14 Explaining Clearly Before launching into an explanation, give your students the context, struc­
ture, and terminology they will need to understand the new concept and to
relate it to what they alre~ldy know. Use repetition and examples to help them
focus on the essential points. Try to refrain from introducing too many ne\N
concepts at the same time.
General Strategies
Place the concept in the larger context of the course. To give students a
sense of continuity and meaning, tell them how today's topic relates to earlier
material. A brief enthusiastic summary will help the class see the relevance of
the new concept and its relationship to the course's m,lin themes.
Give students a road map. You don't want students spending the hour
wondering, Why is the professor talking about that? or Where does this fit
in? So, at the beginning of
put a brief outline on the board or provide a
handout that will help students follmv along. Refer to the outline to alert
students to transitions and to the relationships between points. Some faculty
give students a list of questions to be addressed during the class. Handouts
can also include new terms, complex equations, formulas, and copies of
detailed overhead transparencies or slides shown in class.
Avoid telling students everything you know. Students become confused,
105t, anxious, or bored when inundated with information. Be selective:
deliver the most essential information in m,mage,lble chunks.
Set an appropriate pace. Tllk more slowly when students are taking notes
and when you are explaining new matenal, complex topics, or abstract
issues. You can pick up the pace \vhen relating stories, summarizing a
previous lecture, or presenting an example.
Aiding Students' Comprehension
Don't make assumptions about what students know. Define not only
technical terms but also unusual words or expressions, and review ke., terms
120
Explaining Clearly
from previous lectures. Introduce new terms one at a time, and write each on
the board.
Acknowledge the difficulty of concepts students are likely to find hard
to understand. Cue students to the most difficult ideas by saying, "Almost
everyone has difficulty with this one, so listen closely." Because the level of
students' attention varies throughout the hour, it is important to get everyone
listening carefully before explaining a difficult point.
Create a sense of order for the listener. In written texts, organization is
indicated by paragraphs and headings. In lectures, your voice must convey
the structure of your lectures. Use verbal cues to do the following:
• Forecast what you will be discussing: "Today I want to discuss three
reasons why States dre mandating assessments of student learning in
higher education."
• Indicate where you are in the development of your ideas: "The first
reason, then, is the decline of funds available for social and educational
programs. Let's look at the second reason: old-fashioned politics."
• Restate main ideas: "We've looked at the three pressures on colleges and
universities to institute assessment procedures: the legislature'S desire to
get maximum effectiveness for limited dollars, the appeal of campaign
slogans such as 'better education,' and public disenchantment with
education in general. We've also explored two possible responses by
colleges and universities: compliance and confrontation."
Begin with general statements followed by specific examples. Research
shows that students generally remember
or principles if they are pre­
sented first with a concise statement of the general rule and then with specific
examples, illustrations, or applications (Bligh, 1971; Knapper, 1981). To
present a difficult or abstract idea, experienced faculty recommend that you
first give students an easy example that illustrates the principle, then provide
the general statement and explanation of the principle, then offer a more
complex example or illustration. finally, address any qualifications or elab­
orations. (Source: Brown, 1978)
Move from the simple to complex, the familiar to unfamiliar. Layout the
most basic ideas first and then introduce complexities. Start with what
students know and then move to new territory.
121
TOOLS FOR TEACHING
Presenting Key Points and Examples
Limit the number of points you make in a single lecture. Research shows
that students can absorb only three to five points in a fifty-minute period and
four to five points in a seventy-five-minute class (Lowman, 1984). Even the
most attentive students retain only small quantities of new information
(Knapper, 1981). Be ruthless in paring down the number of major points you
make, and be more generous with examples and illustrations to prove and
clarify your arguments. Cut entire topics rather than condense each one. As
necessary, supplement your lecture with a handout that students can study
for a more detailed treatment.
In introductory courses, avoid the intricacies of the diSCipline. To avoid
confusing a class of beginning undergraduate students, focus on the funda­
mentals, use generalizations, and do not give too many exceptions to the
rule.
Demonstrate a complex concept rather than simply describe it. For
example, instead of telling students how to present a logical argument,
present a logical argument and help them analyze it. Instead of describing
how to solve a problem, solve it on the board and label the steps as you go
along.
Use memorable examples. Vivid examples will help students understand
and recall the material. Spend time developing a repertoire of examples that
link ideas and images. Use examples that do the following (adapted from
Bernstein, n.d., pp. 27-28);
• Draw upon your students' experiences or are relevant to their lives (to
explain depreciation, a professor uses the drop in prices of new versus
used textbooks)
• Represent the same phenomena (to explain aerodynamic oscillation,
an instructor cites a scarf held out a window of a moving car, a thin
piece of paper placed near an air conditioner, and a suspension bridge
battered by gale winds)
• Dramatize concepts (in defining a particular body organ, a professor
compares its size or texture to familiar objects, such as a walnut or
grapefruit; an economics professor defines a trillion by saying, "It takes
31,700 years to count a trillion seconds. ")
• Engage students' empathy ("Imagine yourself as Hamlet. How does the
poison feel? How does it affect your speech?")
122
Explaining Clearly
Liberally use metaphors, analogies, anecdotes, and vivid images.
Students tend to remember
longer than they remember words
(Lowman, 1984). You can help students recall important concepts by pair­
ing abstract content with a vivid Image or a concrete association. For
example, in describing velocity a physics professor uses the example of a
speeding bullet.
Call attention to the most important points. Your students may not grasp
the importance of a point unless you announce it: "This is really important,
so listen up" or "The most important thing to remember is ... "or "This is so
important that everyone of you should have it engraved on a plaque hung
over your bed" or "You don't have to remember everything in this course, but
you should remember ... "or "This is something you will use so mdny times
that it\ worth your special attention." It is also useful to follow through by
explaining why a particular point is important-saying so may not be
enough.
Using Repetition to Your Advantage
Stress important material through repetition. Students' attention wan­
ders during class. Indeed, research suggests that students are focally avvare of
the lecture content only about SO to 60 percent of the time. To underscore the
importance of a point, you will need to say it more than once. (Source:
Pollio, 1984)
Use different words to make the same point. No single explanation will
be clear to all students. By repeating major points several times in different
words, you maximize the chances that every student \vill eventually under­
stand. In some disciplines you may be able to develop the same point ill two
or three different modes: mathematically, verbally, graphically. [n others, )OU
may v.. ant to say things twice: formally and colloquiall}.
Use redundancy to let students catch up with the material. Students will
if they are :,till grappling with the
have trouble understanding a second
first. Give student, a chance to catch up bv building in redundancy, rcpeti­
tion, ,md pauses.
References
Bernstein, H. R. M,mualjm 7i'ar:hing. Ithaca, N. Y.: Center for the Improvc­
ment of Undergraduate Education, Cornell University, n.d.
123
TOOLS FOR TEACHING
Bligh, D. A. What's the Use otLecturing? Devon, England: Teaching Services
Centre, University of Exeter, 1971.
Brown, G. Lecturing and ExpLaining. New York: Methuen, 1978.
Knapper, C. K. "Presenting and Public Speaking." In M. Argyle (ed.), Social
Skills and \X/ark. Kew )'iJrk: Methuen, 1981.
Lowman, J. Mastering the Techniques of Teachinl{. San Francisco: Jossey­
Bass, 1984.
Pollio, H. R. "What Students Think About and Do in College Lecture
Classes." Teaching-Learninl{ Issues] 984,3,3-18. (Publication available
from the Learning Research Center, University of Tennessee, Knoxville)
124