Three important conservation laws:
Conservation Laws in Physics and
Astronomy
What keeps a planet rotating and
orbiting the Sun?
Conservation of Angular Momentum
•
•
•
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of angular momentum
Conservation of energy
These laws are embodied in Newton’s laws, but
offer a different and sometimes more powerful
way to consider motion.
Angular momentum conservation also explains why
objects rotate faster as they shrink in radius:
As long as Earth does not transfer angular momentum to other
objects, its rotation and orbit cannot change.
Where do objects get their energy?
•  Energy makes matter move.
Basic Types of Energy
•  Kinetic (motion)
•  Radiative (light)
•  Stored or potential
•  Energy is conserved, but it can:
–  Transfer from one object to another.
–  Change in form.
–  Never be destroyed.
Energy can be transformed
from one kind to another
but it cannot be destroyed!
1
Thermal Energy:
This is the collective kinetic energy of many particles
(for example, in a rock, in air, in water)
Temperature Scales
Thermal energy is related to Temperature but it is not
the same.
Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the many
particles in a substance.
Thermal energy is a measure of the total kinetic energy of all
the particles in a substance. It therefore depends both on
temperature and density.
Example: boiling water versus hot air in oven.
Mass-Energy
Einstein showed that mass itself is a form of
potential energy
•  A small amount of mass can release
a great deal of energy (H-bomb,
nuclear fusion in stars, etc.)
•  Concentrated energy can
spontaneously turn into particles (for
example, in particle accelerators)
Gravitational Potential Energy
•  On Earth, depends on:
Gravitational Potential Energy
•  In space, an object or gas cloud has more gravitational
energy when it is spread out than when it contracts.
⇒ A contracting cloud converts gravitational potential
energy into thermal energy.
–  object’s mass (m)
–  strength of gravity (g)
–  distance object could
potentially fall
2
What determines the strength of gravity?
Newton’s Law of Gravity
How does Newton’s law of gravity extend
Kepler’s laws?
Newton extended Kepler’s first two laws to
apply to all orbiting objects, not just planets.
•  Using his laws of motion and
gravitation, Newton demonstrated
that ellipses are not the only
orbital paths. Generally, orbits
can be:
–  bound (ellipses and circles)
–  unbound
•  parabola
•  hyperbola
Newton’s version of Kepler’s Third Law
p2 =
4π 2
a3
G(M1+M2 )
€
The Universal Law of Gravitation states:
1.  Every mass attracts every other mass.
2.  Force of attraction is directly proportional to the
product of their masses.
3.  Force of attraction is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centers.
Newton generalized Kepler’s Third Law
Newton’s version of Kepler’s Third Law:
IF a small object orbits a larger one and you measure the
orbiting object’s orbital period AND average orbital distance
THEN you can calculate the mass of the larger object.
Examples:
•  Calculate mass of Sun from Earth’s orbital period (1 year) and
average distance (1 AU).
•  Calculate mass of Earth from orbital period and distance of a
satellite.
•  Calculate mass of Jupiter from orbital period and distance of
one of its moons.
How do gravity and energy together
explain orbits?
•  Orbits cannot change spontaneously.
•  An object’s orbit can only change if it somehow gains or
loses orbital energy =
kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy
(due to orbit).
p = orbital period
a = average orbital distance (between centers)
(M1 + M2) = sum of object masses
3
•  If an object gains enough orbital energy, it may
escape (change from a bound to unbound orbit)
⇒  So what can make an object gain or lose orbital
energy?
•  Friction or atmospheric drag.
•  A gravitational encounter.
• escape velocity from Earth ≈ 11 km/s from sea
level (about 40,000 km/hr)
How does gravity cause tides?
Escape Velocity
Definition: The minimum velocity that a body must
attain to escape a gravitational field completely.
•
•
•
•
A cannonball fired horizontally at 8
km/s from Newton’s mountain would
find itself in circular orbit around
the Earth (case D).
At greater starting speed, but less
than 11.2 km/s, it will take an
elliptical orbit and return in a
slightly longer time (cases E and F).
When tossed at a critical speed of
11.2 km/s, the cannonball leaves
the Earth and never returns.
Tossed at more than 42.5 km/s, it
will escape the solar system.
Special Topic: Why does the Moon always show the
same face to the Earth?
Tides vary with
the phase of the
Moon!
Moon rotates in the same amount of time that it orbits the
Earth, but why?
4
Summary
This is because of tidal friction!
• What determines the strength of gravity?
• Directly proportional to the product of the masses (M x m)
• Inversely proportional to the square of the separation d
•  How does Newton’s law of
gravity allow us to extend
Kepler’s laws?
•  Tidal friction gradually slows Earth’s rotation (and makes Moon get farther
from Earth).
•  Moon once orbited faster (or slower); tidal friction caused it to “lock” in
synchronous rotation.
Summary (Cont.)
•  How do gravity and energy
together allow us to
understand orbits?
•  Gravity determines orbits
•  Orbiting object cannot
change orbit without
energy transfer
•  Enough energy -> escape
velocity -> object leaves.
•  How does gravity cause tides?
•  Gravity stretches Earth along Earth-Moon line because
the near side is pulled harder than the far side.
•  Applies to other objects, not
just planets.
•  Includes unbound orbit
shapes: parabola, hyperbola
•  We can now measure the
mass of other systems.
Energy Conservation in Orbital Motion
•
•
•
•
Everywhere on its orbit, a satellite has both kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy
(PE)
The sum of KE and PE is a constant all through the orbit.
In a circular orbit, the distance between the satellite and the attracting body is always
the same, meaning that PE and KE of the satellite are the same everywhere.
In an elliptical orbit, both the distance and speed of the satellite vary, therefore PE and
KE must change. However, KE+PE is always the same at every point of the orbit.
•
F
•
P
A
S
•
•
•
PE is greatest (KE is least) when the satellite is farthest away from
the attracting body (at A).
PE is least (KE is greatest) when the satellite is closest to the
attracting body (at P).
Except at A and P, there is a component of the gravitational force
parallel to the direction of orbital motion (see sketch).
Planet gains altitude (PE increases) when it moves against this
component of the force, and its speed and KE decrease (at point S).
Planet loses altitude (PE decreases) when it moves in the direction of
this component of the force, and its speed and KE increase (at point F).
5