WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD
Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in
OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men
in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and
Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women
and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries
Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD
Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in
OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men
in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and
Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women
and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries
Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD
Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in
OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men
in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and
Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women
and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women
Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women
Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD
and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and
Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD
Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men
Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD
in OECD Countries Women and Men in OECD Countries Women and Men in
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC
www.oecd.org
CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
Table of contents
Preface: From indicators to action
........................................
Better policies for men and women
.....................................
OECD work on gender equality
in developing countries .................................................................
3
4
6
1. Population
7
Total fertility rates
............................................................................
8
Immigration ...........................................................................................
9
Students with disabilities,
learning difficulties and disadvantages ............................
Student performance
Tertiary education
......................................................................
............................................................................
University graduates by field of study
22
23
5. Social issues
Social isolation
...................................................................................
24
....................................................................................
25
Prison population
..............................................................................
10
11
Overweight and obese
....................................................................
30
12
14
..............................................................................
15
Employment ...........................................................................................
16
17
................................................................................
18
.....................................................................................
19
Occupations of men and women
Immigrants and employment
28
29
....................................................................................
Self employment
...................................................................................
27
....................................................................
................................
....................................................................................
................................................................
Tobacco consumption
13
Gender wage gaps
26
6. Health
Causes of death
3. Labour market
Working hours
....................................................................
Managerial and professional posts .......................................
Life expectancy at birth
2. Education
Unemployment
Women in parliament
Life satisfaction
Men and women in the populations
of OECD countries .............................................................................
Inactive youths
4. Political and economic power
............................................
20
..................................................
21
Acknowledgements:
This brochure has been prepared by Derek Blades, with
Mark Pearson, Head of the OECD Social Policy Division
as editor. Contributors from across the Organisation
deserve the real credit for the existence of this brochure,
however, for all the work they have undertaken in
developing gender statistics over the years. The
enthusiasm of the OECD Gender group was essential in
getting the project completed. Particular thanks are due
to Pauline Fron, Lynda Hawe and Valentina Kostyleva.
2
Preface
From indicators to action: OECD provides the analysis
The OECD exists to promote policies designed “to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and
employment and a rising standard of living”. We are proud of the role we play in helping countries learn from
one another in achieving these goals, and in identifying “best practice” in a very broad range of policies, from
education and pensions to macroeconomic policy and trade.
To identify best practice, the OECD develops indicators which illustrate some vital differences in experience,
across countries, over time and across different groups. Such indicators are not plucked from thin air. Rather, they
are the product of many years of painstaking work in identifying the issue, getting agreement across countries,
collecting and standardising data. For many years now, we have been trying to improve analysis by collecting
statistics separately for women and men. Outcomes for women and men are very different across many different
areas of life, and policies have to reflect this. Best practice across countries in many areas of policy cannot be
“gender-blind”.
The “Quality Framework and Guidelines for OECD Statistics” indicates that, whenever appropriate, the OECD
should collect data disaggregated by sex. The indicators in this brochure are a tiny sample of the data which are
now collected by the OECD. They illustrate some important differences between women and men. Sometimes
outcomes are better for women than for men – they perform better at school, they are less likely to go to prison,
to smoke, are less likely to be “socially isolated”, and they live longer. In other areas, men have a better time of it
– they earn more and are more likely to get into positions of power in both political and economic life.
In addition to these indicators of outcomes, we need to analyse policy. There is not space to showcase all of
our gender-related work in this brochure, but we are making a lot of headway in many different areas of gender
analysis, not just in the areas that you would expect – pensions, family policies and education, for example
– but also in trade, entrepreneurship and development aid. If governments want “more growth, employment
and a better standard of living”, then they are going to need more of this sort of gender-sensitive analysis, and
more indicators of how men and women are doing. The OECD is committed to sustain this effort providing solid
statistical evidence and analysis.
Dick Hecklinger
OECD Deputy-Secretary General
3
Better policies for men and women
Indicators are only the first step in developing better policies for women
and men: the next stage is to understand why these differences occur, and
then what we can do about them. The following describes a few of the most
important recent and ongoing projects aimed at improving gender policy in
OECD countries. Information on OECD work on gender issues in developing
countries follows.
Gender differences are striking in school performance, as
the OECD PISA study (Programme for International Student
Assessment) of attainments at age 15 shows. National experiences
are being reviewed in an Equity in Education project, which looks
at why different groups – including the different sexes – end up
with different outcomes. While female participation in tertiary
education has grown rapidly in comparison to males, the choice
of subjects remains very different. This contributes in part to the
result that women end up in low-wage sectors of the economy,
as documented in country reviews on The Transition from School to
Work.
Work on the reconciliation of work and family life (Babies and
Bosses) and studies in the OECD Employment Outlook and the OECD
Economic Outlook show that taxation, provision of childcare and
parental leave, and the availability of part-time work can all have
a big impact on the working patterns of parents, particularly
mothers. Family-friendly policies can also affect Fertility Rates,
which have collapsed in many OECD countries.
Children are not the only family members that need care:
older relatives may need help too. This is another task which
predominantly falls on women. OECD work is looking at Disability
Trends among older people and at different models for delivering
Long-Term Care Services either at home or in institutions. For
younger age groups, most new claims for disability benefits are
by women rather than by men – see new reviews on Sickness,
Disability and Work. Some people argue that this is because of an
increase in stress. This in turn is said to be due to the rise in
female employment which, when combined with continuing care
responsibilities, means many women now find themselves doing
two jobs.
One of the ways in which countries have coped with the increase
in demand for carers has been through immigration. Caring is
the main area of employment for female migrants (see reviews
of the Social Integration of Migrants). The fact that women provide
more than half of all new immigration into OECD countries (see
the International Migration Outlook) has too often been ignored by
policymakers.
The OECD has long pioneered analysis of women’s
entrepreneurship, through elimination of barriers to enterprise
creation and growth. The Istanbul Declaration by OECD Ministers
has recognised the importance of women’s entrepreneurship,
and recommendations have been developed to foster women’s
entrepreneurship. Local Reviews on Women’s Entrepreneurship
have been undertaken in order to explore the role of women’s
entrepreneurship in local development.
Gender issues have also been prominent in some unexpected
areas. For example, the OECD Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises have been used to promote gender equality in the
operations of multinationals in non-OECD countries. Gender and
Trade argues that women sometimes face particular barriers
in taking advantage of trade liberalisation. Information on
Equal Opportunity Policies is collected as part of OECD’s work on
4
Public Governance. New work is beginning which will look at
how specified target groups, including women, could be more
involved in Policymaking. OECD work suggests that having a
gender dimension in Environmental Policy might be justified –
women and men behave differently the way they use transport,
recycle or purchase organic food.
A guidance document for regulators and industry on how best to
assess whether Hazardous Chemicals can harm a woman’s ability
to become pregnant and have healthy babies is under discussion.
The OECD has developed a new hazard category within the Globally
Harmonised System for Classification of Chemicals covering risks during
pregnancy and breastfeeding.
The OECD Health Care Quality Indicators project has collected data
on breast and cervical cancer screening and survival rates, with
further work underway on colorectal cancer rates, and heart
attack and stroke mortality rates.
Some aspects of the pension system favour women over men
– lower retirement ages (though these are often being phased
out – see Living Longer, Working Longer) and longer life expectancy
combined with gender-neutral actuarial tables in calculating
pension payouts, for example (see Pensions at a Glance). On the
other hand, women have lower pensions than men and are more
likely to be in poverty in old age than men. This reflects reduced
earning (and therefore pension contributions) through their
lifetime, partly because of child-rearing. Furthermore, work on
Financial Education suggests that women have less understanding
and confidence in making financial decisions, have less to save,
and invest more conservatively than do men.
Further information is available on those projects in italics above.
Simply go to the Gender Topic on the OECD website (www.oecd.org/
gender) and click on whichever link interests you. Alternatively,
contact mark.pearson@oecd.org for further information.
5
OECD work on gender equality in developing countries
Did you know?
On average, women in developing countries get married 6½ years
earlier than in OECD countries.
There are still 800 million people in the world lacking basic
literacy skills. Women account for two-thirds of the total.
Young women in sub-Sahara Africa aged 15-24 are between two
and six times as likely to be HIV-positive than men of a similar
age.
About one-half of aid to basic education and basic health targeted
gender-specific concerns.
Progress towards gender equality and women’s empowerment is
vital for improving economic, social and political conditions in
developing countries. The OECD helps show how governments
can take gender equality into account in development policies
and practices. OECD countries are encouraged to give aid in a way
that supports gender equity.
The Gender, Institutions and Development database
In large parts of the developing world, traditions and sociocultural norms still trap countries in poverty as they bar women
from economic activities: more discrimination – less economic
growth – more poverty.
To help governments choose effective policies, the OECD has
created the Gender, Institutions and Development Database (GID). It
includes comparative data for 161 countries on the socio-economic
status of women. Its innovation is the inclusion of institutional
variables that range from intra-household behaviour to social
norms. Information on cultural and traditional practices is
coded to measure the level of discrimination, making the GID a
unique tool for a wide range of analytical queries and allowing a
case-by-case adaptation to specific research or policy questions.
By identifying cultural and traditional practices that discriminate
against women, from forced marriages and female genital
mutilation to restrictions on inheritance and ownership rights, the
GID helps design effective policies. More funding will be effective
only if the underlying causes of discrimination are addressed. The
Gender, Institutions and Development database can be accessed free of
charge at www.oecd.org/dev/institutions/GIDdatabase.
Gender equality and aid
The Network on Gender Equality (GENDERNET) (www.oecd.org/dac/
gender) is a forum where gender experts from development
co-operation agencies meet to stimulate fresh thinking and
new approaches to investing in gender equality and women’s
empowerment.
The OECD asks countries to provide information on aid in support
of gender equality. In the OECD’s Creditor Reporting System database
(www.oecd.org/dac/stats/crs/gender), donor countries are asked to
indicate for each individual aid activity whether or not it targets
gender equality as one of its policy objectives. A study conducted
in 2005 showed that two-thirds of aid in support of gender
equality was in the social sectors, especially basic education
and basic health. About one-half of aid to basic education and
basic health targeted gender-specific concerns, while little was
reported as targeting gender equality in the sectors of transport,
communications and energy infrastructure.
6
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
1
Population
Men and women in the populations of OECD countries
Did you know?
Up to their early teens, boys slightly outnumber girls in all
the OECD countries. In the 25-54 age group – “prime working
life” – the numbers of men and women are about equal in all
countries. But in the older age groups women often outnumber
men by more than two to one.
In 2005 women slightly outnumbered men in all OECD countries
except Iceland, where the numbers were equal, and Korea and
Turkey where there were slightly more men than women. In the
OECD area as a whole there are 104 women for every 100 men.
Population W/M
(‘000)
ratio
295
1.00
Sweden
9 041
1.02
Spain
43 064
1.04
Luxembourg
465
1.03
Hungary
10 098
1.05
Korea
47 817
0.99
4 028
1.03
Czech Rep.
10 220
1.10
Italy
58 093
1.06
1.04
United
Kingdom
59 668
1.05
Ireland
4 148
Norway
Finland
Slovak Rep.
Denmark
25 to 54
80 and over
3.0
Iceland
New
Zealand
Ratios of women to men at different ages
2005
1.01
Belgium
10 419
4 620
1.01
Portugal
10 495
1.07
France
60 496
1.05
5 249
1.04
Greece
11 120
1.02
Turkey
73 193
0.98
5 401
1.02
Netherlands
16 299
1.01
Germany
82 689
1.05
5 431
1.06
Australia
20 155
1.03
Mexico
107 029
1.05
Switzerland
7 252
1.06
Canada
32 268
1.02
Japan
128 085
1.05
Austria
8 189
1.05
Poland
38 530
1.06
United
States
298 213
1.03
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Tu
M r ke
e y
Gr x i c o
Ic e e c
Au ela e
s n
N e S tr a d
w we lia
Ze de
Un C ala n
ite an nd
d ad
St a
S w No a te
r s
Un i t z e w a
rla y
ite
d S nd
K i pa
ng in
d
Ir o m
Po ela
r tu nd
OE
CD
ga
av It a l
er l y
a
F g
De r an e
Sl
ov B nm c e
ak el ar k
Re giu
pu m
Au bli
st c
Ja ria
C z Net K pan
e c he or
h r e
Lu Re landa
xe pu s
m bl
bo ic
P ur
Hu ol ang
n d
F ga
Ge inla r y
rm nd
an
y
Population W/M
(‘000)
ratio
High male death rates in the Second World War explain the
women/men ratios in excess of 2.0 in the chart below. The male
death toll was particularly high in Germany, Finland, Japan and
the countries of central Europe.
0 to 14
OECD populations in 2005 and ratios of women to men
Population W/M
(‘000)
ratio
In all OECD countries a few more boys are born than girls, so that
boys predominate in the 0-14 age group. However, men smoke and
drink alcohol more than women, have higher suicide rates, and
indeed have higher mortality rates from many other causes. As a
result, women are much more numerous than men in the 80+ age
group.
Source: United Nations population projections, 2004 revisions.
Further reading:
OECD (2006), Labour Force Statistics – 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.
7
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
1
Population
Total fertility rates
The total fertility rate is the number of children that are expected
to be born to women of child-bearing age. A rate of about 2.1 will
produce a stable population. Less than this, the population will
decline unless the shortfall is made up by immigration.
Only two OECD countries have fertility rates above this level:
Mexico and Turkey. The average fertility rate in OECD countries
is now just 1.6.
In all OECD countries, fertility rates have declined for young
women and increased at older ages, because women (and men)
are postponing the age at which they start their families.
Many reasons have been given for the dramatic change in fertility
rates. The most convincing is that young women, now better
educated than those of earlier generations, wish to have a career
as well as a family. The countries with the lowest fertility rates
tend to be those with the highest female employment rates.
Total fertility rates: number of children expected
to be born to women aged 15 to 49
2004 or latest year available
3.0
2.5
2.0
The chart below shows the long-term decline in total fertility
rates. The countries which had the highest fertility rates in 1970
have, unsurprisingly, recorded the largest subsequent declines.
Finland, Denmark and Sweden are among those countries which
recorded the smallest declines: these are countries which have
traditionally had family-friendly employment policies including
generous maternity/paternity leave and widely available childcare facilities. Even here, their current rates are below the
replacement threshold.
Decline in total fertility rates since 1970
Absolute difference between 1970 and 2004 fertility rates
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Fi
n
Ca lan
d
S wn a d
Lu De ed a
e
Un xemnm n
i t e bo ar k
d ur
St g
a
Un
F te
ite B r an s
e
d lg ce
K i iu
n
Ge gdom
rm m
Cz S w No any
ec itz r w
h er ay
Re l a
p n
Hu ub d
n lic
Ic gar
el y
an
Ne
th Jap d
er a
la n
n
OE Aus d s
CD P tri
o
av la a
er nd
ag
Au It a e
Sl
st ly
ov
r
ak G ali
Ne Re r eec a
w pu e
Ze bl
i
Po alan c
r tu d
g
Sp al
Ko a i n
r
Ir e e a
l
Tu and
M r ke
ex y
ic
o
Did you know?
Source: Council of Europe (2006), Recent Demographic Developments in Europe,
2004; Eurostat and national statistical offices.
1.5
Further reading:
OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses – Reconciling Work and Family Life,
series, OECD, Paris.
1.0
0.5
ec
Cz
Sl
ov
h K
Re or
pu e a
ak P bli
Re ola c
p n
Hu ubl d
ng ic
Gr ar y
ee
Ja ce
p
Sp an
a
Ge It in
rm al y
S w Por an
i t z tug y
er al
la
O E A u s nd
CD Ca tri
n
av a a
e d
Lu B e r ag a
xe l g e
N e m ium
t bo
Un her urg
ite S lan
d we d s
Ki d
n e
Au gdo n
De s tr a m
nm lia
F i ar
n k
No lan
r d
F wa
Ne I r an y
w rel ce
Ze an
al d
Un
a
i te Ic e nd
d lan
St d
a
M te
ex s
Tu ico
rk
ey
0
8
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
1
Population
Immigration
In the past, in most OECD countries, the majority of immigrants
came from other OECD countries, especially from OECD Europe.
This is no longer the case. Asia is now the main source continent
of immigrants.
Ratios of male to female immigrants
2004 or nearest year available, percentages
Male immigrants
Female immigrants
Un
i te
d
St
a
No tes
r
Au wa
Lu s t y
xe r al
m i
Ne bo a
th ur
er g
la
n
Ir e d s
Ge land
rm
an
Fr y
an
c
Sp e
a
N e S w in
w ede
Ze n
al
B an
Sw elg d
i t z ium
er
l
OE C and
CD an
Un a a d
i te ve a
d ra
K i ge
ng
De dom
nm
a
Au rk
st
F i r ia
nl
C z Po an d
ec r t
h ug
r e al
pu
bl
ic
I
Hu t al y
ng
a
Po r y
la
nd
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Note that this chart shows only countries of birth from which
substantially more women than men emigrate. More men than
women emigrate from some of the other sources of migration such as
Central America, Ecuador and India in the case of the United States,
and Tunisia, Pakistan, Albania and Morocco in the case of Europe.
Gender breakdown of immigrants in OECD Europe
and the United States by country of birth
Selected countries of birth: 2004 or latest year available, percentages
Men
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Women
United States
OECD Europe
rm
an
Ir e y
la
n
Fr d
an
ce
Sp
ai
Fi n
nl
a
Uk n d
ra
in
e
Ru
Br
az
ss
il
ia
P
n
F e olan
de d
Ph r ati
ili on
pp
in
es
Immigrants are usually defined as those born in a different
country from where they are now living – they are “foreign-born”
as opposed to “native-born”.
Ge
There are more female immigrants than male in 20 of the
23 countries for which data are available – the three exceptions
being the United States, Norway and Australia where the numbers
are about equal. In other countries women, on average, emigrate
about as often as men in these countries.
The chart below shows the gender breakdown of immigrants living
in European OECD countries and in the United States according to
their countries of birth, where the countries considered are limited
to those with at least 100 000 immigrants. Percentages of women
immigrants are especially high in Europe for immigrants from the
Philippines, the Russian Federation and Poland, whereas in the
United States, women are more numerous among immigrants from
Japan, Thailand and the Dominican Republic.
Po
Co land
lo
m
bi
a
P h Kor
ili e a
pp
in
Ja es
m
Tr
ai
in
G
c
Do ida erm a
m d & an
in
ic To y
an ba
Re go
pu
T h blic
ai
la
nd
Ja
pa
n
Did you know?
Source: OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:
OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook – 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.
9
2
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
Education
Students with disabilities,
learning difficulties and disadvantages
Did you know?
Most OECD countries provide additional resources to help
students with disabilities and learning difficulties and those from
disadvantaged families.
It appears that 50% more boys than girls receive help of this kind
because of learning disabilities, and over twice as many boys
as girls receive help because of learning difficulties – although
statistics are available for only about half of all OECD countries.
In all the countries for which data are available, substantially less than
half of the students receiving help for disabilities or learning difficulties
are girls. For some countries or regions, the boy/girl disparities are
particularly marked for students with learning difficulties (behavioural
or emotional disorders and specific difficulties in learning) compared
with students with disabilities (organic disorders).
Gender distribution of students in compulsory education receiving
additional resources for disabilities and learning difficulties
Percentage of girls
Disabilities
%
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
%
60
Gender distribution of disadvantaged students in compulsory
education receiving additional resources
Percentage of girls
50
30
20
10
s
er
th
Ne
m
iu
lg
Be
la
(F
nd
l.)
o
ic
d
an
ex
M
nd
la
nl
Fi
ly 1
er
It a
y
n
ai
Sp
ke
Tu
r
itz
Sw
Br
ew
(N
d
n
un C a d
s n
Be wic ada
lg k)
iu
m
(F
r.)
It a
G ly 1
OE erm
CD
an
av y
er
ag
e
Fr
an
ce
Tu
rk
ey
Sp
ai
n
M
ex
Be
ic
lg
o
iu
m
(F
l.)
H
Cz
u
ec nga
h
Re r y
Sl
p
ov
ak ubl
Re i c
pu
bl
ic
Ja
pa
n
an
la
ew
Br
nl
er
Fi
itz
Sw
(N
an
es
al
W
d
an
th
er
la
nd
s
Sl
ov
ak
Re
pu
bl
ic
C
un a n
sw ad
ic a
Cz
k)
ec
h
Re
pu
bl
OE
ic
CD
av
er
ag
e
0
d
Ne
Why do boys get more special help than girls? Is it a genuine need
or do school administrators give more priority to the successful
education of boys?
40
gl
En
Learning difficulties
Factors associated with the risk of being disadvantaged include
being born into immigrant families with poor knowledge of the
host-country language and culture, or into families where the
parents are themselves poorly educated. In Belgium (Flanders) and
the Netherlands the percentages of disadvantaged boys and girls
receiving additional resources in compulsory education are equal;
in a number of other countries (or regions) where data are available
they are only about 45/55 in favour of boys. The gender gap in favour
of disadvantaged boys is most marked in the Slovak Republic, the
Canadian province of New Brunswick and the Czech Republic.
1. Data refer to primary and lower secondary education.
1. Data refer to primary and lower secondary education.
Source: OECD (2005), “Students with Disabilities, Learning Difficulties and
Disadvantages. Statistics and Indicators”, OECD, Paris.
10
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
2
Education
Student performance
Gender differences (boys-girls) in student performance
in reading in PISA 2003
Did you know?
OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
assesses student knowledge and skills in mathematics, reading,
and science at age 15.
In general, girls outperform boys in reading by a wide margin
while boys outperform girls, by lesser margins, in mathematics
and, even less in science.
Score point difference
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
Gender differences (boys-girls) in student performance
in mathematics in PISA 2003
-60
-70
Source: OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrow’s World - First results from PISA 2003,
Table 6.3, OECD, Paris.
OECD average
Sl
ov
Ko
r
ak Gr e a
Re e e c
pu e
bl
Lu
xe It ic
S w mb al y
i t z ou r
e g
De rlan
nm d
Cz
e c T ar k
h ur
Re ke
pu y
N e Ir b l i c
w ela
Ze nd
a
Po lan
r tu d
Ca ga
n l
M ada
Ge exic
rm o
an
Sp y
Fr ain
an
J ce
Hu a p a
ng n
A u ar y
Be stri
lg a
F i ium
n
Un S lan
i te we d
d de
St n
No ates
rw
Po ay
A la
Ne us nd
t h tr a
er li a
la
Ic nds
el
an
d
Score point difference
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
OECD average
-50
Ic
el
No and
rw
Au ay
s
F i t r ia
Ge nlan
rm d
a
Po ny
la
nd
I
Au t a
st ly
ra
Sp lia
Fr ain
a
Gr n c e
Be eec
lg e
S w ium
P ed
S w or t en
it z ug
er al
la
Sl Lux Tur nd
ov em ke
ak b y
Un Re ou r
i te pu g
d bli
St c
Cz
ec C ates
h an
Re a d
p a
Hu ub l
ng ic
N e Ir a r y
w ela
Ze nd
De alan
nm d
a
Ja rk
M pan
ex
Ne K ico
t h or
er e a
la
nd
s
The chart below shows the gender gaps for scores in mathematics,
with in dark colour the significant differences between boys and
girls.
Source: OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrow’s World – First results from PISA
2003, Table 2.5c, OECD, Paris.
In mathematics the boys score higher than the girls in the majority
of the countries except in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Japan, the
Netherlands, Norway and Poland where the advantage for boys is
not significant, and in Iceland where the girls outperform the boys.
In the reading assessment, however, the girls come out well ahead
of the boys in all countries and the gender gaps were exceptionally
large in Iceland, Norway, Austria and Finland as shown in the
chart above.
Science shows the smallest average gender differences among all
contents assessed. Statistically significant differences in favour of
men are found in Canada, Denmark, Greece, Korea, Luxembourg,
Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic and
Switzerland. On the other hand, women in Finland and Iceland
outperform men.
Further reading:
OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrow’s World: First Results from PISA 2003,
OECD, Paris.
11
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
2
Education
Tertiary education
On average 33% of women aged 25 to 34 have tertiary education
compared with 28% for men of the same age in OECD countries.
Even in the poorest parts of the world more than 60% of young
girls usually attend primary school. In sub-Sahara Africa and
in the Indian Sub-Continent only 3-4% of young women receive
tertiary education.
Although tertiary education delays the start of paid employment, it
substantially increases lifetime earnings and is a good investment
both for the individual and for society.
The next chart shows that in general young people of both sexes
are more likely than their parents to acquire tertiary education.
The only exceptions are Austria, Germany, Hungary and the
United States, where tertiary attainment rates for young men are
below those for older men. The most striking feature however
is the large difference between the age groups for women. The
increase in the number of women attaining a tertiary level of
education has been particularly marked in Japan, Korea and Spain
where cultural attitudes about the role of women in society have
probably undergone more profound changes than in other OECD
countries.
Differences in tertiary attainment by
people aged 25-34 and 55-64
Percentage of young people with tertiary education minus
percentage of older people with tertiary education, 2004
In the OECD area, tertiary attainment rates for the population of
working age range from below 12% in Turkey, the Czech Republic,
Italy and the Slovak Republic to over 35% in Canada, the United
States, Sweden and Japan. Female attainment rates exceed those
for men in just over half of the countries with significantly higher
rates in Canada, Finland, Sweden and New Zealand. By contrast,
the number of men having attained a tertiary level of education is
still substantially higher in Korea and Switzerland.
Men
40
30
Percentage of men and women aged 25-64 with tertiary education
2004 or latest year available
Men
20
10
Women
0
-10
50
-20
Cz
20
Source: OECD Education database and Gender, Institutions and Development
(GID) database.
10
ak
ov
Sl
ec
h Tur
Re k
pu ey
bl
ic
Re It a
pu l y
M blic
Po e x i c
r tu o
Au ga
s l
P o t r ia
l
H
S w un and
i t z ga
er r y
Lu G l a n
xe r e d
m ec
Un
b e
i te Ge ou
d rm rg
Ki a
ng ny
OE
d
CD K om
av or e
er a
a
Fr ge
an
Ne
S ce
Ne the pai
w rlan n
Ze d
al s
Ir e a n d
Ic l and
e
Be lan
d
A u l giu
st m
No r ali
De r w a
nm ay
a
J rk
S wa p a
n
Un F ede
i te in n
d lan
St d
Ca ates
na
da
0
Cz
Sl
ec
hR
40
ep
ub
ak Tu lic
Re rke
p y
Ne Ger ubli
m c
Un w Z an
e
i te al y
d an
St d
Hu a t e
ng s
ar
Sw
y
it z It a
Un
er ly
i te A lan
d u d
Ki st
n g r ia
d
M om
De exi
nm co
Po ar k
Ne Por land
th tug
er a
la l
S nd
OE A wed s
CD u s en
a v tr a l
e ia
Lu G r ag
xe r e e
m ec
bo e
F i ur g
nl
Ic and
e
Ca land
n
No ad
a
Be r wa
lg y
i
Fr um
a
Ir e n c e
la
Sp nd
a
Ja in
p
Ko a n
re
a
60
30
Women
50
ov
Did you know?
Further reading:
OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.
12
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
2
Education
University graduates by field of study
There are large gender differences in the subjects that young men
and women study at university. Female preference for health and
welfare subjects is most marked in Nordic countries – Finland,
Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. In these countries less
than 20% of graduates in these subjects are men. In Japan, Belgium
and Switzerland, on the other hand, more than 40% of graduates
in the “caring sciences” are men.
Percentage of university graduates in health and welfare subjects
2004 or latest year available
Women
Men
Percentage of university graduates in engineering,
manufacturing and construction subjects
2004 or latest year available
Women
Men
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Source: OECD Education database and OECD (2006), Education at a Glance:
OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:
OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.
Ja
S w Bel pan
i t z giu
er m
l
M a nd
ex
Tu ico
r
A u key
st
Ko r ia
F rea
Ge r an
rm ce
Gr a n y
Cz
ee
ec
c
OE h R It e
CD ep al y
av ubl
Un
e ic
i te P r ag
d o e
Un K in lan
Sl i t g d
ov ed do
ak S m
ta
Ne Rep t es
th ub
er lic
Au land
st s
ra
Sp lia
C a ain
Hu nad
n a
Ne Po gar
w r tu y
Ze ga
al l
Ir a n d
De elan
nm d
S w ar
e k
No den
r
Ic w ay
el
F i and
nl
an
d
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Such differences in subjects studied at university both reflect and
influence different career choices, contributing to occupational
segregation in the labour market.
G
ov P ree
ak or t c e
Ne Re uga
w pub l
Z e li
al c
an
Sp d
Ic ain
el
S w an
ed d
e
I n
Po t al y
De lan
nm d
Fr ar k
OE
a
C D Ir e n c e
av lan
e d
Hu r ag
n e
Cz
ec T gar
h ur y
Re ke
pu y
C a blic
na
Ko d a
M rea
A u ex i c
st o
B e r ali
lg a
No ium
Un Ge r w a
i te rm y
d an
S y
Un
i te F tate
d inl s
K i an
ng d
d
N e A u om
th st
S w e r l r ia
i t z and
er s
la
J a nd
pa
n
For all OECD countries taken together, health and welfare subjects
are the most popular for women with humanities, arts and
education a close second. For male graduates, subjects related to
engineering, manufacturing and construction come first – just ahead
of mathematics and computer science.
About an equal number of men and women opt for life sciences,
physical sciences and agriculture and for social sciences, business
studies and law.
The gender gap is equally marked in subjects related to
engineering, manufacturing and construction. Less than 20% of
graduates in these topics are women in Japan, Switzerland, the
Netherlands and Austria. The largest shares of women graduates
in these subjects are in Greece and Portugal.
Sl
Did you know?
13
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
3
Labour market
Inactive youths
“Inactive youths” are those between 15 and 19 who have no jobs
and are not at school.
In most countries the gender differences are small but there were
substantially fewer young inactive women than men in Norway,
Belgium and Sweden and many more inactive women than men
in Mexico and Turkey.
Inactive youths constitute both a present and future problem.
Present because they are more likely to be involved in various
kinds of anti-social behaviour including property crime and drug
abuse. Future, because lacking work experience or marketable
skills they are likely to join the pool of the “socially excluded” for
much of their lifetimes.
In most OECD countries less than 10% of those aged 15 to 19 are
inactive and less than 5% in eight. Rates in excess of 10% were recorded
in Turkey, Mexico, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom.
Percentage of people aged 15-19 who were not
in education or work (2004)
Men
Women
Ne Po
th la
er nd
l
De and
nm s
Lu No ar k
xe r w
m ay
b
Ge ou r
rm g
Ic any
e
Be land
lg
S w ium
ed
Fr en
a
Fi nce
C z H nla
ec u nd
h ng
Re ar
pu y
C bl
Sl S w an ic
ov i t z ad
ak er a
Un Re l an
i te pu d
d bli c
S
Au t a te
st s
ra
OE
C D Au lia
av stri
er a
a
Ir e g e
Un
la
i te
nd
d
K i It a
ng l y
d
Gr om
ee
c
S e
Po pai
r tu n
M gal
ex
Tu ico
rk
ey
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
The good news is that youth inactivity rates have been falling in
most countries since 1995 – the first year for which these data
are available. (In the chart below negative “growth rates” mean
a decline.)
For the OECD as a whole, female youth inactivity rates have been
falling at just over 3.0% per year compared with 1.9% for men.
In most countries where youth unemployment has been rising,
the increases have been larger for young men than young women.
In Sweden, on the other hand, the annual growth of the inactivity
rate for women has been relatively high while the rate for men
has been falling.
Average annual growth in rates of youth inactivity
1995 or earliest year available to 2004
Men
Women
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
S w Ic e
i t z lan
er d
la
Lu B e l nd
x e giu
m m
bo
Sl
ov P urg
ak ol
Re an
pu d
bl
ic
De It al
nm y
H a
Ne un r k
th ga
er r y
l
OE Au and
CD st s
av r alia
er
a
Gr ge
e
Un M e c e
i te ex
d ico
St
a
Ca tes
na
Cz
da
ec
h Sp
Re a i
pu n
Ge bli
rm c
a
Tu ny
Po r ke
r tu y
Sw gal
ed
Un
i te F en
d ran
Ki c
ng e
do
Ir e m
la
nd
Did you know?
Source: OECD Education database.
Further reading:
OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
14
3
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
Labour market
Gender wage gaps
Gender gap at the top and bottom of the earnings distribution
2003 or latest year available
Low earners (20th percentile)
%
45
Almost all OECD countries legislate to ensure equal pay for equal
work regardless of gender. But there are all sorts of reasons why
this is insufficient to close the gender gap. Discrimination may
continue, if legislation is not or cannot be applied. More generally,
women may end up in lower-paid occupations than men, and may
struggle to be promoted as often as men.
40
Gender wage gaps
Gender gap in median earnings of full-time employees,
2004 or latest year available
5
30
25
20
15
10
35
30
25
20
15
10
a
re
Ko
y
n
pa
Ja
d
an
an
nl
rm
Fi
Ge
es
nd
la
er
itz
da
at
Sw
na
St
Ca
d
i te
Un
e
en
ed
Sw
ag
er
lia
CD
av
nd
ra
la
st
OE
Po
Au
k
m
ar
do
nm
ng
De
Ki
d
i te
d
ce
an
an
al
Ze
Fr
l
m
iu
lg
Be
w
Ne
Un
40
ga
ee
ce
0
Gr
45
High earners (80th percentile)
35
r tu
In all OECD countries median wages for men are higher than
those for women. The average difference is more than 15% and
exceeds 20% in several countries.
Male median earnings are more than 20% higher than those of
women in Korea, Japan, Germany, Switzerland, Canada and the
United States. Note that these are median earnings in full-time
jobs and so are not affected by a widespread preference for parttime work by women (though men tend to work longer hours
than women). At the other end of the scale, the gender gap is less
than 12% in New Zealand, Belgium, Poland, Greece and France.
The chart below shows the gender gaps in wages – men’s minus
women’s – for low paid and for high paid workers. (Low and high
paid are defined as those in the 20 th and 80th percentiles of the
wage distribution respectively.) In a majority of countries, the
gender gap is larger for the high wage earners. This is evidence
that the “glass ceiling” is no myth – women are less likely to get
into higher paid and managerial occupations.
Po
Did you know?
Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics.
Further reading:
OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses – Reconciling Work and Family Life,
series, OECD, Paris.
5
Ne
w
Ze
al
a
Be nd
lg
iu
Po m
la
n
Gr d
ee
c
Fr e
a
Hu nc e
ng
De ar y
nm
A u ar k
st
ra
S w lia
ed
en
OE
CD Sp
Cz av ain
ec er
h
a
Re ge
pu
Po blic
r tu
ga
Un
i t e Ir e l
l
d
K i and
ng
do
m
Un F in
i te lan
d
St d
at
Ca es
Sw na
it z da
er
l
Ge and
rm
an
y
Ja
pa
n
Ko
re
a
0
15
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
3
Labour market
Employment
Employment rates of women are below employment rates of
men in all OECD countries. But nearly everywhere, the gap
between male and female employment rates has been falling.
There are only five countries where the gap between male
and female employment rates have risen since the mid-1990s
– Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finland and Sweden.
A higher percentage of men than women are employed in each
OECD country. Less than 50% of women are in paid employment
in Turkey, Mexico, Italy, Greece, Spain and Poland, while more
than 70% are employed in Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden
and Switzerland. The gender gap is most pronounced in Turkey
and Mexico but is also high in Japan, Korea and Ireland.
Percentage of men and women of working age in employment
2004
Men
Women
Tu
M r ke y
ex
ic
I o
Gr t a l y
e
Po ec e
la
Lu
n
xe Sp d
m ai
Sl
ov H b ou n
ak un rg
Re ga
pu r y
b
K li c
B e or e
lg a
Cz
i
e c I um
h rel
Re an
pu d
Fr bli c
OE
a
CD J nce
av apa
e
Ge r a n
rm ge
Au any
Po s tr
r tu ia
N Aus ga
Un e t h e tr a l
i te r l a lia
d nd
St s
a
Un N ew F in te s
i te Z lan
d ea d
K i la
ng nd
d
S w C a om
i t z nad
er a
Sw lan
De ed d
nm en
N o ar
r k
Ic w ay
el
an
d
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Difference between women and men in annual average
increases of employment rates
Average annual increase from 1991 to 2004
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Tu
e c Hu r ke
h ng y
Re a
pu r y
F i blic
n
S w lan
De ed d
nm en
Po ar k
Sl
ov
l
ak J and
Re apa
pu n
Un I b
i t c e lic
Ne ed S lan
w ta d
Ze te
al s
a
Ko n d
N
Un
or r e a
i te C wa
d an y
Ki a
ng da
d
A o
OE A us m
C D u s t r ia
tr
S w ave alia
i t z r ag
er e
la
F nd
Po r an
r tu ce
Ge g
rm al
an
y
Lu M It al
xe ex y
m ic
bo o
Ne Be urg
t h l gi
e r um
la
Gr n d s
e
Ir e e c e
la
Sp nd
ai
n
The “employment rate” is the number of people of working age
who are in employment divided by all those of working age.
However, differences in employment rates for men and women are
falling in almost all countries. The chart below shows how much
faster female employment rates have been growing compared
to male employment rates over the last decade. The growth of
female employment has been higher than that of men in all OECD
countries except Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finland
and Sweden. Female employment rates have been growing
much faster than those for men in Spain, Ireland, Greece and the
Netherlands.
Cz
Did you know?
Source: OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics,
OECD, Paris; OECD (2006), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:
OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth – 2006 Edition,
OECD, Paris.
OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social
Statistics, OECD, Paris.
16
3
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
Labour market
Unemployment
Did you know?
For statisticians, the “labour force” is everybody who is either
working or is “unemployed”. The “unemployed” are people who
are actively looking for work but who have not found more than
one hour of paid work in the last week. The unemployment rate
is the number of unemployed as a percentage of the labour force.
The female unemployment rate is the number of unemployed
women as a percentage of the female labour force.
Poland has the highest with nearly 20% of the female labour force
out of work in 2004; the Slovak Republic was second with just
over 19%.
Compared to men, women have a higher risk of being unemployed
in most OECD countries. Twenty-seven countries are shown
in the chart and the female unemployment rate is higher than
that for men in 20 of them. The gender gap in favour of men is
particularly large in Greece, Spain, and Italy. On the other hand,
women are somewhat less likely than men to be unemployed in
Korea, Norway, Ireland, Japan and the United Kingdom.
Unemployment as a percentage of the male
and female labour forces (2004)
Men
Women
25
20
Have unemployment rates been falling or rising for women over
the past decade? The chart below compares female unemployment
rates in 1994 and 2004. Countries that fall on the diagonal line
have exactly the same female unemployment rates in both years.
If they are below the diagonal, the 2004 rate is higher than the
1994 rate. Fifteen of the 27 countries lie above the diagonal
meaning that in most countries female unemployment rates have
fallen over the decade.
Female unemployment rates in 1994 and 2004
1994
30
ESP
25
20
BEL
ITA
FIN
SWE
FRA
AUS
CAN
OECD
NZLNLD
DEU
GBR
PRT
USA DNK
NOR
CZE
KOR
LUX
JPN CHE AUT
HUN
IRL
15
10
5
0
0
5
10
POL
GRC
15
SVK
20
25
30
2004 or latest year available
Source: Quarterly Labour Force Statistics and Annual Labour Force
Statistics; OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and Social
Statistics, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:
OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth – 2006 Edition,
OECD, Paris.
OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social
Statistics, OECD, Paris.
15
10
5
Un
Ko
No rea
r
i te I wa
d rel y
K i an
ng d
d
N e J om
w ap
Z
Ne ea an
th la
S w erl nd
i t z and
er s
Un A l a nd
i te us
d t r ia
S
Au tate
s s
D e tr a l
nm ia
Hu ar
ng k
Lu S w ar y
xe ed
m en
bo
OE
u
CD Ca rg
av nad
er a
Po ag
r tu e
F i gal
nl
Cz
ec Be an d
h l gi
Re um
pu
b
Fr li c
Ge anc
rm e
an
y
It a
Sp l y
Sl
ov
a
a k Gr i n
Re e e c
pu e
b
Po lic
la
nd
0
17
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
3
Labour market
Self-employment
Did you know?
According to the standard ILO definition any person who works
for more than one hour per week is counted as being employed.
As a result, self-employment rates are very high in countries
where there are many small farms because virtually all family
members will do at least an hour’s work on the farm.
Ignoring self-employment in agriculture, Greece, Korea, Italy and
Mexico have the highest rates of self-employment while Norway,
France and the United States have the lowest.
The self-employment rate for men is more than twice that of
women in most OECD countries.
Self-employment may be seen either as a survival strategy for
those who cannot find any other means of earning an income
or as evidence of entrepreneurship and a desire to be one’s own
boss.
Percentage of self-employed as a percentage of
employed men and women
Excluding self-employed in agriculture, 2004 or latest years available
Excluding the agricultural sector, more men than women are
self-employed in all OECD countries except Mexico. The gender
gaps are particularly large in Turkey, Greece, Italy and Ireland and
are smallest in Mexico, France and Canada.
In most OECD countries, self-employment rates have been falling
since 1990: rates for women have declined somewhat faster than
those for men.
Female self-employment outside of agriculture is negatively
correlated with levels of economic development as measured
by per capita GDP; the richer the country the lower the share of
women in self-employment. The same result is also found for
men.
Female self-employment and per capita GDP
2004 or latest year available
Per capita GDP
45 000
USA
IRL FIN
ISL CAN GBR
AUS
DNK
ESP
ITA
SWE FRA
DEU
OECD average
JPN
NZL
PRT
CZE
HUN
y
=
-1206.8x
+ 36943
POL
R2 = 0.2499
TUR
40 000
NOR
35 000
AUT
30 000
25 000
Women
Men
20 000
35
15 000
30
10 000
5 000
25
GRC
0
0
20
15
10
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Self-employed women (excluding agriculture) as a percentage of all employed women
Source: OECD (2005), Labour Force Statistics, OECD, Paris.
5
Further reading:
OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2001), Women Entrepreneurs in SMEs: Realising the Benefits of
Globalisation and the Knowledge-based Economy, OECD, Paris.
Un
No
rw
a
i te Fr a y
d nce
St
at
Ca es
De nad
nm a
A u ar k
st
r
J a ia
S w pan
ed
F i en
n
Ge lan
rm d
a
P n
Sl A ola y
ov u n
ak s t d
Re r ali
p a
OE H ubl
u i
Un C D ng c
i te av ar y
d er a
Ki g
ng e
d
Ic om
el
an
Sp d
Ir e a i n
Po lan
d
C z New r tug
ec Z al
h ela
Re n
pu d
b
Tu lic
r
M key
ex
ic
o
It a
Ko l y
Gr r e a
ee
ce
0
18
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
3
Labour market
Working hours
Did you know?
More than one in four women work part-time and nearly three
out of four part-time jobs are held by women. Part-time work by
women increases when they live with a partner and increases
still further if they have dependent children.
Men tend to work longer hours than women in paid employment,
but women work more hours in unpaid activities – housework and
caring for children and elderly parents. Most OECD countries carry
out “time-use” surveys to measure this unpaid employment, but
these are not done regularly or on a comparable basis.
In most OECD countries the standard working week is around 40
hours but many people work longer. Working paid or unpaid long
workweeks is a “man’s thing” in all OECD countries. In Iceland,
Mexico and Turkey 60% or more of men report that they work more
than 45 hours per week. High percentages of women also work
more than 45 hours in Turkey and Mexico. On the other hand,
workaholics of either gender are rare in Netherlands, Norway,
Luxembourg, Austria and Sweden.
Percentage of employees who work more than 45 hours per week
Years around 2002
Men
People who work for less than 30 hours per week in their main job
are considered as part-time workers, although not all countries use
this definition. Part-time work is particularly favoured by women
in the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Germany,
Belgium and Ireland but is rare in central Europe, Turkey, Mexico
and the United States. The only country in which part-time
employment of men significantly exceeds 10% is the Netherlands.
80
Percentage of employed persons who work less
than 20 hours per week (2002)
10
Women
70
60
70
60
50
40
30
20
0
Ne
th
er
la
Lu No nd
xe r w s
m a
bo y
Sw Au urg
it z str
e ia
Ge rlan
rm d
Ca any
Be nad
lg a
S w ium
e
F i den
n
Hu lan
ng d
Fr ar y
Sl
an
ov
c
I
a
C z k R rel e
ec e an
h pu d
Re bl
p ic
De ub
nm lic
a
S rk
Un Po pa
i
OE i ted r tu n
CD S gal
t
a
av te
Un
e s
i te P r ag
d o e
Ki la
ng nd
do
m
Ne Aus It al
w tr a y
Z e li
al a
a
Ja nd
Ic pan
el
Gr a n d
e
M ece
ex
Tu ico
rk
ey
Men
Women
50
Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics.
40
Further reading:
OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth – 2006 Edition,
OECD, Paris.
OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social
Statistics, OECD, Paris.
30
20
10
Sl
ov
ak
R
Tu ep.
Hu r ke
ng y
a
Cz Po r y
ec lan
h d
Un M Re
i t e e x p.
d ic
S o
Po t a t e
r tu s
g
Ja al
Gr p a n
ee
Ca ce
n
Fi ada
nl
an
Ne
S
OE w p d
CD Zea ain
av lan
er d
S w age
De ed
nm en
F ar k
Au r an
st ce
ra
lia
Lu A It al
u
xe s y
m tri
bo a
No urg
r
Ic w ay
el
Ir e a n d
Be lan
Un
l d
i t e G e gium
d rm
Ki a
S w ng ny
d
Ne i t ze om
th rla
er nd
la
nd
s
0
19
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
3
Labour market
Occupations of men and women
Did you know?
Women tend to work in a much narrower range of occupations
than men.
The International Labour Organisation lists 110 major occupation
groups in their classification of occupations (ISCO). In OECD
countries for which information is available, half of all women
work in eleven or fewer of these occupations.
Comparable information on occupations is available only for
the European members of the OECD and the United States. In
these countries, at least half of all working women are in eleven
of the 110 occupations while half of the men work in more than
twenty of them. This suggests that women tend to enter a more
restricted range of professions than men. But it could also be
partly a statistical illusion. It is possible that a gender bias may
have inadvertently appeared due to a more detailed breakdown
of the occupations that are typically chosen by men. Gender
gaps – whether real or statistical – are particularly marked in the
United States, Italy, Ireland, Greece and the United Kingdom.
Number of occupations that account for half of total employment
2004 or latest year available
Women
Men
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Concentration of employment in 20 OECD countries
Many more women than men work as:
Many more men than women work as:
Pre-primary education teaching associate
professionals (14.5 )
Miners, shot firers, stone cutters and
carvers (80.2)
Nursing and midwifery professionals
(10.1)
Building frame and related trades workers
(64.8)
Secretaries and keyboard-operating clerks
(9.8 )
Ships’ deck crews and related workers
(52.9)
Nursing
and
midwifery
professionals (9.5)
Building finishers and related trades
workers (35.4)
associate
Personal care and related workers (9.3)
Mining and construction labourers (35.3)
Primary education teaching associate
professionals (6.2)
Agricultural and
operators (30.5)
Shop, stall and market salespersons and
demonstrators (5.8)
Mining and mineral-processing-plant
operators (24.5)
Special education teaching professionals
(5.6)
Metal moulders, welders, sheet-metal
workers, structural-metal preparers, and
related trades workers (23.1)
Domestic and related helpers, cleaners
and launderers (5.4)
Machinery mechanics and fitters (21.7)
Primary and
teaching (5.3)
Power-production
operators (15.9)
pre-primary
education
other
and
mobile
related
plant
plant
ar
k
Sp
Po ain
i te r t
u
d
K i gal
ng
do
Fi m
nl
an
Sl
ov Po d
ak la
Re nd
S w pub
i t z li c
er
la
G e nd
rm
an
Gr y
ee
c
O E Ir e
CD ela
av nd
er
ag
Fr e
an
Hu ce
Ne ng
th ar y
er
la
nd
No s
rw
S w ay
ed
Be en
lg
iu
m
Cz
ec
h It al
Un Rep y
i te ub
li
d
St c
at
es
Source: European Labour Force Survey and March Current Population
Survey for the United States.
Further reading:
OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
Un
nm
De
The table below shows the top ten “gender-biased” occupations
on average in Europe and the United States. In the first column,
the numbers in brackets are the ratios of women to men in these
occupations. For example, 14.5 times more women than men work
as “pre-primary teaching associate professionals”. In the second
column the genders are reversed so that, for example, there are
just over 80 men working as “miners, shot-firers, stone cutters
and carvers” for each woman in this occupation.
20
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
3
Labour market
Immigrants and employment
Statisticians define employment as work for pay or profit of at
least one hour in the last week.
Like native-born women, immigrant women are less often
employed than their male counterparts. But the difference
between men and women is larger for immigrants. Immigrant
women can be said to have a double “handicap” in the labour
market: as immigrants, they have lower employment rates
compared to non-immigrants and as women, lower employment
rates compared to men.
In most OECD countries, finding a job is harder for immigrant
women than for immigrant men and is harder for immigrant
women than for native-born women.
The chart below shows the gender gaps for employment of
foreign-born versus native born people. It shows, for example, that
native-born Finnish women are almost as likely to be employed
as native-born Finnish men, but foreign-born Finnish women are
far less likely to work than foreign-born Finnish men.
This is a common pattern – in all except two countries
unemployment among the foreign-born is higher than that of
native-born people. The two exceptions are Spain and the Czech
Republic.
Although immigrant women are not employed as often as
immigrant men, differences in unemployment rates between
immigrant men and women are small. Indeed, when the bars
in the chart below fall below the zero-line, immigrant women
are less likely to be unemployed than immigrant men. Ireland,
Sweden, Germany and Norway are countries where this is the
case. Overall, if native-born women find it harder than nativeborn men to find work, then it is generally also the case for
foreign-born women compared to foreign-born men.
Gender gap in unemployment rates, native-born and foreign-born
Unemployment rate for women minus unemployment rate for men in 2004
Native-born
12
10
Gender gap in employment of native-born and foreign-born adults
Employment rates for men less employment rates for women (2004)
Native-born
8
6
4
Foreign-born
2
40
0
35
-2
30
-4
10
5
i te
Source: OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:
OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook – 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.
Sw
ed
F i en
nl
a
No nd
r
De wa
nm y
a
Un C a r k
i te na
d da
St
Ge a te
rm s
Un
a
i te Fr ny
d an
Ki c
ng e
d
Sl
ov A om
ak u s
R e t r ia
pu
Hu bli c
ng
P ar
S w or t u y
OE it z ga
CD erl l
a an
Ne ver d
th ag
er e
la
n
Be d s
lg
C z A ium
ec us
h tr a
Re lia
pu
bl
L u Ir e i c
xe l an
m d
bo
ur
g
It a
ly
Sp
a
Gr in
ee
ce
0
Un
15
d
25
20
Foreign-born
14
St
at
Ir e e s
la
Un
i te Sw nd
d ed
K i en
ng
Ge dom
rm
a
Ca ny
na
No da
r
Hu way
ng
a
Au r y
Au stri
st a
ra
li
S w F inl a
i t z an d
er
D lan
Ne enm d
t
h
OE e ar k
C rl
Sl D a and
ov v s
ak er
Re age
pu
Po blic
r tu
Be gal
lg
iu
m
Lu Fr
C z xem a n c
ec b e
h ou
Re rg
pu
bl
ic
It a
l
Sp y
a
Gr i n
ee
ce
Did you know?
21
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
4
Political and economic power
Women in parliament
Did you know?
Women are outnumbered by men in all the world’s parliaments.
Women hold close to half the parliamentary seats in Rwanda and
Sweden and about a third in the Nordic countries, in Cuba, Costa
Rica and Argentina.
There is no reliable relationship between how rich a country is,
and how many women are in parliament.
In nine OECD countries at least one-third of parliamentary seats
are held by women. The Nordic countries and the Netherlands
stand out with more than 35% of parliamentary seats held by
women. In most OECD countries though, women hold under a
quarter and the shares are 15% or less in Japan, Italy, France and
the United States.
Percentage of parliamentary seats held by women
2005 or latest year available
Tu
rk
J ey
Hu apa
ng n
ar
It y
Fr al y
a
Gr n c e
e
Ir e e c e
la
Un
Sl i t K nd
ov ed or
a
S
Cz k t ea
R a
Un e ch ep t e s
i te Re ubl
d pu ic
Ki b
ng lic
d
Po om
Ca land
n
L Po ad
O E uxe r tu a
C D mb gal
av our
er g
M ag
A ex e
S w us ico
i t z tr al
er ia
Ne Ge lan
w rm d
Ze an
a y
Ic lan d
el
Au and
Be str
lg ia
iu
Ne
m
th Sp
er a i n
l
De a nd
nm s
F i ar k
n
No lan
d
Swr wa
ed y
en
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Do women participate more in political life in richer countries? Not
necessarily. Percentages are low in rich countries like the United
States, Ireland, France and Japan and are high in countries with
lower per capita incomes such as New Zealand, Spain and Austria.
On the other hand, there does seem to be a link between the
percentage of women in employment and the percentage of
parliamentary seats held by women. The chart below plots the
percentage of women in parliament against the percentage of the
total female population of working age (15-64) in employment.
Women’s participation in political life appears to reflect, at least
to some extent, their participation in economic life. Percentages of
women in parliament are high in Nordic countries where women
make up a large part of the labour market and low in Turkey,
Greece, Italy and Hungary.
Percentage of women in parliament and percentage
of women in employment
2004
Percentage of women in employment
90
80
ISL
CAN
USA GBR
PRT
JPN FRA
CZE
IRL
HUN
LUX
KOR SVK
POL
ITA GRC
70
60
50
40
30
CHE
AUS
OECD
average
DNK
DEU
AUT
MEX
NOR
NLD
FIN
BEL
SWE
ESP
y = 0.6336x + 43.028
R2 = 0.3573
TUR
20
NZL
10
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Percentage of women in parliament
Source: Many countries have both a lower and upper house (bi-cameral
parliaments) with different election rules for each one. For countries with
bilateral parliaments the percentages shown here refer to the total of both
houses. Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU): www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm.
Further reading:
Jütting, J. P., C. Morrisson; J. Dayton-Johnson; D. Drechsler (2006),
“Measuring Gender (In)equality: Introducing the Gender, Institutions
and Development Data Base (GID)”, OECD Development Centre Working
Papers, No. 247, OECD, Paris.
22
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
4
Political and economic power
Managerial and professional posts
Women
Men
25
20
15
10
5
0
Source: European Labour Force Survey and March Current Population
Survey for the United States.
Further reading:
OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses – Reconciling Work and Family Life,
series, OECD, Paris.
Sp
a
Gr i n
ee
ce
Lu
xe It a
m ly
bo
Po u r g
r tu
Ge ga
rm l
De any
nm
C z S ar k
e c we
Sl h R den
ov ep
ak ub
Re lic
pu
bl
ic
Ne Pola
th nd
er
la
n
OE F d s
CD inla
av nd
er
ag
Fr e
an
No ce
rw
Be ay
lg
i
Hu um
ng
a
Ic r y
el
an
Un
i t e Ir e d
l
d
K an
Un ing d
i te do
d m
St
at
es
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Men
ay
I
G t al
ec erm y
h
Re any
pu
bl
Un
i
i te Fr c
d an
Ki ce
ng
d
Po om
r tu
De ga
l
Sl nm
ov ar
ak k
Re
O E Ic p.
CD ela
av nd
er
a
Hu ge
ng
ar
y
Lu S
xe p ai
m n
bo
u
F rg
Ne inl
th an d
er
la
n
S w ds
ed
e
Un Po n
i te lan
d
St d
at
e
Gr s
ee
ce
Ir e
la
Be nd
lg
iu
m
Percentage of employees in managerial posts
2004 or latest year available
Women
30
Cz
There are huge differences in the percentage of employees
who are “managers” across countries, reflecting differences in
how different workers see themselves in different countries.
Nevertheless, there is a gender gap in managerial posts in all
countries. The gender gap is particularly high in the United
Kingdom, Norway, Finland, the Netherlands and Denmark. Gaps
are much smaller in eastern Europe.
Percentage of employees in professional posts
2004 or latest year available
rw
In all OECD countries for which data are available, higher
percentages of men work as managers or directors compared to
women.
On the other hand, a greater percentage of women who work do so
in occupations for which a professional qualification is required
than men. However, because more men work than women, this
does not mean that there are more professional women than
men.
Professional posts are those for which a formal qualification is
usually required. They include most occupations in the health care
and education sectors and in services such as accountancy and
the law. In about two-thirds of the countries shown in the chart
below, the percentages of the female labour force in professional
posts exceed the percentages for males, with the gender gap in
favour of women particularly high in Belgium, Ireland, Greece and
Poland. Part of the explanation is the preference among women to
work in the health and education sectors.
No
Did you know?
23
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
5
Social issues
Life satisfaction
The World Value Surveys ask respondents to rank their feelings of
satisfaction with their lives on a scale from 1 to 10. The surveys
now cover 80 countries and use standardised questionnaires.
The latest wave of surveys took place between 1999 and 2002.
Test your prejudices. In two of these countries – United
Kingdom, Turkey, Norway and Korea – women are significantly
more satisfied with their lives than men. Which were they?
Answer. In Turkey and Korea, women report greater life
satisfaction than men. Women report lower life satisfaction than
men in the United Kingdom and Norway.
In over half of OECD countries, more than three-quarters of both
men and women reported “above average” scores (7 to 10) for life
satisfaction. However, the percentages were 50% or less in the
four eastern European countries and in Korea and Japan.
Percentage of people who feel an above average level
of satisfaction with their lives
Years between 1999 and 2002
Men
Women
Sl
ov
Hu
ng
ak Tu ar y
Re r ke
pu y
b
Ko l i c
Po rea
la
Ja nd
Gr p a n
e
Po e c
r tu e
Fr gal
Cz
an
ec
h Sp ce
Re a
Un
pu in
i te
bl
OE d K It ic
C D ing al y
av dom
e
Ne N r ag
o e
w
Un Z r w a
i te ea y
d lan
S d
Swt ate
e s
M den
Au ex i
st co
Be r ali
lg a
G
L u e r ium
xe m a
m n
bo y
C a urg
n
Sw Au ada
it z str
er ia
l
Ir a n d
De elan
nm d
F i ar k
n
Ne Ic lan d
th ela
er nd
la
nd
s
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
There is some correlation between life satisfaction and per capita
income, though some people argue that the correlation becomes
weaker when comparisons are limited to the richest countries.
Over time, societies which get richer do not report greater life
satisfaction.
In most countries more men than women reported feeling
satisfied “above average” with their lives. The chart below shows
the percentage of satisfied men minus the percentage of satisfied
women. The “satisfaction gap” favours men in twenty countries.
Do women tend to apply higher standards than men in assessing
their life satisfaction? Or do cultural and economic factors
conspire to create less satisfying lives for women in most OECD
countries?
The satisfaction gap
Percentage of satisfied men minus percentage of satisfied women
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
T
A u ur k
st ey
ra
Ko l i a
r
Ja ea
F i pan
nl
a
Ic n d
Ge elan
rm d
Be an
lg y
iu
S m
Ne C pai
Cz w an n
ec Ze ad
h al a
Re an
p d
Hu ubl
Sl
ng ic
ov
ak Po ar y
OE R la
CD ep nd
Un a ubl
i te v er ic
d ag
St e
a
M tes
e
Ne G xico
r
Lu the eec
xe r l a e
m nd
b s
S w our
g
De ed
nm en
a
Ir e r k
l
Au and
Po s t r
r t u ia
Fr gal
an
c
I e
Un S w No t al y
i te i t z r wa
d er y
K i la
ng nd
do
m
Did you know?
Source: OECD (2005), Society at a Glance, OECD, Paris; EFILWIC (2003), Quality of
Life in Europe: an illustrative report, European Foundation for the Improvement
of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin; World Value Surveys.
Further reading:
OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth – 2006 Edition,
OECD, Paris.
24
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
5
Social issues
Social isolation
Total rates under 4% were reported in Sweden, the Netherlands, the
United States, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Germany and Ireland.
Did you know?
The World Value Surveys ask respondents about their contact
with other people in their normal daily lives. In the latest wave
of surveys (1999 to 2002) 56 countries supplied information on
whether respondents “rarely” or “never” had contact with friends,
work colleagues and other acquaintances in places of worship,
and in sports and cultural associations.
In 12 out of the 21 OECD countries for which data are available,
men reported greater social isolation than women.
Very low percentages for all respondents were reported by the
African countries in the surveys. The highest percentages were
reported in Russia, China and Chile.
The chart below show the gender differences in social isolation:
positive values above the line mean that more men than women
answered “rarely” or “never” while negative values show more
social isolation among women. The chart suggests that social
isolation is more often a man than woman problem, although the
gender gaps are not large except in Iceland, Japan and Finland
(social isolation among men) and in Mexico, Spain and Austria
(social isolation among women).
Gender gap in social isolation
6
-6
-8
o
a
Au in
st
r ia
It
Po al y
r tu
ga
Cz
ec K l
h or e
R
OE e a
CD pub
av lic
er
ag
Ir e e
la
Sw nd
e
Ge den
rm
a
Be ny
lg
iu
Un
m
i te Fr
d an
Ki ce
ng
do
m
N e Gr e
th ece
er
la
nd
Ca s
n
De ada
Un n
i te ma
d rk
St
at
Fi es
nl
an
d
Ja
pa
Ic n
el
an
d
-10
Source: OECD (2005), Society at a Glance, OECD, Paris; EFILWIC (2003), Quality of
Life in Europe: an illustrative report, European Foundation for the Improvement
of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin; World Value Surveys.
Further reading:
OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.
S
Ne we
d
t
Un her en
ite lan
d ds
St
De a t e
nm s
a
Ir e r k
la
Gr n d
e
Ge ece
rm
Un
a
i t e Ic ny
d ela
K i nd
ng
d
B e om
lg
iu
Ca m
n
OE F ada
CD inl
av an d
er
ag
Fr e
an
c
Ko e
re
Sp a
a
A u in
st
Cz
r ia
ec
h It a
Re l y
pu
Po blic
r tu
ga
Ja l
pa
M n
ex
ic
o
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-4
ic
Women
0
-2
ex
Men
2
Sp
Percentage of persons who rarely or never spend time with friends,
colleagues or others in social groups
4
M
Among the 21 OECD countries for which data are available,
percentages of respondents (all adults regardless of gender) in the
never or rarely categories exceeded 10% in Mexico (where women
feel particularly isolated) and Japan (where it is a male problem).
25
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
5
Social issues
Prison population
In all OECD countries except Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands
and the United States less than 7% of prison populations are
women. The commonest crimes for which women are convicted
include prostitution, drug abuse and fraud. These offences are not
punished by prison sentences in most countries although the high
percentage of women in American prisons is partly explained by
prison sentences for economic crimes such as cheque and credit
card fraud.
Female prisoners as a percentage of total prison population
Including pre-trial and remand prisoners 2004 or latest year available
Women
250
Men
724 total
200
150
100
50
0
Source: International Centre for Prison Studies, King’s College, London,
website: www.prisonstudies.org and then select World Prison Brief.
Further reading:
OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social
Statistics, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.
Po
la
Tu nd
r
Ir e k e y
la
Fr nd
Be anc
lg e
S iu
Cz D lov m
e c e ak i
h nm a
Re a
pu r k
bl
Lu
xe It ic
m al
bo y
Ca urg
n
M ad
Ge exi a
rm co
No an
r y
Sw wa
ed y
Ko e n
S A r
O w us e a
En ECD i t ze tria
gl a rla
an v nd
d er a
& g
W e
Hu ale
ng s
Gr ar y
ee
J ce
N e Ic a p a
w ela n
Ze n
al d
Fi and
Au nlan
st d
Po r al
r tu ia
ga
Ne
Un th Spa l
i te er l in
d and
St s
at
es
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Prisoners per 100 000 inhabitants
Including pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners
2004 or latest year available
el
Tu and
r
Ir e k e y
la
Ja nd
Fr pan
De an
n ce
Po ma
r rk
Be tuga
lg l
S w ium
e
S w No den
it z r wa
er y
l
Fi an
Ge nla d
rm nd
an
I y
Gr t a l y
ee
Ca ce
n
Ne A ada
th ust
er ri
Sl
la a
ov
nd
O a k Ko s
En ECD Rep r e a
gl a ub
an ve li
d ra c
& g
W e
Lu M ale
xe e x s
m ic
b o
Cz
e c A u our
h s tr g
Re a
p lia
Hu ubl
ng ic
a
S ry
Ne P pai
n
Un w Z olan
i te ea d
d lan
St d
at
es
The Prison Population Rate is the number of people (adults as well
as those under 18) in prison per 100 000 population.
In every country far more men are in prison than women but
there are large differences between countries. For instance, there
are the same number of female prisoners per 100 000 population
in the United States as female and male prisoners combined in
Japan.
Half of the OECD countries have less than 100 people in prison
per 100 000 inhabitants. Thirteen have between 100 and 200. Two
countries exceed this – Poland with 230 and the United States with
more than 700. The US rate is the highest in the world followed
by Russia with about 600 per 100 000 inhabitants. Except in the
United States imprisonment rates for women are negligible.
Ic
Did you know?
26
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
6
Health
Life expectancy at birth
Japan, Iceland, Spain and Switzerland have the highest life
expectancies in the World – just over 80 years. Botswana, Malawi,
Zimbabwe and Zambia have the lowest – all under 40 years. The
lowest regions are all Sub-Sahara Africa at 47 years and the
Indian sub-continent at 64 years.
In virtually all countries life expectancies at birth are higher
for women than for men. For the world as a whole female life
expectancy is currently about 6% higher than for men.
For the OECD total, the life expectancy gender gap in favour of
women is now just under six years; it is eight years or more in
Hungary, the Slovak Republic and Poland and is lowest in the
United Kingdom, Iceland and Sweden.
Why do women live longer than men? Differences in longevity
can in part be explained by their different behavioural, lifestyle
and working patterns. Women are also thought to have a possible
genetic advantage which makes them more resistant to a range
of conditions.
Life expectancy at birth (2004)
Men
Women
Average annual percentage growth in life expectancy
1960-2004 or nearest years available
Men
Women
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Sl
90
Since 1960 life expectancies at birth have been rising in all
countries. The chart below shows that the increase has been most
marked in Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Japan and Portugal where life
expectancies were low at the beginning of the period. In recent
years men have been raising their life expectancies faster than
women in most countries. This seems to be due to a reduction
in “risk factor behaviour” by men – notably smoking and alcohol
consumption – and an increase in these risk factors for women.
ov
ak
D R
C z e n m ep.
e
c
Ne h ar k
t h Re
er p
la .
Ca nd s
Un
i te N nad
d o a
Un K i r w
i te ngd ay
d om
S
Ne Hu t a t e
w ng s
Ze ar
al y
Ic an d
e
S w lan
d
Be ede
lg n
L u P ium
xe o l a
m n
bo d
Ir u r g
Au ela
Sw s nd
i t z tr a l
er i a
la
nd
Ge It a
rm l y
Gr a n y
e
Fi ece
nl
a
F
ra nd
OE
CD Au nce
av str
e r ia
a
S ge
Po pa
r tu in
Ja gal
M pan
ex
Tu ico
rk
Ko e y
re
a
Did you know?
85
Source: OECD (2005), Health at a Glance – OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris;
OECD (2006), OECD Health Data 2006, OECD, Paris; OECD Development
Centre, Gender, Institutions, and Development database (GID),
www.oecd.org/dev/institutions/GIDdatabase; Measures of Australia’s progress
2004, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004, p. 32.
80
75
Further reading:
OECD (2004), The OECD Health Project: Towards High-Performing Health
Systems, OECD, Paris.
70
Sl
Tu
Hu r ke
ng y
ov
a
C z ak Mex r y
e c Re ic
h pu o
Re bl
pu ic
P blic
Un De olan
i te nm d
d ar
S k
Po t a t e
Un
r s
i te I tug
d re al
K i la
ng nd
do
L
O E uxe Ko m
C D mb r e a
N e av ou r
w er a g
Ze g
e
Ge ala
rm nd
a
Ne G ny
th ree
er c e
l
Be and
lg s
A u ium
s
F i t r ia
n
No lan d
rw
C a ay
na
d
I a
Ic t al y
el
S w an
A e d
S w us den
i t z tr al
er i a
la
Fr nd
an
Sp ce
a
Ja in
pa
n
65
27
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
6
Health
Causes of death
Did you know?
For the population as a whole, the four main causes of death
are circulatory diseases such as strokes and heart attacks, cancers,
respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and emphysema, and
external causes such as suicide, homicide and traffic accidents.
At any given age, men are more likely to die from one of these
conditions than are women. However, eventually these same
sources of mortality are the reason why most women die as well
– they are just more likely to strike women at an older age.
Men are more prone to die from circulatory diseases than women
in all OECD countries, once adjustments are made to reflect the
differences in age structures. Mortality rates from circulatory
diseases are particularly high in the Slovak Republic, Hungary,
the Czech Republic and Poland and are lowest in Japan and France.
Clearly, diet explains at least part of these differences.
Deaths from circulatory diseases
Number of deaths, standardised for differences in age structures,
per 100 000 population (2003 or latest year available)
Women
Men
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in most OECD countries,
accounting for between 25% and 30% of deaths among men and
women. In all countries, mortality rates from cancer are higher
among men than among women. The gender gap is particularly
large in Spain, France, Korea and the Slovak Republic. Lung cancer
still accounts for the greatest number of cancer deaths among
men in all OECD countries (except Sweden and Iceland), while it is
one of the main causes of cancer mortality among women. As the
gap in tobacco consumption between men and women declines,
so will differences in rates of lung cancer.
Some cancers of course affect one sex more than the other – breast
cancer and prostate cancer. These diseases are very widespread.
Fortunately, advances in screening and treatment mean many
women and men now survive these cancers.
Deaths from cancer
Numbers of deaths, standardised for differences in age structures,
per 100 000 population (2003 or latest year available)
Women
350
700
300
600
250
300
200
100
Ja
p
Fr an
an
Sw Ca ce
it z nad
er a
la
n
S d
Au pa
st in
ra
N e Ic e li a
th lan
er d
la
No nds
rw
Ko a y
re
a
I
Sw t al y
ed
D
Ne en en
w ma
Ze rk
Un
a
i te F land
d inl
Un K in an
i te gd d
Lu d S om
O E xem t a t
CD b es
av our
er g
a
Ir e g e
Po lan
rt d
u
A u gal
Ge str
r m ia
a
Gr n y
Cz
e
ec P ece
o
h
Re lan
p d
Sl
ov Hu ubli
ak n c
Re gar
pu y
bl
ic
0
150
100
50
0
pa
Sp n
a
Ko i n
Po r e
r tu a
Gr g a l
ee
S w F in c e
i t z lan
er d
la
Fr nd
an
ce
Au It a
st ly
r
Au alia
s
L u G e r t r ia
xe ma
m ny
bo
OE
u
CD Sw rg
av ede
e n
Sl
ov N r ag
a k or e
Un Re w a
i te pu y
d bli
St c
a
Ne Ca tes
th na
er da
la
N e P nd s
w ola
Ze nd
al
Ic an d
Un
e
i te I land
Cz d K rela
e c in n d
h gd
Re om
p
Hu ubli
n c
De gar
nm y
ar
k
400
200
Ja
500
Men
400
Source: OECD (2005), Health at a Glance – OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris;
OECD (2006), OECD Health Data 2006, OECD, Paris.
28
6
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
Health
Tobacco consumption
Did you know?
The World Health Organisation estimates that over 15 billion
cigarettes are smoked each day. One in three of these is smoked
in China. The United States is the next biggest cigarette market
followed by Japan, Russia and Indonesia.
Globally, far more men than women smoke although the
gender gap is falling and cigarette advertising is increasingly
aimed at women in Asia and other developing countries. In
OECD countries, however, the most important change has
been a decline in smoking by men. Women do also smoke less
than previously, but the rate of decline has been much slower.
More men than women smoke in all OECD countries except
Sweden. In 2004 (or the latest year available), the gender gap in
smoking rates was particularly large in Korea, Turkey and Japan
and, to a lesser extent, in Greece, Mexico and Poland.
Percentage of men and women reporting that they smoke daily
2004 or latest year available
Women
Men
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Sw
e
Ca den
Un A u n a d
i t e s tr a
d ali
St a
N e Ic a t e s
Sl w el
ov Z an
Un ak eal d
i te Re an
d pu d
K i bl
ng ic
d
No om
rw
F i ay
nl
a
Fr n d
a
Ir e n c e
De lan
n d
Ge ma
rm rk
Lu Be any
C z xe l gi
e c m um
h bo
R u
S e rg
O E w i t pub
C D z er li c
av lan
er d
ag
Ne
e
th It a
er l y
la
nd
S s
Hu p ai
ng n
Po ar y
l
M and
ex
Gr i c o
ee
Ja ce
p
Tu an
rk
Ko e y
re
a
0
The proportion of daily smokers among adult women and men
varies greatly across OECD countries. Sweden, Canada, Australia
and the United States have the lowest overall percentage of daily
smokers, with less than 18% of adults reporting smoking each day
in 2004. Greece reported the highest rate of 39%.
Between 1980 and 2004, the percentage of smokers in the male
populations of all OECD countries has declined. The same is true
for women in most countries although in at least two – Finland and
France – a greater proportion of women now smoke than in 1980.
For the 16 OECD countries for which unbroken time series are
available from 1980, the decline in smoking by men has been more
marked than for women so that the gender gap is narrowing. In
1980 the gap was 18% but had narrowed to 7% by 2004.
Long-term fall in tobacco consumption in 16 OECD countries
Percentage of men and women 15 years or older who report
that they smoke daily 1980-2004
Women
Men
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002 2004
Source: OECD (2005), Health at a Glance – OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris;
OECD (2006), OECD Health Data 2006, OECD, Paris.
World Health Organisation (2006), www.who.int/tobacco/en/atlas8.pdf
Further reading:
OECD (2005), Health at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris.
29
WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
6
Health
Overweight and obese
Did you know?
The standard test of being overweight is the Body Mass Index or BMI.
It is calculated by dividing a person’s weight in kilograms by the
square of their height in metres (kg/m²). According to the World
Health Organisation guidelines, a BMI of 25 to 30 is considered
“overweight” and more than 30 is considered “obese”.
More men than women are overweight but obesity is pretty evenly
distributed in all OECD countries. For most countries in the charts
below, the statistics were obtained by “self assessment” surveys,
but in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the United Kingdom
and the United States, actual measurements were made. The
percentages for these five countries are among the highest in the
OECD region. This is no coincidence.
More men than women are overweight in all OECD countries. In
Austria, more than twice as many men are overweight as women,
but there are also large gender gaps in Australia, Iceland, Italy and
the Slovak Republic.
Percentage of adults considered overweight
(Body Mass Index between 25 and 30kg/m²)
2004 or latest year available
Women
Men
60
50
Obese men are substantially more numerous than obese women
in Greece whereas the reverse is true in the United States and
Mexico. In other countries the gender gaps are small. The low
percentages for both men and women in Korea and Japan are
most likely associated with their traditional diets which are low
in carbohydrates.
In most countries, data on weight and height are self-reported.
Evidence suggests that both men and women underestimate
their weight and/or overestimate their height, so leading to an
underestimate of the true prevalence of overweight and obesity
problems. For example, evidence from Canada is that 13.3%
of women and 15.4% of men were obese in 2003 based on selfreported data, whereas when actual measures were used in 2004,
22.5% of women were obese as were 22.3% of men.
Percentage of adults considered obese
(Body Mass Index exceeds 30kg/m²) 2004 or latest year available
Women
30
25
20
15
10
5
30
0
10
Ja
p
Fr an
a
Sw Au nce
it z str
e r ia
Be lan
lg d
iu
F
m
Sl
ov De inla
ak nm n d
Re a
r
pu k
Ir e b l i c
S w lan
ed d
e
It a n
Ko l y
Lu P r e
xe ol a a
m n
bo d
OE
CD No urg
av r wa
er y
ag
e
Un I Sp a
i te c el in
d an
St d
Ne Au ate
w s tr s
Ze ali
al a
T an
G e ur k d
rm ey
Ca any
n
N e Hu a d a
th nga
er r y
Cz
la
ec G nd
h re s
Re ec
Un
p e
i te Po ubl
d r t ic
K i ug
ng a
d l
M om
ex
ic
o
0
Ko
Sw J rea
it z apa
er n
N o l a nd
rw
a
I y
Au t al y
De s t
nm ria
Fr ar k
Sw anc
e e
N e Ir d e n
th ela
er nd
Ge lan
rm d s
Po any
Ic land
e
Be lan
lg d
iu
m
Po Spa
r tu in
Fi ga
nl l
OE
a
Sl CD Tu nd
ov a r k
Cz ak R ver ey
e c e ag
h pu e
Lu Re bli
xe pu c
m bli
b c
Hu ou
ng r g
Gr ar y
A
Ne us eec
w tr e
Ze ali
Un
a
i te C alan
d an d
Ki a
ng da
Un M do
ite e m
d xic
St o
at
es
40
20
Men
35
Source: OECD (2005), Health at a Glance – OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris;
OECD (2006), OECD Health Data 2006, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:
OECD (2005), Health at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris.
30
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