ESSAY WRITING
REFERENCE GUIDE
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What are they asking?
Where do I start?
Do I have to reference every sentence?
If I plagiarise will I fail?
Are they interested in my opinion?
The focus of this booklet is on essay writing. If you would like information
about reflective writing, literature reviews, reports, theses or dissertations
check out the printed and electronic learning resources on our website
www.aut.ac.nz/student-learning. For further assistance you can book to see a
Learning Advisor for a free one on one consultation.
This booklet was compiled by QA and updated March 2013.
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Contents
Essay Writing: Getting started ................................................................................................................ 1
Analyse the question .............................................................................................................................. 1
Understanding the academic writing context ........................................................................................ 1
Some issues in academic writing ............................................................................................................ 2
Writing process tasks .............................................................................................................................. 3
Organising your time when writing an essay .......................................................................................... 4
Paragraph writing.................................................................................................................................... 5
Introductions........................................................................................................................................... 5
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Sentence Starters .................................................................................................................................... 6
Body paragraphs ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Reading and research.............................................................................................................................. 9
Active reading – SQ3R ........................................................................................................................... 10
Referencing and plagiarism: The Whakapapa of Ideas ........................................................................ 11
When to quote and when to paraphrase ............................................................................................. 12
Some practical tips for paraphrasing .................................................................................................... 13
Paraphrasing: 5-step approach ............................................................................................................. 14
Focus on reporting verbs ...................................................................................................................... 15
Focus on tense ...................................................................................................................................... 16
APA 6th edition guide…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..17
Revising and editing .............................................................................................................................. 19
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Essay Writing: Getting started
 Record the due date in you diary
 Note the word count and the percentage of your total grade mark
 Prepare your time-line
Analyse the question
 Read the question 2-3 times
 Highlight key words
 instruction words
 content words
 context words
 How many parts does the question have?
 What information is required?
 Check Learning Outcomes
 Check Marking Criteria
 How does the question link to lectures?
 How much do I know about it already? Prepare an information audit:
What do I know already?
What do I need to find out?
 Discuss the question with several others
 Confirm the areas you need to research
 Prepare a preliminary mindmap
1
Use this space to prepare your preliminary mindmap
2
Understanding the academic writing context
1
Some issues in academic writing
 Using the third person or ‘I’? Opinion is divided here whether or not it is
appropriate to use ‘I’. A compromise position to take is to use ‘I’ sparingly to
emphasise a central idea. If you overuse ‘I’, your essay can read like an opinionated
(instead of researched and thoughtful) piece of work.
 Be aware of your ‘voice’ as a writer. The default voice is your own voice as
the essay writer. To complement your voice, you also need to include the voices of
other writers. When you quote the actual words of another author you introduce
that author’s ‘direct voice’. When you paraphrase another author’s ideas you use
that author’s ‘indirect voice’, i.e. their idea, but in your own words.
 What is the focus? In academic writing the subject, not you, is the main issue.
This is another good reason to avoid ‘I’. Also, think about where in the sentence you
place key information. The first part of each sentence should be reserved for the
main or most important idea.
 Precision and simplicity. Academic writing is formal, and uses precise language.
However, this does not mean that it is dry, boring, or cluttered with jargon. When
faced with the choice of using a pretentious word or a simple word, the simple word
is usually the better option. Aim to write clearly.
 Imagine your reader as accurately as you can. You do not necessarily know
who your reader is going to be. Although in many instances you know your marker,
you are not really writing for them. It is best to imagine your reader as a sane,
rational person who wants to be informed about your topic.
Further reading
Brick, J. (2009). Academic culture: A student’s guide to studying at university. Sydney,
Australia: Macmillan Education.
An excellent introduction to undergraduate culture – demystifies academic
conventions. Opinions; positions; analysis; deductive arguments; academic reading;
writing essays; effective group work.
Emerson, L. (Ed.). (2005). Writing guidelines for business students. (3rd Ed.). Melbourne,
Australia: Thomson Learning/Dunmore Press.
User-friendly layout, useful illustrations. Focus on writing process for business
students. Note that Emerson recycles the same material for different subject areas.
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Writing process tasks
 Analysing/Understanding the question: underline key words and break the
question into parts. Rewrite the question as an answer to help you to break it down.
 Generating ideas: Make a mind-map using your question breakdown. Brainstorm
and talk with friends. Find out what you already know and what you need to know.
 Researching, Reading & References: Research all the material you will need
to complete the assignment. Take notes in your own words. Keep careful records of
your sources. Start your APA reference list now! Add information to your mind map
or take notes as you go.
 Impose logical structure: Start to develop a sequential order. Use your mindmap to make a paragraph plan. List your information and ideas under different
headings. Concentrate on making the order of your paragraphs clear. They should
follow a logical order which will help your reader to understand the ideas.
 Write first draft: Many good writers wait until they have drafted the body before
drafting their introduction. Use a separate page for each paragraph to help you
begin. To develop good paragraph structure, start with the key statement or topic
sentence. This can be a definition, or a quote from an academic source or a key idea
from the question itself. Then support or qualify this topic sentence with evidence
from your research or reading, which may agree or disagree with it. Illustrate your
point with examples.
 Editing and Proofreading: Ensure the assignment answers all parts of the
question and explains the argument so that it will be clear for your reader (who you
must imagine to be a person without specialist knowledge on the topic). Check
grammar, spelling and correct referencing. These are included in the learning
outcomes for Academic Presentation, and they are the easiest marks to gain and the
easiest to lose.
 Final draft: Find your correct cover sheet. Double check APA referencing
 Submit: Check that you know how to use the Turn it in software if you have to
hand the essay in this way.
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Organising your time when writing an essay
When you get your assignment, make a time line as soon as possible, and allocate writing tasks along it. A useful rule of thumb is to allow four
weeks for each assignment. If you have more than one assignment due at the same time, you should prepare a separate timeline for each
assignment. Make sure that you allow enough time between steps (at least overnight is recommended) to reflect and develop your writing as
you go.
Analyse the question
Generate ideas
1
4
Read, research and reference the
topic
Make a logical plan for body
paragraphs
2
Write the 1st draft (+ in-text
referencing)
Final draft
Edit/proofread
3
Hand in
4
Paragraph writing and structure
Your essay is made up of paragraphs. The introduction has a special structure, as does the
conclusion. For each type of paragraph, be aware not only of the structure, but also the
function the paragraph serves in the essay.
Introductions
Introduction
Comments re structure
Subject
Identify the subject area
Topic
Introduce the topic: focus on central issues and themes
Definition
Define key terms
Rationale
Explain why this topic is of interest
Argument
Clearly state main hypothesis or argument
Organisation
Outline how your essay is organised (key ideas from Body
Paragraphs 1 – 5)
Points to ponder re introduction function
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What is your purpose? Are you writing to inform, educate, persuade or evaluate an
issue?
What is the issue?
Move from the general to the specific
Who is your reader?
What’s the central problem or question that your writing is going to address?
Bold statements, controversial quotations or rhetorical questions are good opening
gambits for your opening sentence.
Most reading is voluntary. By the end of your introduction you should have
convinced your reader that it is worthwhile continuing. You have got something
important to say, and they should keep reading.
Consider drafting the introduction after you have drafted the body.
Conclusions
Conclusion
Comments re structure
Argument
Restate main hypothesis (paraphrase)
Key points
Summarise key points (paraphrase)
Implications
State implications for future action/research
Points to ponder re conclusion function
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Have you answered the question?
Do not include new material in the conclusion.
Re-read your introduction to remind yourself what it is you were promising to deliver
to your reader.
Use the conclusion as a means to reinforce your main idea or points of view.
If there is nothing more to be said on your topic, it is time to finish. You do not have
to write a ‘thank you and goodnight’ final sentence.
Sentence Starters
Good writers also read widely and they notice standard phrases. You can improve your
writing by developing the habit of using accepted phrases as sentence starters. Here are
some examples of indicating how your essay is organised, from Manchester University’s
website:
The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c).
This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ......
The essay has been organised in the following way.
This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X.
This paper begins by ...... It will then go on to ......
The first section of this paper will examine ......
http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/critical.htm
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Body paragraphs
The structure you use for each body paragraph will depend on the ideas you are developing.
At school, students are often taught the SEX structure: Statement, Example, eXplanation.
Another common structure is TEER: Topic sentence, Explanation, Example, Relevance. In
Business, a common paragraph structure is ITAC: Issue, Theory, Application, Concluding
statement. In Law, a common paragraph structure is ILAC: Issue, Law, Application,
Concluding statement.
Here is a general-purpose structure that many students find useful at university:
Typical body paragraph
Comments
Topic sentence
Indicate the main idea of the paragraph
Support
An example, quote, etc. Choose from one (or more) of the
possibilities for body paragraph development [See page 8].
Relevance
Explain how this [example, quote, etc] supports the main
idea in your topic sentence.
Concluding
Statement
Link
Restate the main idea: paraphrase – use synonyms.
Link to the next main idea: i.e. indicate what the next
paragraph will be about.
Body paragraphs—points to ponder re function
 Unity – each paragraph should have one clear focus. If you were asked to explain
what the paragraph was about, you should be able to summarise the main idea in
just a few words.
 Coherence – this is achieved when all of the concepts, propositions and examples
within the paragraph are clearly related to each other and consistent with the main
idea of the paragraph, as indicated in the topic sentence. People will find your essay
easy to read if each paragraph is well developed, and clearly about one main idea, as
indicated in its topic sentence.
 Each topic sentence should be clearly identifiable. Topic sentences can be used by
the reader to skim through the essay and easily follow the logical ‘flow’ of ideas. This
makes the whole essay coherent.
 Adequate development – the topic sentence should be supported by examples,
statistics, quotes, etc.. One the next page are some ways you can provide support for
your topic sentence:
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Possibilities for body paragraph development
Making your paragraphs cohesive
The term ‘cohesion’ refers to the ways that sentences are linked together grammatically and
through vocabulary. Aim to make your paragraphs cohesive by focusing on word choice.
Here are some practical ways to achieve cohesive text:
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Repeat key words and ideas – use synonyms and paraphrase
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Use pronouns (she, it, this) to refer to people, ideas and units of text
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Use ordering words to sequence your ideas (firstly, secondly, finally)
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Use transition markers to indicate the relationship between different ideas
(however, therefore, moreover)
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Use contrast (national—global; liberal—repressive)
NOTE: For additional ideas, refer to OWL at Purdue University:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
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Reading and research
Where do you start?
 Start with the reading list.
 You will get further ideas from the reference section in each of your readings.
Read strategically.
You cannot read everything, so you need to skim read first to decide if the text is useful.
When you have selected a text, then you read it carefully, and make notes for your essay.
There are a number of common sense questions to ask before you select a text:
 What is the source? Is it from a reputable organisation such as a university or a
government department?
 How current is it? Knowing where a piece of writing comes from helps you to place it
in context, and decide how reliable it is.
 Who is the author? Do they have any expertise in the topic?
 What sort of writing is it? What is the text structure? newspaper, magazine,
academic journal, website, book, encyclopaedia, press release...
 What do you think its purpose is? Is it to inform, to argue for a point of view or to
advocate change? Look beneath the surface. What is the writer’s agenda?
There are a number of critical reading questions to ask as you are reading:
 Engage with the ideas and key points. Work out what they mean to you.
 What is the writer’s perspective? Think about the cultural and social implications of
this perspective.
 What is the writer’s position? For, against, neutral...
 Is there adequate evidence for the conclusions? Is the writing grounded in robust
theory and research? Is the information factually correct.
 What assumptions does the writer make?
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Active reading – SQ3R
Active Reading
What do you do when you are reading to help you remember?
Mindmap - take notes – annotate the text - use the SQ3R Method
The SQ3R Method
Survey
Title / Headings / Sub-headings / Summaries / Topic
sentences
Question
Think of questions that you want answered before you start reading
Read
Be an ACTIVE reader: Ask questions when you are reading e.g.
“Is this what I need to know?”
“Does this give an example of what I want?”
“How can I relate this to my own experience?”
After reading make notes of the important information - in your own
words
Recall
Without looking at your article / book / notes, visualize and write
down in your own words the main points of what you have just read.
Review
Look back at the questions that you wrote, the notes that you took
and the article that you read.
Can you remember the main points?
What things did you forget?
What things did you not get totally right?
Go back to the notes you wrote in ‘recall’ and add or change things so that your notes are
complete. Try to recall the answers to the questions again, and then check your notes to
see if you were correct.
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Referencing and plagiarism: The Whakapapa of Ideas
Essays are all about ideas and in an academic writing context, it is important to indicate
where these ideas originated. When writing an essay, one useful way to keep track of these
ideas is to think in terms of ‘voices’, as outlined by Brick (2009). For most of your essay, you
should be answering the question in your own words, with your own ideas, so we can say
that 90% of the essay is your voice.
Sometimes, you will want to refer to other peoples’ ideas and there are two main ways to
do this:
1. Using the ‘direct voice’ of the source, i.e. a direct quote:
2. Using the ‘indirect voice’ of the source, i.e. a paraphrase:
For further discussion of voices in academic writing, plus some activities, see Brick, J. (2009).
Academic culture: A student’s guide to studying at university. Sydney, Australia: Macmillan
Education.
Note that if you use someone else’s ideas, either by quoting directly, or paraphrasing you
must acknowledge the author in two places: a) within the text, and b) in the reference
section at the end of the essay.
If you fail to acknowledge other writer’s ideas you are guilty of plagiarism. This section will
help you to understand why we need to reference and how to reference all sources you
refer to. If you follow these guidelines, you will avoid plagiarism.
What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism is the use of another person’s words (direct quotations) or ideas and not giving
them credit for those ideas in your assignment. There are many reasons why plagiarism
should be avoided.
 Plagiarism is really stealing someone else’s words or ideas and pretending that they
are your own.
 It is illegal to copy someone else’s words or ideas and not give them the credit.
 It is disrespectful to other students studying with you. Plagiarism is like when you
cheat on an exam. You give yourself an unfair advantage over others who have
worked hard to avoid plagiarism.
 It is possible that you could fail your assignment for plagiarising, or even worse, you
could be asked to leave the programme you are studying.
 If you do not reference other people’s words or ideas, and someone is really
interested in your ideas and wants to follow up your sources, they do not have any
idea of where to find your sources if you do not reference.
 If you do not reference your sources, you are not showing how you are part of the
academic community made up of many years of thinkers and writers.
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When to quote and when to paraphrase
For most of your essay, you should be using your own voice. In particular, your arguments
should be developed using your own voice, not the voice of a source. When you need to
refer to other writer’s ideas, a paraphrase or summary of a source’s ideas is preferred over a
quote.
You should use quotes (direct voice) sparingly. Reserve direct quotes for the following:
 To underline the importance of a major point that you have already made in your
own words
 When the source is presenting a surprising or controversial view
 When the source’s words are particularly well expressed
Remember that in your essay you will need to include the page that this quote came from.
Sample quote (direct voice)
In this example the author’s name is included in the sentence structure:
Brooksbank (1996) found that ‘up to 50% of marketing executives in medium-sized
companies in the UK fall into this category’ (p. 57).
Alternatively, you can simply list the author and date after the sentence:
Other commentators have found that ‘up to 50% of marketing executives in
medium-sized companies in the UK fall into this category’ (Brooksbank, 1996, p. 57).
Sample paraphrase (indirect voice)
You do not need quote marks when you paraphrase because you are conveying the original
writer’s ideas in your own words:
Brooksbank (1996) found that just under half of the cohort could be grouped in that
category.
Other commentators have found similar results (Brooksbank, 1996; Smith, 2004;
Wong, 2010).
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Some practical tips for paraphrasing
As you are reading, get into the habit of marking your sources to indicate possible passages
for paraphrasing. If you are reading a photocopy, use highlighters and pens; if a library book,
use post-it notes.
 Be an effective reader—this means reading strategically. You will not have enough
time to read all the material available so you will need to choose what you want to
read. Allow yourself enough time to read the material at least twice so you have a
good understanding of what the author is saying before you start making notes.
 Collect all the details you will need for your reference list from everything you read
and note this information down as you are taking notes:
 Author(s)
 Date of publication
 Title of book/article
 Name of journal
 Vol.
 No.
 publisher
 place of publication
 Keep similar ideas together. When you are reading you may find that several
authors have a similar idea. In your notes write down the idea (in your own words)
and the authors who think this.
 A useful way of keeping on top of your reading is with a synthesis grid—this can be
as simple or as complex as you like, from a hand-drawn grid on A4 to an Excel
spreadsheet.
Source # 1
Main Idea A
Main Idea B
Main Idea C
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Source # 2
Source # 3
Source # 4
Paraphrasing: 5-step approach
Note that your paraphrase will usually be shorter than the original text. If you are unsure
about how to go about paraphrasing, use this 5-step approach:
read the source > understand > analyse > reword > check for meaning
Step 1: Read the source text at least twice.
Step 2: Check that you understand the meaning – use a dictionary if necessary; for
complex ideas or information, you should discuss with a classmate or lecturer.
Step 3: Identify the text which you want to paraphrase. Analyse this text using different
colours [or other conventions] for key units of meaning:
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How many points can you identify?
How many clauses?
Can you find Subject, Verb and Object?
Also, pay attention to different parts of speech [nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs].
Prepare a mind map with the key ideas spread out around the central idea.
Number the points in the order you want to present them in your paraphrase.
Step 4: Rephrase using your own words. Use the following tools:
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synonyms [same meaning]
antonyms [opposite meaning]
prefixes [pre-, un-, dis-, co-, etc.]
suffixes [-tion, -ity, -er, -ic, etc.]
negatives
different parts of speech [nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs]
consider also the form of the sentences [statement or question]
Step 5: Check that the meaning of your paraphrase is the same as the original. This is a
very important step! [Retain any technical terms – use double quote marks.]
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Focus on reporting verbs
When quoting or paraphrasing, you should pay particular attention to the choice of
reporting verbs. Some verbs are neutral:
Brooksbank (1996) describes ...
Brooksbank (1996) notes ...
Brooksbank (1996) states ...
Some verbs indicate the potential for disagreement:
Brooksbank (1996) claims ...
Brooksbank (1996) argues ...
Brooksbank (1996) contends ...
Some verbs draw attention to the author’s stance:
Brooksbank (1996) disputes ...
Brooksbank (1996) concedes ...
Brooksbank (1996) affirms ...
Some verbs reveal an implied criticism:
Brooksbank (1996) neglects ...
Brooksbank (1996) omits ...
Brooksbank (1996) forgets ...
There are many reporting verbs to choose from and you should aim to use the most
appropriate verb for each situation. A useful exercise is to go through some well-written
articles in your field and make a careful note of the range of reporting verbs which are used.
Here is a list to get you started:
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analyse
compare
consider
conclude
criticise
demonstrate
discuss
illustrate
indicate
note
observe
point out
report
show
suggest
Focus on tense
If you examine a range of well-written articles in your field you will notice that the reporting
verbs are typically in the present simple tense:
Brooksbank (1996) describes ...
This tense is used to make generalisations and to express general truths. Academic writers
often use this tense strategically to indicate that earlier findings are now accepted by the
academic community as confirmed and factually correct. An alternative tense with closelyrelated meaning is the present perfect tense:
Brooksbank (1996) has described ...
The function of the present perfect is to draw the reader’s attention to the current
relevance of what has been described.
In some special cases, writers will use a verb in the past simple tense:
Brooksbank (1996) described ...
This tense is used to draw attention to the fact that this happened in the past and that the
situation now is different in some way.
How should we acknowledge the original source when we paraphrase?
Use the approach outlined in APA 6th Edition for in-text referencing and for compiling the
reference list at the end of your essay or report. [See pages 17-18]. Remember, there is
nothing wrong with using other people’s words or ideas in your work. However, you must
acknowledge these people in your writing. You acknowledge people through referencing,
both in the body or your paper and in your reference list at the end of your paper.
Check out the web site below for more information on referencing:
 www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/plagiarism.htm
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Revising and editing
You have written your essay and it is all over. It is time to hand it in. Right? Sorry, no. First,
you need to carefully revise and edit it. Writing is about rewriting and then some more. Your
first draft is just that: a working draft.
Check list for revising and editing your essay:
Electronic checks
 Is your text grammatically correct?
 Have you scanned your text using the spell check tools?
 Have you used the word count tool to ensure that your assignment is the correct
length?
Academic honesty checks
 If you have used direct quotes and/or paraphrasing, have you provided references in
the specified format?
 Have you presented evidence or examples to substantiate your argument?
 Are there unnecessary words or examples that could be removed?
Writing style checks
 How long are your sentences? Could some be reduced in length to make their
meaning clearer?
 Have you read your essay out loud? How did it sound to your ears?
 Has anyone else read and commented upon the draft for you?
 Are there unclear sections that require rewriting?
Presentation check
 Is the essay presented in a professional manner?
 Is the essay presented in accordance with your department’s style requirements?
 Do you think this is the best version you could realistically submit?
Now check against the marking criteria ...
 What tasks are still to be completed?
Recommended reading:
Dolowitz, D., Buckler, S., & Sweeney, F. (2008). Researching online. Basingstoke, England:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Godfrey, J. (2009). How to use your reading in your essays. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Godwin, J. (2009). Planning your essay. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan.
Morley-Warner, T. (2010). Academic writing is …: A guide to writing in a university context.
Sydney, Australia: Association for Academic Language and Learning.
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