reduced NAD and
reduced FAD) in each stage
(e) explain the production of a small yield of ATP from anaerobic respiration and the formation of ethanol in
yeast and lactate in mammals
(f)
compare the storage and structural forms of starch, glycogen and cellulose and their roles in plants and
animals
(g) describe and explain the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure, including an outline of the roles of
phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins
(h) outline the roles and functions of membranes within cells and at the surface of cells (knowledge of
osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis is required)
(i)
explain the need for control in organised systems and explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of
receptors, effectors and negative feedback
(j)
explain the need for communication systems within organisms
(k) describe and explain the transmission of an action potential along a myelinated neurone (the
importance of Na+ and K+ ions in the impulse transmission should be emphasised)
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
(l)
describe the structure of a cholinergic synapse and explain how it functions, including the role of Ca2+
ions
(m) explain what is meant by an endocrine gland, with reference to the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
(n) explain how the blood glucose concentration is regulated by insulin and glucagon
(o) describe the main stages of cell signalling – ligand-receptor interaction, signal transduction (inclusive of
phosphorylation and signal amplification) and cellular responses (limited to an overview of insulin and
RTK signalling, and glucagon and G-protein signalling); advantages and significance of having a cell
signalling system may be required (candidates will be expected to generalise their understanding of
these systems in solving problems involving other cell signalling systems).
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
7
Diversity and Evolution
Content
•
Classification
•
The concept of the species
•
Variation, natural selection and evolution
•
The neo-Darwinian revolution
•
Evidence of evolution
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) explain the binomial nomenclature of a species and hierarchical classification
(b) describe the classification of species into taxonomic groups (genus, family, order, class, phylum,
kingdom) and explain the various concepts of the species (knowledge of biological, ecological,
morphological, phylogenetic concepts of species is required)
(c) explain how species are formed with reference to geographical isolation, physiological isolation and
behavioural isolation
(d) explain the relationship between classification and phylogeny: classification is the organisation of
species according to particular characteristics and may not take into consideration evolutionary
relationship between the species (in systematic classification, evolutionary relationships between
organisms should be reflected); phylogeny is the organisation of species according to particular
characteristics which takes into consideration the evolutionary relationship between the species
(e) explain why variation is important in selection
(f)
explain, with examples, how environmental factors act as forces of natural selection
(g) explain how natural selection may bring about evolution
(h) explain why the population is the smallest unit that can evolve
(i)
explain how homology (anatomical, embryological and molecular) supports Darwin’s theory of natural
selection (with emphasis on descent with modification)
(j)
explain how biogeography and the fossil record support the evolutionary deductions based on
homologies
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
(k) explain the importance of the use of genome sequences in reconstructing phylogenetic relationships
and state the advantages of molecular (nucleotide and amino acid sequences) methods in classifying
organisms
(l)
explain how genetic variation (including recessive alleles) may be preserved in a natural population
(m) briefly describe the neutral theory of molecular evolution in terms of mutations producing new molecular
variants which are selectively neutral (knowledge of genetic drift and molecular clock is required).
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
B.
APPLICATIONS SYLLABUS
8
Isolating, Cloning and Sequencing DNA
Content
•
DNA cloning (genetic engineering)
•
DNA analysis and genomics
•
Human Genome Project
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the natural function of restriction enzymes
(b) explain the formation of recombinant DNA molecules
(c) outline the procedures for cloning a eukaryotic gene in a bacterial plasmid and describe the properties
of plasmids that allow them to be used as DNA cloning vectors
(d) explain how eukaryotic genes are cloned using E. coli cells to produce eukaryotic proteins to avoid the
problems associated with introns
(e) distinguish between a genomic DNA and cDNA library (outline of the process of the formation of the
libraries and applications of each of the types of library is required)
(f)
outline two important proteins that can be produced by genetic engineering technique (e.g. human
growth hormone and insulin)
(g) describe the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and explain the advantages and limitations of this
procedure
(h) explain how gel electrophoresis is used to analyse DNA
(i)
outline the process of nucleic acid hybridisation and explain how it can be used to detect and analyse
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
(j)
explain how RFLP analysis facilitates the processes of:
(i)
genomic mapping in terms of linkage mapping
(ii)
disease detection, e.g. sickle cell anaemia
(iii) DNA fingerprinting
(details of application of gel electrophoresis, PCR and nucleic acid hybridisation in RFLP may be
required)
(k) discuss the goals and implications of the Human Genome Project, including the benefits and difficult
ethical concerns for humans (knowledge of the technical procedure of the Human Genome Project and
sequencing is not required).
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
9
Applications of Molecular and Cell Biology
Content
•
Stem cells
•
The treatment of genetic diseases in humans
•
Gene therapy
•
Cloning
•
Genetic engineering and genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the unique features of zygotic stem cells, embryonic stem cells and blood stem cells (correctly
using the terms totipotency [zygotic stem cells which have ability to differentiate into any cell type to
form whole organisms and so are also pluripotent and multipotent], pluripotency [embryonic stem cells
which have ability to differentiate into almost any cell type to form any organ and so are not totipotent
but are multipotent] and multipotency [blood stem cells which have ability to differentiate into a limited
range of cell types and so are not pluripotent or totipotent])
(b) explain the normal functions of stem cells in a living organism (e.g. embryonic stem cells and blood
stem cells)
(c) describe:
(i)
two types of genetic diseases, e.g. SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency) and cystic fibrosis
(ii)
the treatment of SCID and cystic fibrosis, using viral and non-viral gene delivery systems
respectively (details of manipulation of genes and formation of vectors carrying genes are not
required)
(d) explain what are the factors that keep gene therapy from becoming an effective treatment for genetic
diseases
(e) discuss the social and ethical considerations for the use of gene therapy
(f)
discuss cloning in plants in terms of plant tissue culture techniques (gene cloning in plants using
Agrobacterium spp. and gene guns is not required)
(g) explain the significance of genetic engineering in improving the quality and yield of crop plants and
animals in solving the demand for food in the world (e.g. Bt corn, golden rice, GM salmon)
(h) discuss the ethical and social implications of genetically modified crop plants and animals
(e.g. Bt corn, golden rice and GM salmon).
Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
Scientific subjects are, by their nature, experimental. It is therefore important that, wherever possible, the
candidates carry out appropriate practical work to illustrate the theoretical principles to facilitate the learning
of this subject.
The guidance material for practical work, which is published separately, will provide examples of appropriate
practical activities.
Candidates will be assessed in the following skill areas:
(a) Planning (P)
Candidates should be able to:
•
define the question/problem using appropriate knowledge and understanding
•
give a clear logical account of the experimental procedure to be followed
•
describe how the data should be used in order to reach a conclusion
•
assess the risks of the experiment and describe precautions that should be taken to keep risks to a
minimum.
(b) Manipulation, measurement and observation (MMO)
Candidates should be able to:
•
demonstrate high levels of manipulative skills in all aspects of practical activity
•
make and record accurately, in a suitable manner, all observations with good details and/or all
measurements to appropriate degrees of precision
•
recognise anomalous observations and/or measurements (where appropriate) with reasons
indicated and suggest possible causes.
(c) Presentation of data and observations (PDO)
Candidates should be able to:
•
present all information in an appropriate form
•
manipulate observations and/or measurements effectively in order to identify trends/patterns
•
present all quantitative data to an appropriate number of significant figures.
(d) Analysis, conclusions and evaluation (ACE)
Candidates should be able to:
•
analyse and interpret data appropriately in relation to the task
•
draw comprehensive conclusions based on underlying principles
•
identify significant sources of errors, limitations of measurements and/or experimental procedures
used, and explain how they affect the final result(s)
•
state and explain how significant errors/limitations (including experimental procedures) may be
overcome/improved, as appropriate.
Skill P will be assessed in Paper 3. Candidates will be required to answer a question constituting 12 marks
among the compulsory questions in Paper 3. The assessment of Skill P will be set in the context of the
content syllabus, requiring candidates to apply and integrate knowledge and understanding from different
sections of the syllabus. It may also require treatment of given experimental data in drawing relevant
conclusions and analysis of proposed plan.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
For school candidates, skills MMO, PDO and ACE will be assessed by two school-based practical assessments
(SPA). For private candidates, skills MMO, PDO and ACE will instead be assessed by Paper 5 (Practical
Paper). The school-based practical assessments and the practical paper will be set in the context of the
syllabus.
Centres will be notified in advance of the details of the apparatus and materials required for these
assessments. The assessment of PDO and ACE may also include questions on data analysis, which
do not require practical equipment and apparatus.
Within the Schemes of Assessment, school-based practical assessment (for school candidates) or the
practical paper (for private candidates) constitute 15% of the Higher 2 examination. The planning component
in Paper 3 constitutes 5% of the Higher 2 examination. It is therefore recommended that the schemes of
work include learning opportunities that apportion a commensurate amount of time for the development and
acquisition of practical skills.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
Teachers may find reference to the following books helpful.
CORE SYLLABUS
1.
Arms, K and Camp, P S (1995) Biology (Fourth Edition) (Harcourt Brace College Publishers)
ISBN 0030154340
2.
Barret, D and Spencer, P (1992) Genetics and Evolution Biology Advanced Studies (Nelson)
ISBN 0174481977
3.
Burnet, L (1986) Essential Genetics – a Course Book (CUP) ISBN 0521313805
4.
Burnet, L (1988) Exercises in Applied Genetics (CUP) ISBN 0521338832
5.
Boyle, M and Senior, K (2008) Biology (Third Edition) Collins Advanced Science (Collins Educational)
ISBN 0007267452
6.
Calladine, C R, Drew, H R, Luisi, B F and Travers, A A (2004) Understanding DNA (Third Edition)
(Academic Press) ISBN 0121550893
7.
Campbell, N A and Reece, J B (2007) Biology (Eighth Edition) (Pearson) ISBN 0321536169
8.
Campbell, N A, Reece, J B, Taylor, M R and Simon, E J (2005) Biology: Concepts and Connections
(Fifth Edition) (Benjamin Cummings) ISBN 0805371605
9.
Carr, M and Cordell, R (1992) Biochemistry Biology Advanced Studies (Nelson Thornes)
ISBN 0174481969
10. Clegg, C J with MacKean, D J (2000) Advanced Biology, Principles and Applications (Second Edition)
(Hodder Education) ISBN 0719576709
11. Cummings, S (Ed.) (1998) Current Perspectives in Biology (Wadsworth Pub) ISBN 0314206388
12. Drlica, K (2003) Understanding DNA and Gene Cloning: A Guide for the Curious (Fourth Edition) (Wiley
and Sons) ISBN 0471451630
13. Gould, J L and Keeton, W T (1996) Biological Science (Sixth Edition) (New York: W W Norton)
ISBN 0393981215
14. Gregory, J (2000) Applications of Genetics (Second Edition) Cambridge Advanced Sciences (CUP)
ISBN 0521787254
15. Hayward, G (1996) Applied Genetics (Bath Science 16–19) (Nelson Thornes) ISBN 0174385110
16. Hogan, K and Palladino, M A (2008) Stem Cells and Cloning (Second Edition) (Benjamin Cummings)
ISBN 0321590023
17. Jones, M, Fosbery, R and Taylor, D (2000) Biology 1 Cambridge Advanced Sciences (CUP)
ISBN 052178719X
18. Jones, M and Gregory, J (2001) Biology 2 Cambridge Advanced Sciences (CUP) ISBN 0521797144
19. Jones, M and Jones, G (1997) Advanced Biology (CUP) ISBN 0521038030
20. Kent, M (2000) Advanced Biology (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0199141959
21. Kimball’s Biology Pages (2008). E-textbook available free online at:
http://home.comcast.net/%7Ejohn.kimball1/BiologyPages/
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/
22. Kreuzer, H and Massey, A (2001) Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology: A Guide for Teachers (Second
Edition) (American Society for Microbiology) ISBN 1555811752
23. Kreuzer, H and Massey, A (2001) Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology: A Guide for Students (Second
Edition) (American Society for Microbiology) ISBN 1555811760
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
24. Kreuzer, H and Massey, A (2008) Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: A Guide For Teachers (Third
Edition) (American Society for Microbiology) ISBN 1555814719
25. Lowrie, P and Wells, S (2000) Microbiology and Biotechnology (Second Edition) Cambridge Advanced
Sciences (CUP) ISBN 0521787238
26. Mader, S S (2006) Biology (Ninth Edition) (McGraw-Hill) ISBN 0073301132
27. Marieb, E N (2012) Human Anatomy and Physiology (Ninth Edition) (Pearson) ISBN 0321802187
28. Micklos, D, Freyer, G A and Crotty, D A (2003) DNA Science – A First Course (Second Edition) (CSHL)
ISBN 1936113171
29. Minkoff, E C and Baker, P J (2004) Biology Today: An Issues Approach (Third Edition) (Garland
Science) ISBN 0815341571
30. Nicholl, D S T (2008) An Introduction to Genetic Engineering (Third Edition) (CUP) ISBN 0521615216
31. Palladino, M A (2005) Understanding the Human Genome Project (Second Edition) (Benjamin
Cummings) ISBN 0805348778
32. Purves, W K, Gordon, H O, Sadava, D E and Heller, C H (2004) Life: The Science of Biology (Seventh
Revised Edition) (W H Freeman) ISBN 0716788519
33. Raven, P H et al (2013) Biology (Tenth Edition) (McGraw-Hill) ISBN 0073383074
34. Roberts, M B V, Reiss, M and Monger, G (2000) Advanced Biology (Nelson Thornes) ISBN 0174387326
35. Rowland, M (2000) Biology (Bath Science 16–19) (Nelson Thornes) ISBN 0174384254
36. Salters Nuffield Advanced Biology AS Student Book (2008) (Edexcel A Level Sciences) University of
York Science Education Group and Curriculum Centre Nuffield ISBN 1405896078
37. Smith, J E (2009) Biotechnology (Studies in Biology) (Fifth Edition) (CUP) ISBN 0521711932
38. Solomon, E, Berg, L R and Martin, D W (2010) Biology (Ninth Edition) (Brooks Cole) ISBN 0538741430
39. Starr, C, Taggart, R, Evers, C and Starr, L (2008) Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (Twelfth
Edition) (Brooks Cole) ISBN 0495557927
40. Taylor, D J, Green, N P O, Stout, G W and Soper, R (1997) Biological Science 1 and 2 (Third Edition)
(CUP) ISBN 0521561787
41. Taylor, J (2001) Microorganisms and Biotechnology (Bath Science 16–19) (Nelson Thornes)
ISBN 0174482558
42. Tomkins, S (1989) Heredity and Human Diversity (CUP) ISBN 0521312299
43. Tobin, A J and Dusheck, J (2004) Asking About Life (Third Edition) (Cengage Learning)
ISBN 053440653X
44. Vardy, P and Grosch, P (1999) The Puzzle of Ethics (Second Revised Edition) (Fount)
ISBN 0006281443
45. Wallace, R A, Sanders, G P, and Ferl, R J (1999) Biology: The Science of Life (Fifth Edition) (Harper
Collins) ISBN 0201502941
46. Wood, E J and Myers, A (1991) Essential Chemistry for Biochemistry BASC I (The Biochemical Society)
Available free online at http://www.biochemistry.org/Portals/0/Education/Docs/BASC01_full.pdf
The following may also be useful.
47. Cadogan, A (Ed.) Biological Nomenclature: Standard Terms and Expressions Used in the Teaching of
Biology (2000) (Third Edition) (Institute of Biology) ISBN 0900490365
48. Cadogan, A and Sutton, R (1999) Maths for Advanced Biology (Nelson Thornes) ISBN 0174482140
49. Edmondson, A and Druce, D (1996) Advanced Biology Statistics (OUP) ISBN 0199146543
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
50. Ennos, R (2006) Statistical and Data Handling Skills in Biology (Prentice Hall) ISBN 0131955845
51. Garvin, J W (1986) Skills in Advanced Biology 1: Dealing With Data (Nelson Thornes)
ISBN 085950588X
52. Garvin, J W and Boyd, J D (1994) Skills in Advanced Biology 2: Observing, Recording and Interpreting
Student Text and Teacher's Supplement (Nelson Thornes) ISBN 085950817X and 0748700439
53. Garvin, J W (1995) Skills in Advanced Biology 3: Investigating (Nelson Thornes) ISBN 0748720480
54. Jones, R, Reed, R and Weyers, J (2002) Practical Skills in Biology (Third Edition) (Prentice Hall)
ISBN 013045141X
55. King, T J, Reiss, M and Roberts, M (2001) Practical Advanced Biology (Nelson Thornes)
ISBN 0174483082
56. Morgan, S (2002) Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Education) ISBN 0340847123
57. Powell, S (1996) Statistics for Science Projects (Hodder Education) ISBN 0340664096
58. Stewart, A (1995) Lab Notes: Your up-to-date Guide to Research in Genetics The Wellcome Trust
(http://wellcomelibrary.org/)
59. Webb, N and Blackmore, R (1985) Statistics for Biologists: A Study Guide (CUP) ISBN 0521317126
These titles represent some of the texts available at the time of printing this syllabus. Teachers are
encouraged to choose texts for class use which they feel will be of interest to their students and which
will support their own teaching style.
LIST OF READINGS FOR ENRICHMENT: BOOKS, LANDMARK PAPERS, JOURNALS
1.
Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters (1999) – Matt Ridley
2.
The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature (1993) – Matt Ridley
3.
Nature via Nurture: Genes, Experience and What makes us Human (2003) – Matt Ridley
4.
DNA: the Secret of Life (2003) – James Watson
5.
The Double Helix (1968) – James Watson
6.
A Passion for DNA (2001) – James Watson
7.
My Life in Science (2001) – Sydney Brenner
8.
The Blind Watchmaker (1986) – Richard Dawkins
9.
The Selfish Gene (1976) – Richard Dawkins
10. The Eighth Day of Creation (1979) – Harold Judson
11. The Second Creation: Dolly and the Age of Biological Control (2000) – Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and
Colin Tudge
12. Genethics: The Clash between the New Genetics and Human Values (1990) – David Suzuki and Peter
Knudtson
13. Life on Earth (1979) – David Attenborough
14. Trials of Life (1990) – David Attenborough
15. The Living Planet (1984) – David Attenborough
16. The Private Life of Plants (1994) – David Attenborough
17. On the Origin of Species (1859) – Charles Darwin
18. The Silent Spring (1962) – Rachel Carson
19. The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time (1994) – Jonathan Weiner
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN SCIENCE PAPERS
It is hoped that the glossary (which is relevant only to science subjects) will prove helpful to candidates as a
guide, i.e. it is neither exhaustive nor definitive. The glossary has been deliberately kept brief not only with
respect to the number of terms included but also to the descriptions of their meanings. Candidates should
appreciate that the meaning of a term must depend in part on its context.
1.
Define (the term(s)...) is intended literally. Only a formal statement or equivalent paraphrase is required.
2.
What do you understand by/What is meant by (the term(s)...) normally implies that a definition should be
given, together with some relevant comment on the significance or context of the term(s) concerned,
especially where two or more terms are included in the question. The amount of supplementary
comment intended should be interpreted in the light of the indicated mark value.
3.
State implies a concise answer with little or no supporting argument, e.g. a numerical answer that can
be obtained ‘by inspection’.
4.
List requires a number of points, generally each of one word, with no elaboration. Where a given
number of points is specified, this should not be exceeded.
5.
Explain may imply reasoning or some reference to theory, depending on the context.
6.
Describe requires candidates to state in words (using diagrams where appropriate) the main points of
the topic. It is often used with reference either to particular phenomena or to particular experiments. In
the former instance, the term usually implies that the answer should include reference to (visual)
observations associated with the phenomena.
In other contexts, describe and give an account of should be interpreted more generally, i.e. the
candidate has greater discretion about the nature and the organisation of the material to be included in
the answer. Describe and explain may be coupled in a similar way to state and explain.
7.
Discuss requires candidates to give a critical account of the points involved in the topic.
8.
Outline implies brevity, i.e. restricting the answer to giving essentials.
9.
Predict implies that the candidate is not expected to produce the required answer by recall but by
making a logical connection between other pieces of information. Such information may be wholly given
in the question or may depend on answers extracted in an early part of the question.
10. Deduce is used in a similar way to predict except that some supporting statement is required, e.g.
reference to a law/principle, or the necessary reasoning is to be included in the answer.
11. Comment is intended as an open-ended instruction, inviting candidates to recall or infer points of
interest relevant to the context of the question, taking account of the number of marks available.
12. Suggest is used in two main contexts, i.e. either to imply that there is no unique answer
(e.g. in chemistry, two or more substances may satisfy the given conditions describing an ‘unknown’), or
to imply that candidates are expected to apply their general knowledge to a ‘novel’ situation, one that
may not be specifically referred to in the syllabus.
13. Find is a general term that may variously be interpreted as calculate, measure, determine etc.
14. Calculate is used when a numerical answer is required. In general, working should be shown, especially
where two or more steps are involved.
15. Measure implies that the quantity concerned can be directly obtained from a suitable measuring
instrument, e.g. length, using a rule, or angle, using a protractor.
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9648 H2 BIOLOGY (2016)
16. Determine often implies that the quantity concerned cannot be measured directly but is obtained by
calculation, substituting measured or known values of other quantities into a standard formula, e.g.
relative molecular mass.
17. Estimate implies a reasoned order of magnitude statement or calculation of the quantity concerned,
making such simplifying assumptions as may be necessary about points of principle and about the
values of quantities not otherwise included in the question.
18. Sketch, when applied to graph work, implies that the shape and/or position of the curve need only be
qualitatively correct, but candidates should be aware that, depending on the context, some quantitative
aspects may be looked for, e.g. passing through the origin, having an intercept, asymptote or
discontinuity at a particular value.
In diagrams, sketch implies that a simple, freehand drawing is acceptable; nevertheless, care should be
taken over proportions and the clear exposition of important details.
19. Compare requires candidates to provide both the similarities and differences between things or
concepts.
20. Recognise is often used to identify facts, characteristics or concepts that are critical (relevant/
appropriate) to the understanding of a situation, event, process or phenomenon.
21. Classify requires candidates to group things based on common characteristics.
SPECIAL NOTE
Units, significant figures. Candidates should be aware that misuse of units and/or significant figures, i.e.
failure to quote units where necessary, the inclusion of units in quantities defined as ratios or quoting
answers to an inappropriate number of significant figures, is liable to be penalised.
28