Philosophical Foundations of
Science and Technology
in The Historical Context
Prof. Dr. Durmuş Günay
Maltepe University, Istanbul, Turkey
International Conference on New Horizons
in Education (INTE 2016),
July 13-15, 2016, Vienna, Austria
13 July, 2016
14.15-15.30
1
2
Content
1
Introduction
2
Science and Technology: Historical Timeline
3
What is Science? Philosophy of Science
4
What is Technology? Philosophy of Technology
5
Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology and
Engineering
6
Conclusion
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
INTRODUCTION
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Science and Technology
From past to present, to understand philosophical
foundations, meaning and transformations of science and
technology, history journey of them must be considered with
together.
Initially, road of technic based on experience and road of
science crossed at the begining of the 19th century (1820s).
After that, technic became technology. Since, then, science
has encouraged technology and vice versa. Besides, both of
them have proceeded in the same way by accelerating their
development speeds.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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Crossing the Point B of Science and Technology
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Science and Technology
v To be understood more correctly of the essence of
science and technology, it needs to be looked at the
related concepts casuing their existence and
transformation of meaning.
v These concepts/Related concepts are like pure science,
applied science, engineering science, technology,
industry and university.
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Science and Technology
v We will try to understand the essence of science and
technology by taking into account the historical process.
v But it is important to note that all efforts for understanding
of the essence of science and technology needs a
philosophical approach.
v As a summary, to understand concepts of science and
technology; history of science and technology; philosophy
of science and tecnology and also related concepts
should be taken into account under the philosophical
perspective.
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Science vs. Technology
v Science serves two human purposes:
• “to know”: a matter of understanding
• “to do”:
a matter of action
v Science,
• discovers the rules of nature
v Technology, which began as the attempt to satisfy a
practical need without the use of science.
v Technology is
• the handmaiden of science
• the child of the doing of science
Source: Feibleman, J. K. (1961),
Source: Kimono
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Science vs. Technology
v Science explains,
• why things work
v Technology is how things work,
• how to do
Theory
Know how
Tools
Source: Kimono
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Globalization, Competition and Technology
v We live in a technosphere inevitably.
v Trio of Globalization, Competition and Technology known as “An
Unholy Trinity, Three Forces for Change” has been expressed as
factors of change since the last 30 years.
v These three factors not only have an effects on public and culture
but also they have interacted with each other.
v Competition power of an economy substantially has been
determined by its technological level
v Nowadays, fundamental dynamic of globalization phenomenon is
technology
Source: Gunay (2006)
7/15/16
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SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY:
HISTORICAL TIMELINE
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History of Science
v It should be included both the natural sciences and social
sciences in the study of the historical development of
science and scientific knowledge
Source: Barrameda
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History of Science
v Science is a human activity, and not a purely logical or
theoretical process
v To know about scientific change, one must look at how
science was actually conducted.
v Philosophy is not enough. History of science provides
important sources for analyzing philosophical issues like
confirmation, justification, theory choise, discoveries,
controversies, etc.
Source: Claus Emmeche
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History of Science
“history of science without philosophy of science is
blind, and philosophy of science without history of
science is empty”
Norwood Russell Hanson
Source: Claus Emmeche
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History of Science
v History of science developed in between 1900’s and 2000’s ,
largely in tandem with the philosophy of science. Most
practitioners are scientists themselves, reflexively interested in
their fields. One goal is to define the nature of science.
v Science is widely presented as the enterprise of producing
universal truth. Assumption that the stock of known truth is, by
definition, generally agreed on, and always increases
whenever worthwhile research happens.
v According to this vision, history of science is a tale of upward,
cumulative progress.
Source: James Summer
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Historical Timeline for Science and Philosophy
16
] 40 000-12 000 BC : Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) period
] 12 000-5 000 BC
: The Neolithic (New Stone Age) period (3500 BC= invention of writing)
] 5 000 BC - 0
: Mining Period (on the coats of Nile, Tigres, Euphrates and Yellow River)
] 4 000 BC - 476 AD : The First Era/Age
Ancient Age
7th century BC to AD 476: (Classical Era)
Philosophy and Science
7th century BC- 323 BC = Hellenic (Greek) Philosophy
(323 - 31) BC
= Hellenistic Philosophy
31 BC – 476 AD
= Rome Philosophy
(476 - 1453) AD : The Middle Ages
(1350 - 1600) AD : The Renaissance
(1453 - ...)
AD : New Age (Renaissance+Enlightenment+Industrial Revaluation+Contemporary Period)
Source: Gunay (2015)
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History of Philosophy and Science
Ü Ancient Age/ Ancient Philosophy: 7th century BC to AD 476 [including 5 th
ü
ü
century after AD ]
Natural philosophers or pre-Socrates period : 650-450 BC.
Socrates (469-399), Platon (427-347), Aristoteles (384-322)
Greek Philosophy (including Epicurean and Stoic Philosophers): 450-300 BC
Hellenistic Period: 300-100 BC
Greco-Romen Period: 100 BC – 500 AD
Ü
Medievel Philosophy: 500(476) ile 1500(1453): [500-1500]
Ü
Modern Philosophy: 16 th century (including) and 19th century (including):
[Between 1500(1453) and the end of 1800s (1900):[1500-1900]
ü
ü
Ü Postmodern veya Contemporary Philosophy: From 20 th century (1900 s) to
nowadays (…and continuous): [1900-…]
Source: Gunay (2015)
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History of Science and Technology
] The history of technology starts with the use of stone tools.
] History of the technology field is divided into four major
periods:
- The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) period which started
approximately 2.5 million years ago.
- The Neolithic (New Stone Age) period which began around
9000 BC.
- Agricultural civilization begins with the invention of the plow
in 4000 BC.
- The Industrial civilization covers only the last 250 years.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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History of Science and Technology
(40 000 BC – 0)
] In Mesopotamia, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, the
Assyrians and the Babylonians constructed buildings and
water structures in 2500 BC. They built temples and pyramids
that had a height of 23 m. In order to build these structures,
they used sun-dried bricks.
] In 3,000 BC, Egyptians built royal tombs with stones that
ranged from 2.5 to 30 tons of continuous curved weights. The
maximum height of these buildings reached as tall as 152 m.
] Mesopotamians had a large amount of mud and sun.
Therefore, they used sun-dried bricks as a building material.
] In the 600s BC, the Greeks built elegant buildings with the help
of mathematics and theoretical sciences.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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History of Science and Technology
(40 000 BC – 0)
] In the 400s BC, the Romans built aqueducts, bridges and
roads.
] Unlike the Greeks, Romans were the people that used
technological applications rather than invented the
technology themselves. They had abundant labor force
(because they had slaves), materials and simple principles
of construct .
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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MAJOR INVENTIONS (40 000 BC – 0)
a TOOLS
• The birth of ‘technology’ was when the first human-like species, Homo habilis (‘skilful person’
2.6 million years BC) made sharp cutting edges from stone. Later, Homo neanderthalis or
cave men (200 000 – 30 000 years BC) used tools and weapons and were the very
successful ancestors of Homo sapiens, the species we recognise as our ancestors today.
a METALS
• lead (Pb), one of the softest metals, was being extracted from rock in 6500 BC in Anatolia
(now Turkey) followed by copper (Cu) three thousand years later in Mesopotamia. The Iron
Age was built on a hard, strong and versatile metal, iron (Fe).
a THE WHEEL
• Around 4500 BC the wheel and axle combination became the most important invention of all
time. Carts came into common use. By 2000 BC wheels had spokes, and then rapid
development occurred with waterwheels and windmills to provide power.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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History of Science and Technology
(9th – 18th Century)
] Many ‘inventions’ claimed after the 11th century in fact
dated back to the Greeks and Chinese many centuries
before.
] Scientific information proposed by the many philosophers
was lost in the dark ages in Britain and Europe after the
collapse of the Roman Empire.
] Some historians of technology believe that the
Renaissance was the starting point of the continuous
technical invention capacity of the western culture.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007;Gunay (2013)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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MAJOR INVENTIONS (9th – 18th Century)
õ MUSLIM/ARAB ALCHEMY
• Turning common metals into precious metals, proved to be a dead end
around the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, Muslims were clever
chemists and discovered many chemicals that we use today.
õ GUNPOWDER
• The recipe for making gunpowder appeared in a book in Europe in
1242. Roger Bacon (1214 – 1294), an English friar and philosopher,
was the first to describe its formula. Guns soon followed.
õ PRINTING
• Spreading knowledge and information was a very slow process before
the invention of typography. Johannes Gutenberg (1398 – 1468)
developed the first mechanical printing machine in the 1440s. The first
printed book was the Bible in 1456 with a run of 150 copies. Each Bible
previously took three years to make by hand.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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MAJOR INVENTIONS (9th – 18th Century)
] THE TELESCOPE
• The telescope was invented by Dutchman Hans Lippershey (1570 – 1619). In 1610, using
his improved design, Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) was able to prove that the Earth revolved
around the Sun. This confirmed the ideas of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus
(1473 – 1543) but it angered the Catholic Church who had adopted the idea that the Earth
was at the centre of everything.
] THE MICROSCOPE
• Looking at small things became possible when a Dutch maker of spectacles, Hans Janssen
and his son, put glass lenses together in 1590 to make a primitive microscope. Anton van
Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723) took this invention a step further in 1676 with a magnification of
270 times and discovered tiny single-celled creatures in pond water. Ultimately, this helped
our understanding of microorganisms and disease.
] LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
• In 1752, Benjamin Franklin (1706 –1790), the American statesman, philosopher and scientist
proved that lightning was a form of electricity when he flew a kite in a thunderstorm. Around
1754, Franklin and the Czech scientist, Prokop Diviš (1698 - 1765) independently developed
the lighting conductor to protect buildings from being hit and damaged by lighting.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1760 - )
Industrial Revolution period might be divided into three parts:
§ The first industrial revolution (1760 – 1840)
§ The second industrial revolution (19th Century – 1945)
§ The third scientific-technical revolution (1945 - )
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
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MAJOR INVENTIONS DURING THE FIRST
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1760 – 1840)
v STEAM POWER
• This era saw the development of steam engines to power factory machinery.
Heating water in a boiler to make steam to power a vehicle was a major
technological advance. James Watt (1736 – 1819) is recognised as the
inventor of the steam engine in 1765. Water could be pumped out of mines
and industrial processes speeded up.
• George Stephenson’s (1781 - 1848) Rocket was the first locomotive to pull
heavy loads a long distance. This led to the rapid expansion of railways
throughout Britain and the world. The combination of iron and steam paved the
way for the great Victorian engineering projects of Isambard Kingdom Brunel
(1806 - 1859). He designed bridges, tunnels, viaducts and ships.
v PHOTOGRAPHY
• In 1826, after years of experiments, the French inventor Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce (1765 - 1833), using ‘bitumen of Judea’ spread on a pewter plate and
an exposure of eight hours in bright sunlight, produced the first permanent
picture. His technique was improved upon by his colleague Louis Daguerre
(1787 - 1851) by using compounds of silver, the basis of modern photography.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
MAJOR INVENTIONS THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION (19TH CENTURY – 1945)
27
a
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT
• After many refinements, Thomas Edison’s (1847 – 1931) electric light bulbs were the best and by 1879
they would last for hundreds of hours, much longer than any of their rivals. They were also cheap. To sell
bulbs, energy was needed, so Edison’s Electric Illumination Company built their own power station in
New York. After many decades he successfully persuaded the public to opt for clean, convenient electric
light rather than gas lights.
a
THE TELEPHONE
• This is an invention that made money. Alexander Graham Bell (1847 – 1922) was the first in the race to
patent a machine in 1876 that you could use to talk to someone on the other side of the world.
admittedly, it was initially from one room to another. The message was “Mr. Watson, come here, I want
you”. A year later in 1877 he set up his company and demonstrated long distance calls.
a
THE MOTOR CAR
• Until the 1860s all prototype motor cars were steam driven. German inventor Nicolas Otto (1832 - 1891)
created an improved internal combustion engine in 1876 and this is still the way cars work today. In
1885, the first car, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, was developed by Karl Benz (1844 - 1929). It was a
long time before cars became common. petrol, a cleaning fluid, was only available from the chemist.
Famous names such as Rolls Royce and Henry Ford developed the technology; Rolls Royce for the rich
and Henry Ford for the man in the street.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
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MAJOR INVENTIONS THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION (19TH CENTURY – 1945)
õ THE MOVIES
• It has been only just over one hundred years since the first movie, or film, was shown by the
brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière (1862 - 1954 and 1864 - 1948) in 1895 at the Grand
Café in Paris. The terrifying film was entitled The Arrival of a Train at Ciotat Station.
Surprisingly, the brothers decided that films didn’t have much of a future and went back to
photography. In 1889, George Eastman (1854 - 1932) pioneered celluloid film with holes
punched in the side so that the movie camera could show the film precisely frame by frame.
õ X-RAYS
• Science is impressive when something is discovered that cannot be seen. German physicist
Wilhelm Rontgen (1845 – 1923) working with electrical discharges in glass tubes noticed in
1895 that there was a faint glow on a nearby screen. These rays were invisible and could
pass through most materials. He also recorded them on photographic paper and thus the
first X-ray image was developed. He quickly realised the medical potential of his discovery.
Henri Becquerel (1852 – 1908) discovered radioactivity in 1896 while trying to find more out
about X-rays. Marie Curie (1867 – 1934), a Polish born French chemist and physicist and
two times Nobel Prize winner, is best remembered for her research into radioactivity and
new radioactive elements.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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MAJOR INVENTIONS THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION (19TH CENTURY – 1945)
] COMMUNICATIONS
• Radio waves travel in all directions at an incredible 300 000 km per second.
The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857 – 1854) was the first to prove they
existed but it was Guglielmo Marconi (1874 – 1937) who set up the world’s first
radio stations to transmit and receive Morse code. In 1896, he sent the first
message across the Atlantic from Cornwall to Newfoundland. He was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1909. It was not until 1915 that engineers were
able to transmit sound effectively. The first clear television pictures to be
transmitted were sent by Scottish-born John Logie Baird (1888 – 1946). He
founded the Baird Television Company Limited and worked on programmes for
the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation).
] FLIGHT
• At the turn of the century, in 1903, two bicycle repairmen from Ohio, Wilbur and
Orville Wright (1867 – 1912 and 1871 – 1948) built and flew the first really
successful aeroplane near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. From that time progress
was rapid and the military advantages of flight were realised in WWI.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
MAJOR INVENTIONS THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION (19TH CENTURY – 1945)
30
v
ROCKETS AND SPACE FLIGHTS
• The earliest rockets were used in China in the 11th century but by the 19th century speed and accuracy
were much improved. Knowledge of astronomy meant that scientists knew the relative movements of the
planets in relation to the Earth. A Russian mathematics teacher, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857 – 1935),
was the first person to draw up plans for space stations and air locks to allow space walks. He correctly
calculated that a rocket would have to travel at 8 km per second to leave the atmosphere and that liquid
rocket fuel would be essential. American scientist Robert Goddard (1882 – 1945) not knowing of
Tsiolkovsky’s ideas, independently developed liquid fuelled rockets from 1926. Ultimately, NASA took up
the challenge but the Russians eventually won the race to put a man into orbit. Yuri Gagarin (1934 –
1968) orbited the earth in 1961. In the US, NASA scientists redressed the balance in the space race with
their moon landing in 1969.
v
THE ATOMIC BOMB
• Science and technological advances can be seen as good or bad. The invention of gunpowder must
have seemed like that. In 1932, physicists John Cockcroft (1897 – 1967) and Earnest Walton (1903 –
1995) did the impossible. They split the atom. They proved Albert Einstein’s (1879 – 1955) theory of
relativity (E=mc²) and unlocked the secrets of the atomic nucleus. Splitting the atom was a brilliant
scientific achievement. However, having that knowledge allowed scientists to develop the atomic bomb.
The use of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan to end the WWII in 1945 was a political
decision that was highly controversial. We now know that there is no turning back once scientific and
technological discoveries have been made.
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
MAJOR INVENTIONS DURING THE THIRD
SCIENTIFIC-TECHNICAL REVOLUTION (1945 - )
31
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
After the WWII new discoveries and advances in science and technology came thick and
fast.
Plastics were developed for the first time.
In 1949, the first practical programmed electronic computer ran mathematical problems. It
fitted into one room!
In the 1960s, the electronic silicon chip was invented, computers became smaller and
more powerful.
In 1984, the CD was born and the digital revolution began.
The worldwide web has given us access to billions of documents with information and
images as well as online shopping and banking.
Mobile telephone technology means we have instant contact with friends and family.
During this period, there have also been huge advances in genetics since the discovery of
the structure of DNA in 1953.
Today, Biotechnology and genetic engineering show fast growth trends and, also, are big
business. It is interesting to wonder what next?
Maybe space is the final frontier, as suggested in Star Trek!
Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.
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History of Technology
Generally, there is a difference between one process or invention of machine and
application for producation. Starting point means first step of diffusion process.
Source:RobertC.Allen (1994)
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WHAT IS SCIENCE?
PHILOSOPHY of SCIENCE
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Science
v Science is from the Latin word scientia, which means
“knowledge.”
v It refers to both processes and outcomes of processes,
such as general laws and observations.
v Laws are utilized in systematic ways to create a body of
knowledge about a topic.
v “Science is the “why”; it is the study of why things
happen.
Source: Butts, J. and Rich, K. (2014)
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Science
v Science is the understanding or explaining of existence.
v Scientists put forward refutable hypothesis to explain the
events [(natura facta +arte facta ]. He tests these
hypothesis through experiment, observation and
documents. Hence, he tries to reach scientific theories
and laws.
Source: Gunay (2013)
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Science
v Science is an organized, hierarchical activity that
investigates nature and human nature by experiment and
observation.
v Its goals are explanation, understanding, prediction, and
control.
v It tests its theories by logical, mathematical, and
technological means.
v Science is shaped by social forces and historical change.
v While seeking objectivity, science also shapes culture.
Kaynak: http://www.colby.edu/sts/st112_2010
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Science
v The need of knowing is the basis of science.
v The driving force of science is the need.
v The purpose of science is epistemic satisfaction.
v Knowledge is the product of science;
v Knowledge is existence in language.
Source: Gunay (2013)
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Philosophy of Science
õ The purpose of philosophy of science is to understand the
science as only knowing activity.
õ Aristoteles said in Metapyhsics book “All men by nature
desire to know. An indication of this is the delight we take in our
senses; for even apart from their usefulness they are loved for
themselves; and above all others the sense of sight. For not only
with a view to action, but even when we are not going to
do anything, we prefer seeing (one might say) to everything else”.
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Philosophy of Science
v Philosophy of science is concerned with all the
assumptions, foundations, methods, implications of
science, and with the use and merit of science.
Source: Barrameda
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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Mechanism of Scientific Knowledge
E: Event=
Fact + Case
S: Scientist
Product:
Scientific
Knowledge
Event (Olay)= Fact (Vakıa/olgu)+ Case (Vak’a)
Fact: Repeatable events are named as “fact”; like natural events.
Case: Events happening one, non-repeateble events are called as
‘case’; like historical events.
S: Subject; E : Event
Source: Gunay (2015)
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TRADITIONAL (Science) VIEW (Validation)
Induction
FACTS ACQUIRED
THROUGH EXPERIMENT
and OBSERVATION
LAWS
and
THEORIES
Deduction
EXPLANATIONS
and
PREDICTIONS
Source: Gunay (2015)
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Birth of Modern Science
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Galileo Galilei(1564-1642)
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Modern Science Revolution Period:
Birth of Modern Science
Montaigne
Kepler
Rudolphine tabloları
(JohannKepler’s
Rudolphine Tables)
Tycho Brahe
Bacon
Tycho Brahe’ın
gözlemleri (Tycho
Brahe’sObservations)
Descartes
Descartes’in metod
üzerine söylemi
(Descartes’Discourseon
Method)
Galileo
Newton
Galileo’nun 2ana sistem
ile ilgili söylemi (Galileo’s
DiscourseConcerningthe
TwoChiefSystems).
Bacon’sNorganum
Organum
2
1687
1632
1620
1572
1580
1543
Montaigne’nın
denemeleri
(Montaigne’sEssays)
1637
Copernicus
Copernicus'in Göksel
kürelerin dönüşü üzerine
(Copernicus’Onthe
RevolutionsofHeavenly
Orbs)
1627
43
4
144
years
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
6
Newton’un prensibi
(Newton’sPrincipia)
8
Period of Modern Science Revoluation
(144 years)
44
v
Modern science revolution period covers from 1543, the date at which Copernicus (1473-1543) put forward the
system of sun centric, to 1687, the date at which Principia published by Newton, It takes 144 years.
v
Mile stones of the period are,
v
OntheRevolutionsofHeavenlyOrbs(1543)by N. Copernicus’(1473-1543)
v
Observations (1572) by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601),
v
Essays (1580) by Montaigne (1533-1592)
v
Novum Organum(1620) by Francis Bacon (1561-1626),
v
Rodolphine Tables (1627) by Kepler (1571-1630) ,
v
DiscourseConcerningtheTwoChiefSystems(1632)byGalileo (1564-1642)
v
DiscourseonMethod(1637)byDescartes (1596-1650)
v
Principia (1687) by Newton (1642-1687).
v
The Period of Modern Science lasted from C16 to C 20.
v
Modern Science has two components: One is emprical compenent ( experiment. Observation, measurement,
counting, etc.). The other one is rational component ( concept, hypothesis, inductive and deductive reasoning.
v
The Period from begining of the C20 (1900) to nowadays is called Comtemporary Period of Scicience
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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Modern Science
v According to Heiddeger’s statement man has become
“subject” with the new age.
v Centuries before the new age when man sees himself as
a part of universe.
v With new age, man puts himself at the center of universe,
man put the world at somewhere other than himself
(againist himself).
v “Positivism” world was derived from the verb “ponere”,
which means to put across according to Latin.
Source: Gunay (2006)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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Modern Science
v For Bacon, “making is knowing and knowing is making”.
v Bacon stated that “Dividing is knowing, knowing is
becoming dominant”.
v Modern science emerged in line with the ideology of
possessing nature, and later people and society.
Source: Gunay (2006)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
47
Modern Science
v Exploratory becomes a form of technology of modern
science.
v “to discover” is to reveal/expose and to remove the cover.
v Modern technique receives its eligilibity about revealing
from the essence of modern science.
v Bacon’s ideology of possessing infiltrated into modern
science, and later modern technique.
v The competition between modern societies has
transformed to technology competition.
Source: Gunay (2006)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
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Modern Science
v Modern science is an activity that emerged from the
combination of two components.
v On the one hand, empirical/operational (observation,
experiment, counting, measuring etc.) dimension
v The other side, the mental (concept, hypothesis, inductive
and deductive reasoning) activity.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?
PHILOSOPHY of
TECHNOLOGY
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Technology
õ Technology is not only processing theory, at the same
time technology is the path and tool of the making
process.
õ Technology is the activity of producing artifact objects.
õ Technology covers a large spectrum of skills and
techniques from religious techniques to sport or health
techniques.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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Main Technological Periods
Traditional Period
Industrial Revolution
Information Revolution
Brain
Brain
Brain
Muscle
Muscle
Muscle
Tool
Power Tool (Machine Power)
Computer
Raw Material
Raw Material
Product
Product
Power Tool
Enformation
Raw Material
Enformation
Product
Source: Bunge, Mario; Philosophy of science and technology, V.7, D. Rediel Publishing Company, 1985,
Holland, dan adapte edilmiştir
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52
Modern Civilization and Technology
t Modern civilization depends on modern science and technology
t Modern science depends on Antique Greek science (philosophy)
t Modern technology depends on natural scince beginning in 17th
century.
t Before industrial revolution, science and technic were going into
different directions.
t Before industry period, technic does not depend on scinece but
experience
t Ways of science and technolgy crossed at the end of 1st Industrial
Revolution in the modern period.
t Modern science and technology have interacted with each other.
t Two technology which affected culture and science are printing
press and electronics.
7/15/16
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TECHNIC and TECHNOLOGY
z Technic knowledge prior to science is named as technic.
z Technic knowledge depending on science is named as
technology.
Source: Gunay (2006)
7/15/16
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Technological Development
v Technology is born in case of necessity.
v The mother of technology is needs.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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Technological Development
v Technic (or technology), is poiesis which is to make exist or
reveal. It is not only poiesis but also able to reveal artisticpoetical appearance. Physis is the poiesis which is to emerge
naturally without any intervention of human being. An example
of physis is something like getting the bloom of a flower.
Making a flute is a poiesis. For technic becoming poiesis it is
due to the realization of a concept which existed in the thought
of an artist or craftsman as the products or objects existed in
the external world using the technology. Poiesis is to be
created by man. Physis is to become revealed naturally
without any human intervention.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
56
Technological Development
v We consider technology as knowledge essantialy. It also
covers tools using to bring together the essence and material.
It is the knowledge which is the basic requirements of
production and construction of things. Technological product
is existent in three areas of existence: in thought, language,
external world. In philosophy, excellent beings are considered
to have existed in all three areas. Based on this, would it be
possible to claim that the importance of technology comes
from the its ontologic base lies in the category of excellent
beings? We refer to technology as production of knowledge,
production tools, and products all together.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
57
Technological Development
v Before the industrial revolution, when theoretical life (bios
theoretikos) - only the life of observers – prevailed,
technic and science were treated as different. Technic
was not founded on sciences. Modern technic
(technology) relies on modern natural sciences. However,
it should be noted that technology did not start to rely
upon the modern science with the Modern Science
Revolution in the 17th century; rather, Science and
Technology were intertwined during the Industrial
Revolution and later (after 1760), especially in the
beginning of the 19th century.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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58
Technological Development
v The first time a scientific discovery yielded a technological
product was in the manufacturing of electric motor. A
Danish Scientist, H.C. Oersted discovered that an electric
current produces a magnetic field when passing through a
conductor in 1820. Oesrted proved that when a small
string wire carrying electric current applies a force in the
pin of a compass, the pin diverges.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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59
Technological Development
v British Physicist Michael Faraday, when hearing this, tried
to create continuous electron beam diversion of the pin.
Faraday was the first scientist introducing the basic
principles of modern electric engine. About 10 years after
Faraday’s experiments, an American physicist, Joseph
Henry, invented the electric engine.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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60
Technological Development
v The prominent lifestyle of the modern world was action
and production based on and called bios praktikos.
v The bios praktikos lifestyle transformed the technic into
technology.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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Technological Development
v The knowledge context of technology before the industrial
revolution is based on experimental knowledge as well as
knowledge of craft and/or art.
v The form of technology after the industrial revolution, the
so called modern technology, is engineering science
when science and engineering are taken into account.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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Management of Technology
] The relationship of technology with the people and society
is determined by the management of technology.
] Four componets of the technology management are:
- technology development
- technology transfer
- Strategy of technology
- Insfrastructure of technology
Source: Gunay (2006)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Diagram of Technological Process
63
Social Needs and
Demands
Policy
Management Decisions
Basic
Research
Applied
Research
Technologic
Research
RESEARCH
Feasibility
Study
Design
Scale
Model
Prototype
IMPROVEMENT
Source: Mario Bunge (1976)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Evolution
Test
Plan
Production
or
Application
PRODUCTION and
SERVICE
Production
and
Process
64
Technological Process
Technology
Change
Time
Unleashing the Killer App : Digital Strategies for Market Dominance
- Larry Downes, Chunka Mui http://www.killer-apps.com/
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Evolution Pattern of Technology/Market
Performance/Cost
65
Time
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Substitution of Technology
Performance/Cost
66
Abondaned Technology
Substituted Technology
Time
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67
The Culture Of Technology, Technological Culture
t The Culture of Technology is a culture producing
technology and technology depends on this culture.
t Technological Culture is a culture affected and formed
by technology.
t Technological culture of a modern society producing
technology contains the culture of technology
t Technological culture of society would not contain the
culture of technology if the society used only technology
not produced
Source: Gunay (2006)
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The Culture of Technology, Technological Culture
Culture Producing
Technology
Culture Using
Technology
Culture
Culture
Technological Culture
The Culture of
Technology
Culture contains both
the culture of
technology and
technological culture
Technological
Culture
Culture does not
contain the culture of
technology
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Source: Gunay (2006)
PURE SCIENCE, APPLIED
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY
and EDUCATION
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Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology and
Engineering
70
² In the field of science, activities follows such a sequence:
Ø Pure Science/BasicResearch
Ø
Applied science
Ø Engineering Science
Ø Technology
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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71
Pure Science vs. Applied Science
õ Pure Science/Basic Research aims to acquire
information. Basic/pure science is composed of systematic
theories and laws that try to learn, understand, explain
and predict nature, events and phenomena.
õ Applied science is also composed of theoretic
(systematic) constructs; however, it is aimed more at the
application. Applied science is the restructuring of basic
science with the purpose of application. Basic science is
the sine qua non for the applied science.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
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72
Pure Science vs. Applied Science
õ Applied science is simply pure science applied.
Pure Science
Applied Science
Aim
the understanding of
nature; it seeks
explanation.
the control of nature;
it has the task of
employing the
findings of pure
science to get
practical task done.
Result
the furnishing of laws
for application in
applied science.
the stimulation of
discovery in pure
science.
Source: Feibleman, J. K. (1961)
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73
Applied Science vs. Technology
õ Applied science consists in a system of concrete
interpretations of scientific propositions directed to some
end useful for human life.
õ Technology might be described as a further step in applied
science by means of the improvement of instruments.
Source: Feibleman, J. K. (1961)
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74
Applied Scientist vs. Technologist
õ The theoretical biochemist is a pure scientist, working for
the most part with the carbon compounds.
õ The biochemist is an applied scientist when he explores
the physiological effects of some new drug, perhaps trying
it out to begin with on laboratory animals, then perhaps on
himself or an volunteers from his laboratory or from the
charity ward of some hospital.
õ The doctor or practicing physician is a technologist when
he prescribes it for some of his patients.
Source: Feibleman, J. K. (1961)
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75
Applied Science vs. Engineering
õ Engineering Science is regulated in order to make an
artificial object meet the requirements of the applied
science.
õ In the engineering science based on natural science or
applied science, practical purposes (applications) are
observed.
õ It is difficult to make a clear distinction between the
applied science and engineering science.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
76
Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology
Pure
Science/
Basic
Science
Applied
Science
Engineering
Science
Technology
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Industry
77
Relationship among Pure Science/Basic Research, Applied Science,
Technology, Engineering and Industry
Exiistence in
Language/Dil
de Varolan
Temel Bilim
Pure/Basic Science
Uygulamalı Bilim
Teknoloji
Mühendislik
Applied Science
Technology
Engineering
Endüstri
Industry
Source: Gunay (2006)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Existence in the
external
world/
Dış dünyada
Varolan
78
Relationship among the Technology, Science,
Engineering Science and Engineering
TECHNOLOGY
Practical Cultural Activities: Including
Hardware, software and their social and
technical contents
SCIENCE
It is a systematic
knowledge activity
which tries to explain
facts and events by
laws and theories. The
purpose of that is
knowledge and
understanding
ENGINEERING
SCIENCE
Science is adopted to
be used in
engineering
applications
ENGINEERING
Science, art and decision making
process; it is applied to
construction design, material use
and machines (including
Engineering management)
Source: Johnstone et al. (1999)
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79
Subject of Science: Existent
Existents are founded by three types of existence.
v existence in thought,
v existence in language,
v existence in external world
Source: Gunay (2013)
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80
External World
v “The belief in an external world independent of the
perceiving subject is the basis of all natural
science”.
Albert Einstein(1879-1955)
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81
Four Causes of an Existence
u They are:
ü (1) the causa materialis, the material, the matter out of
which, for example, a silver chalice is made;
ü (2) the causa formalis, the form, the shape into which the
material enters;
ü (3) the causa finalis, the end, for example, sacrificial rite
in relation to which the chalice required is determined as
to its form and matter;
ü (4) the causa efficiens, which brings about the effect that
is the finished, actual chalice, in this case, the silversmith
[9].
Source: Gunay (2006)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Idea (Platon) and form (Aristoteles)
82
­
The basis of existence is, according to Aristotle, its essence or substance.
­Plato called the essence of a thing an “idea”. Aristotle
called the essence a “form” instead of an “idea”.
According to Plato, the “idea” is separated from the
beings and stays in the world of ideas. They are real
beings in the world of idea. The beings in this world are
the copies of the beings in the world of ideas.
­ Aristotle, on the other hand, it does not separate form/ideas from the beings and is
immanent to existence. I have written down the following formula generated
according to the relationship among the concepts of substance, form and material
(hyle) by Aristotle
Source: Gunay (2013)
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83
Ousia/Substance
English: Substance = Essence + Material
Greek : Ousia = Form (eidos =essence = idea) + Hyle
(İdea
(Form
Platon)
Aristoteles)
This formula may help in understanding the
meaning of technology.
Platon shows sky;
Aristoteles opens his hand toward eart
Platon points out the realm of ideas. Aristoteles suggests that form
is immanent in the existence, and can not be separated
material and form
Source: Gunay (2006)
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84
Relationship among the Technological Product,
Engineering Science, Material; and Place of Technology
Technological
product
Substance
Engineering
Science
=
Form
Material
Technology
Source: Gunay (2006)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Material
Relationship among technological product,
engineering science, material and technology
85
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
Substance = Essence + Material
Ousia = Eidos + Hyle
Cevher= Öz + Madde
Töz = Öz + Özdek
Technological product = Engineering Science + Material
(Material)
Technological product = Substance
Engineering Science = Form (Essence)
Replacing (Technology=+) with the + sign then;
Technology = +
Source: Gunay (2006)
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86
Conclusion
õ Galileo said that the Book of Nature is written in
Mathematical language (Zhenhua, 2015) but, in today’s
innovative world, the Book of Science is written by the
transformation of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge,
but the crucial factor is to provide such facilities for the
scientists to articulate their tacit knowledge.
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87
Conclusion
õ Engineering is more related with how to do something and
knowledge. Knowledge of how contains making
knowledge and tacit knowledge. There can be some
failures during the transition from theory to practice due to
the deficit of tacit knowledge
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
88
Conclusion
õ Nowadays, the need of specialized skills in green innovation
has been increasing. Universities are required to give their
graduates the skills needed to contribute and compete in the
business World.
õ Countries formulate innovation strategies with governments,
universities and within the business world.
õ Innovation and entrepreneurship have become very important
concepts especially for those with an engineering education.
õ The development of creative, innovative and entrepreneur
skills has become important for graduates of engineering
programs.
Source: Gunay, D. (2013)
PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay
Thanks for Your
Attention
END
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90
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Bunge, Mario; Philosophy of science and technology, V.7, D. Rediel Publishing Company, 1985, Holland
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Copenhagen
Feibleman, J.K (1961), “Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology, Engineering: An Attempt at Definitions”,
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Madiah, Saudi Arabia.
Gunay, D. (2015), “Science and Technology Relationship in Historical and Philosophical Context”, INTE 2015,
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PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay