Safe Transport of
Containers by Sea
Industry Guidance for Shippers and Container Stuffers
International
Chamber of Shipping
Supported by
Safe Transport of Containers by Sea
In December 2008, the International
Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and
the World Shipping Council (WSC),
published ‘Safe Transport of
Containers by Sea: Guidelines on
Industry Best Practices’.
The Guidelines have been produced
to minimise the dangers to
containerships, their crews, and all
personnel involved with containers
throughout the transport chain, and
were developed by an expert industry
working group, meeting in London
and Washington DC during 2008.
The Guidelines have now been
presented to governments at IMO
where they have been well received.
Encouragingly, the Guidelines have
also attracted a positive response
from shippers’ organisations who,
under the umbrella of the Global
Shippers Forum (GSF), have lent their
support to this brochure.
The primary responsibility for the
safe transport of containers by sea
rests with containership operators.
However, there are many other parties
in the transport chain concerned with
the safe movement of containers.
There are those employed by shipping
lines involved with the booking
and assignment of cargoes, and
the subsequent arrangements for
stowage planning; and there are the
freight forwarders, ports and terminal
operators and - particularly important
- the shippers, from whom the cargo
originates. All of these players have
important responsibilities which are
addressed by the Industry Guidelines.
All of these activities have a direct
bearing on the safety of ships and the
reduction of the risks to the lives of
ships’ crews and other personnel in
the transport chain.
The following advice is an extract
from the main guidance on shippers’
responsibilities addressed in the
‘Safe Transport of Containers by Sea’
guidelines.
Particular emphasis is given by the
Guidelines to the responsibilities
of those involved with the correct
packing, labelling and weighing
of cargoes when they are stuffed
into containers, and the accurate
declaration of goods by cargo
interests.
Comprehensive information on the
safe stuffing and transport of
containers can be found in the
joint International Chamber of
Shipping and World Shipping
Council publication
‘Safe Transport of Containers by
Sea: Guidelines on Best Practices’.
To order, see back page or contact
your maritime bookseller.
Industry Guidance for Shippers and Container Stuffers
1 Overview
This guidance is addressed primarily to
shippers, although everyone involved in the
transport of containers by sea, not least
ship operators and crew, should be aware of
the importance of stuffing containers safely
and correctly, and the need to comply with
international regulations and best practice
procedures established by the industry. In
the interests of protecting cargo, this is a
matter of enlightened self interest.
It is of the utmost importance to recognise
that actions taken when containers are
stuffed may have direct implications for the
stability and safety of containerships, the
lives of seafarers on board and the safety of
others throughout the transport chain.
It is particularly important for all involved to
understand the high degree of physical risk
presented by the marine environment, the
extreme forces to which a ship is exposed
at sea, and the extent to which these risks
are greatly increased by any failure to stuff
containers correctly. This point cannot be
over emphasised.
It is vital to adhere to weight restrictions,
and correct procedures for loading
and securing cargo, to ensure the safe
distribution of weight and that cargoes
inside containers do not move or shift when
at sea, compromising the safety of the ship.
• Prepare a pre-stow plan before
commencing stuffing so that weight/volume
considerations are covered and point
loading limits are observed;
• Never load by weight above the payload
limits of the container, i.e. the cargo and
container net weight must not exceed the
container’s gross safe working load;
• Do not stow goods with tainting odours
with sensitive merchandise;
• Observe all rules concerning dangerous
cargo. Use appropriate labels and placards
to identify packing and freight containers
loaded with Dangerous Goods;
• Stow hazardous cargo near the door
where possible;
• Never load by weight above the road
regulations applicable on the transit;
• Include all necessary documentation;
• Distribute the weight of the cargo evenly
over the floor of the container. Never stow
heavy items in one section and light items
in another. The weight of the cargo should
not exceed the ’60% within half the length
rule’;
• Never smoke, eat or drink during loading
or unloading.
• Record the seal number and the container
number on all shipping documents;
3 Checking the Container
In most operational regions, containers are
inspected when they return after import but
not again when they are released for export.
• Stow and secure all cargo tightly;
There will also be instances of triangulation
moves when the container is driven by
• Observe all the handling instructions on
cargo such as “Do not drop” or “This side up”; truck straight from the import customer to
the export customer. In such cases, the
• Stow goods with sharp corners separate
container will probably have only received a
from other softer merchandise. Use dividers quick sweep out and check for damage by
and separating material as appropriate;
the haulier.
• Do not stow heavy goods on top of light
goods;
A full container inspection for structural
damage requires a competent and trained
person. However, checking for cleanliness
and general acceptability is a matter of
• Use cargo liners for obnoxious cargo such common sense. It is very much in the
as hides and carbon black;
interests of any user, regardless of whether
The IMO/ILO/UNECE Guidelines on the
the container is being stuffed with a full load,
• Do not use clamps or other loading
Packing of Cargo Transport Units provides a devices unless the goods can withstand
to carry out a quick internal and external
common global resource for information on them;
inspection prior to stuffing (and also after
container stuffing.
unstuffing the container).
• When loading Dangerous Goods, ensure
that the IMDG Code packaging requirements The following useful checklists should
2 Key Requirements
assist the examination of containers during
are always observed;
cleaning, loading and unloading, to help
The following requirements must be adhered
• Do not load goods in a container with
minimise cargo damage and reduce risks
to during container stuffing/unstuffing, in
damaged packaging;
to personnel. At all times, it is necessary to
addition to the more specific observations
adhere to the IMO/ILO/UNECE Guidelines for
elsewhere in this leaflet:
• Do not stow wet and damp goods with dry
Packing of Cargo Transport Units.
goods;
• Subject to booking request, select the most
3.1 Pre-Stuffing
suitable container type to accommodate the • Do not use dunnage or packaging which
cargo;
Prior to stuffing, a number of checks should
is incompatible with the cargo;
• Where possible with mixed loads, place
packages containing liquid cargo on the
bottom tiers with dry cargo on top;
be made on a container both internally and
externally to ensure that it is structurally
sound, and safe to work in and around.
stowed in containers, particularly where
fumigation may have been used;
• Watertight: This is best checked by
Dated and digital photographs of the interior entering the container and closing both
and exterior of the container should be taken. doors. If any spots of light can be seen
then water can gain entry. This also applies
3.1.1 External Checks
to the container floor because water can
splash upwards during road haulage;
Before a container is opened, it should be
ensured that it possesses a valid Container
• Follow instructions: Any recommendations
Safety Approval Plate and that the reposted inside the container should be noted.
examination date has not passed. Once
this has been established, the following
3.2 Post Stuffing
aspects of the container’s exterior should be
When the planned quantity of goods has
assessed before it is opened or entered:
been stuffed in a container, the following
checks should be made:
• Holes: No obvious holes or tears in the
exterior panelling;
Restraint: The goods should be arranged
• Doors: No broken or distorted door
hinges, locks, or door seal gaskets;
• Tilts (Tarps): Where containers are
fitted with removable roof tilts (tarps) or
side curtains, they should fit correctly, be
equipped with tilt wires and have no tears in
the fabric;
• Roof bows: Open top containers should
have all the roof bows (supports) in place.
If the roof is of the retractable sort then the
roof bows should slide smoothly to the ends
of the container;
• Placards and Markings: Any placards or
markings remaining on the outside of the
empty container which refer to the previous
cargo should be removed;
• Structure: No serious structural defects
such as torn or cracked corner fittings or
side rails (IMO CSC/Circ. 134 contains
guidance).
3.1.2 Internal Checks
Once the external elements of a container
unit have been agreed to be of a suitable
standard, the container may be opened in
order that the following checks can be made:
• Clean: No leftovers (sweepings, dust,
grease or liquid) of the previous cargo;
• Dry: The interior should be dry and free of
any sweat or frost;
• No infestation: There should be no
evidence of pests, insects or rodents which
might contaminate cargo and lead to delay
by port health authorities;
• Taint free: If delicate goods susceptible
to damage by bad odours are to be
packed, then the container should be
“sweet” smelling. This should be checked
immediately on opening the doors when any
lingering smells will be at their strongest.
Caution must be exercised in case there
are obnoxious gases from cargo previously
cautiously and retaining straps attached
to the locking bars to avoid harm to
individuals. This is to guard against the
risk of improperly secured cargo falling out
and harming personnel. Once the doors
are open, the container should be allowed
to ‘air’ for a period of time to ensure that
no hazardous gases or fumes are present
which could affect persons entering it.
3.4 Checklist after Unstuffing
When a container is empty of cargo, the
container should be checked for damage
that might lead to claims. Most tariffs are so
worded that it is obligatory for full container
load customers to clean out the container
after unstuffing. This includes removal of all
and secured to withstand the normal stresses packaging and a thorough sweep out.
and strains of the journey. In particular,
It is prudent to examine the container for
ensure doorway cargo cannot move;
any signs of wet stains and holes in the
Customs inspection: If more than one type of sides or roof that might have affected the
article is stuffed in the container, it may save cargo which has just been carried. Labels
time and the cost of a search if a sample of and placards should be removed when the
container is empty.
each article is positioned near the door;
Security: When the doors are shut, all
securing lugs should be properly engaged
forcing the door seals into compression.
The company’s approved seal should be
fitted in the appropriate position on the right
hand door and the number noted. Seals
should comply with ISO standards;
4 General Stowage
Contents: Any placard, except those
required by regulation, on the outside of
the container advertising the contents will
attract thieves and should be removed. Any
packages of Dangerous Goods should be
labelled according to the IMDG Code;
Different kinds of packaging methods exist
such as cartons, boxes, bags, drums and
barrels, rolls, liners for liquid bulk and small
wooden crates. The container may have
vacant space left on completion of stuffing
due to weight restrictions or otherwise, and
sensible securing is necessary on grounds
of safety and cargo care.
Placards: DG Placards, if appropriate,
should be affixed in the recommended
positions. The placards must be placed
in such a way that they do not obscure
the number of the container or other
distinguishing marks.
3.3 Prior to Unstuffing
The following should be checked prior to
unstuffing:
Security: Seal is intact and has not
been tampered with. The number must
be compared with the accompanying
documents for possible future reference;
External condition of the container: Any
damage that may have affected the content
should be duly noted;
Placards and markings: Before opening the
doors, due regard should be taken of any
placards and markings such as DG labels
or contents shipped in bulk;
Doors: The doors should be opened
4.1 Homogeneous Cargo
If the load consists of homogeneous cargo
(and all the cargo is the same size) the total
volume of the container should be utilised.
Bagged cargoes with a high moisture
content, such as cocoa beans or coffee
beans, may require dressing of the container
ceiling and walls with moisture/condensation
absorbing paper, and the hanging of so
called Moisture Absorbing Materials (MAMS)
bags in the container’s corners.
4.2 Uniform Stowage
When cargo is stowed into a container and
free space is unavoidable, the cargo must
be stowed in such a way that there is a gap
in the middle of the stow. The gap, which
can be fore and aft or athwart the container,
must be chocked with wood or lashed with
rope and, if the cargo is fragile, nets or
dunnage bags must be used.
4.3 Carton and Packages
It is important to follow any instructions
printed on the cartons, e.g. particular side
up for bottles of wine which require corks to
remain immersed. To ensure stability in the
stow and spread the weight as evenly as
possible a “Bonded Block Stow” should be
used.
Rolls of paper require paper clamps for
careful handling.
4.7 Bulk Liquids
Wine, latex, printing ink and other nonhazardous liquids are often transported in
Bagged cargo tends to settle during transit
strong synthetic “flexi-bags” in 20’ general
causing pressure on side walls. Normal
dry containers. The bags must be braced at
practice is to stow bags in interlocking
the door end of the container with a strong
stows. Bag on bag or building air chimneys steel (or other material) bulkhead.
within the stow may be necessary where
It is important to make sure that the harness
extra ventilation is required.
straps on the bags are secured tightly to the
anchorage rings in the container. It is not
To avoid the risk of bags falling out of the
only necessary to secure the load but also
container when the doors are opened, a
to make sure the pressure on the walls is
brace or net should be placed against the
final row. Bags that are stowed and secured not too high (if so, the pressure must be
distributed with planks or plates).
on pallets do not cause this problem and
the cargo can be handled much faster.
Containers with corrugated side panels
should be used. Bottom valves, if any, of
4.5 Drums and Barrels
the flexi-bag must be enclosed and secured
by the bulkhead panel, to protect against
Drums and barrels in containers should
always be stowed upright if possible. If the shifting and bending during transport, which
bung or closure is at one end, then it should can tear the bag.
be stowed with the bung uppermost.
4.8 Bulk Solids
Barrels of earthenware etc should always be
Bulk bags are used for a wide range of
stowed upright.
granular substances including malt and
Unless the drums or barrels are specially
coffee. Care should be taken to ensure
designed to “nest”, there should be some
that the cargo does not exceed the design
form of soft dunnage or ply between each
parameters of the container.
tier of drums. Dunnage should be laid
sufficiently close to provide full support to
4.9 Hanging Garments
the tier above.
Specialist containers are available for
Rolling hoops, when pressed out of the
shipping clothing. Failure to observe
side walls of the drums, are particularly
proper preparation and stowage procedures
susceptible to rupture through chafing. In
can result in considerable claims for dry
some instances, it may be necessary to
cleaning of garments which may have
lay dunnage between individual drums
dropped to the container floor.
to prevent rolling hoops from chafing one
another. A second option is that each
4.10 Reefer Cargoes
alternate row of drums may be lifted a few
Hot stuffing of containers (warm cargoes
centimetres with carefully laid dunnage,
in cooled containers) should be avoided,
allowing the rolling hoops to ride clear and
reducing the effective diameter of each drum.
4.4 Bagged Cargo
Cargo behind the doorway should be
properly secured with a fence, net or lashing.
4.6 Rolls
When rolls are stowed upright, they should
be packed closely together. Any empty
spaces between the rolls should be filled in
by sacks of sawdust, corrugated cardboard
or similar soft dunnage. The rolls should be
secured by means of timber, nets or wedges.
When the rolls are stowed horizontally, the
rolls which are nearest to the door should be
secured by wedges or other similar devices.
Support the rolls evenly along their length on
a flat surface particularly with cargo such as
carpets.
and the cargoes should thus be pre-cooled.
Reefer cargoes must be stowed in such a
manner as to allow optimal circulation of
cold air. For example, stowage of cartons
or other packages up to the container ceiling
will prevent optimal air circulation and
therefore optimal cooling.
5 Safety and Securing
This section identifies important issues of
safety that have been experienced with
containerised cargo and the related subject
of cargo securing.
5.1 Overloading
There have been many incidents over the
years of containers being loaded above their
stipulated payload. This can seriously affect
stability and the safety of any ship carrying
the cargo when it is underway at sea.
In many cases the manifests declare
cargo within payload limits when it is
over the limit. This is often exposed by
the suspicions of a container handler or
even following an accident resulting in a
weighbridge check.
Overloading is something which can NEVER
be condoned and when accepting cargo
the following should always be obtained or
checked. The party stuffing the container is
responsible for ensuring that:
• The number of pieces, size, weight and
volume of any commodity is obtained;
• The payload and volume of the container
selected/requested is compared with the
cargo particulars to establish whether a
weight or volume restriction applies;
• The gross mass of the container is in
accordance with the gross mass given on
the shipping documents.
Where a weight restriction applies, the point
loading of cargo must also be checked
in order that the tonnes per square metre
loading limit is not breached. Cargoes such
as metal ingots come into this category and
timber often requires the weight to be spread.
Extremely dense cargo can overload a
small area of a container’s floor causing it
to fail. For extremely dense cargo, or cargo
that puts a high load into a small area of a
container’s floor, timber or other dunnage
must be used to spread the weight over a
larger floor area.
As a rule of thumb, floor loading should
not exceed 2,500 lb per linear foot of the
container or a maximum of 1.5 tonnes per
floor supporting cross member.
Although containerised cargo is well
protected, it is still subject to the constant
movement and stress of maritime transport.
In heavy seas, the cargo is exposed to
compressive forces due to pitching and
rolling. These forces may increase the
normal strain on lashings, struts and other
securing devices by as much as 100%.
Effective securing of the load throughout
the entire transport process is therefore of
absolute importance.
• Adjustable wooden battens, rods
or strap belts for securing the load
in sections, facilitating mechanical
discharge;
5.5 Securing in Containers
• Second hand tyres or bags with
paper waste or sawdust to fill empty
spaces, soften the impact and
prevent shifting;
• Plywood and dunnage to separate
several layers of cargo or to
segregate different types of cargo
into separate sections;
• Foam-rubber cushions and air
bags to reduce vibration and prevent
the load from shifting;
The cargo in containers needs to be stowed
in such a way that the cargo cannot move.
The container itself is designed to permit
tight, secure stowage of cargo either through • Nets to secure fragile goods;
compact loading or individual securing.
• Rope (hemp, manila, sisal, etc),
5.2 Road and Rail Limits
These facilities include:
wire, steel bands and terylene straps
Apart from the immediate dangers to the safety • Floor of wood or plywood which permits
for lashing;
of ships created by overloading, the gross
blocks, stays and wedges to be anchored
• Nylon span sets;
weight of the container (cargo plus container
with nails or screws;
tare) must not breach the applicable road or
• Bolt clips into T section flooring in
• Internal walls, for the support of light
rail limits on all legs of the transit journey.
insulated containers;
cargo only;
The importance of observing these limits
• Bulkhead bars.
cannot be overstressed.
• Corner posts which are suitable for
bracing to with timbers and by using lashing
5.5.2 Securing calculations aboard
5.3 DG
points provided inside the container;
ship:
In the interests of safety, it is essential to
• Lashing points are located along top
As shown in Figure 1, forces acting
ensure the following with respect to the
and bottom rails of the container at regular
in a seaway are:
stowage of Dangerous Goods within a
intervals.
Rotational:
container:
Example for a typical 20’ container’s lashing Rolling;
• The cargo must be declared to the
facilities:
Pitching;
appropriate dangerous cargo department;
No of
Rating
Sheering/Yawing.
lashing
• All documentation must be completed,
Linear:
Location
points kg
signed and accurate;
Swaying;
Surging;
• Individual packages of DG must be
Side wall (base)
5
2,000
Heaving.
labelled;
Side wall (top)
5
• The container must be properly placarded
with appropriate placards, marks and signs,
Front (base)
1
as determined by the IMDG Code, affixed
to the outside walls of the container as
Rear (door recess area) 5
specified by the Code;
• The relevant IMDG stowage segregation
requirements must be complied with at all
times.
5.4 Shifting Cargo
The incidence of cargo moving inside a
container during transit is considerable.
This is usually because the cargo has not
been secured properly, or the packaging is
defective. Apart from the serious risks to
ships and the stability of container stacks,
several cases have been recorded where
road vehicles have turned over due to cargo
moving, when negotiating bends. The key
issue is to secure cargo efficiently to prevent
the initial movement.
500
500
500
It should be noted that the walls, doors and
roof of a container are merely a protective
shell that cannot withstand concentrated
stress. If the walls or ceiling are used for
lashing purposes, the stress on the walls or
ceiling must be evenly distributed.
5.5.1 Securing Materials
Most types of cargo can be secured using
the following materials (though precautions
should be taken to ensure that they are not
forbidden for import into the cargo’s country
of destination):
• Timber beams, struts, chocks, planks for
shoring, bracing and relieving pressure;
Calculations for securing against
the above forces follow a prescribed
discipline and it is important to refer
to this procedure when performing
calculations. The recognised
calculations are contained in the
IMO Code of Safe Practice for Cargo
Stowage and Securing (CSS Code).
6.6 Final Weighing of Container
After finalisation of stuffing and
securing of containerised cargo,
the total container weight must be
verified and documented.
Ship Motions in a Heavy Seaway
Rotational
Linear
Roll
Sway
40°
40°
Brief sideways motion along slope of sea surface
Pitch
10° 10°
Surge
Brief additional forward motion due to rise and fall
of sea surface
Yaw
Momentary
deflection
from projected
course
Heave
5°
5°
Brief vertical motion due to rise and fall of sea surface
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