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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, VOL. 7, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2011
Comprehensive Study of Single-Phase AC-DC
Power Factor Corrected Converters
With High-Frequency Isolation
Bhim Singh, Fellow, IEEE, Sanjeev Singh, Member, IEEE, Ambrish Chandra, Senior Member, IEEE, and
Kamal Al-Haddad, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—Solid-state switch mode AC-DC converters having
high-frequency transformer isolation are developed in buck, boost,
and buck-boost configurations with improved power quality in
terms of reduced total harmonic distortion (THD) of input current, power-factor correction (PFC) at AC mains and precisely
regulated and isolated DC output voltage feeding to loads from few
Watts to several kW. This paper presents a comprehensive study
on state of art of power factor corrected single-phase AC-DC converters configurations, control strategies, selection of components
and design considerations, performance evaluation, power quality
considerations, selection criteria and potential applications, latest
trends, and future developments. Simulation results as well as
comparative performance are presented and discussed for most of
the proposed topologies.
Index Terms—AC-DC converters, harmonic reduction, high-frequency (HF) transformer isolation, improved power quality converters, power-factor correction.
I. INTRODUCTION
OLID state AC-DC converters with high-frequency (HF)
transformer isolation is extensively used in switched mode
power supplies (SMPS), uninterruptible power supplies (UPS),
welding units, battery charging, induction heaters, electronic
ballasts, power supplies for telecommunication systems, measurement and testing equipments, small rating adjustable speed
drives (ASDs) in biomedical equipments, small rating refrigeration, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), etc.
Conventionally, these AC-DC converters are developed in two
stages. In the first stage, AC voltage is converted into an uncontrolled DC voltage using diode rectifiers, which is cascaded with
the second stage of isolated DC-DC converters using HF transformer for isolation. These two-stage AC-DC converters have
S
Manuscript received July 20, 2011; accepted August 05, 2011. Date of publication September 06, 2011; date of current version November 09, 2011. Personal use of this material is permitted. However, permission to use this material
for any other purposes must be obtained from the IEEE by sending a request to
pubs-permissions@ieee.org. Paper no. TII-11-327.
B. Singh is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi, 110016, India (e-mail: bhimsinghr@gmail.com).
S. Singh is with the Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal,
Sangrur, Punjab-148106, India (e-mail: sschauhan.sdl@gmail.com).
A. Chandra and K. Al-Haddad are with the Département de génie électrique,
ÉTS, 1100, Montréal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada (e-mail: chandra@ele.etsmtl.ca;
kamal@ele.etsmtl.ca).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TII.2011.2166798
the problems of power quality in terms of injected harmonic currents at AC mains, caused voltage distortion, degraded powerfactor, high crest factor, and large size of DC capacitor filter
at first stage. However, in view of their increasing applications,
these AC-DC converters are being developed in single-stage to
improve power quality, reduced number of components and high
efficiency. Moreover, due to strict requirements of improved
power quality at input AC mains several standards [1], [2] have
been developed and are enforced on the consumers. However,
power quality at AC mains can be improved using filters in existing installations but it increases cost, size, weight, and losses
in the system. These problems can be avoided using newly developed single-stage improved power quality AC-DC converters
with HF transformer isolation. They are also known as input current shapers, high power-factor single-stage converters, powerfactor correction (PFC) converters, universal input single-stage
PFC isolated converters, etc. Moreover, this new breed of singlestage converters is being reported in new books [3]–[9], seminars, and many recent publications [10]–[19]. Therefore, it is
considered relevant to present a comprehensive state of art on
the improved power quality AC-DC converters with HF transformer isolation for the benefits of practice, application, and design engineers using them in wide varying applications ranging
from few Watts to several kWs.
This paper deals with an exhaustive review of IPQCs with
HF transformer isolation. More than 150 publications are
classified into nine major categories. The first category [1]–[19]
is a general on power quality standards, texts, tutorials and
comparative topology publications. Second to ninth categories
publications include single-phase buck, boost and buck-boost
AC-DC converters. The buck type converters are further
classified to forward, push-pull, half-bridge and full-bridge
configurations. The boost type converters are also classified
in forward, push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge converter
topologies. The buck-boost type converters are subclassified
into flyback, Cuk, SEPIC, and Zeta converters. Total numbers
of circuit topologies of these converters are divided into 12
categories. The designs of various IPQCs with HF transformer
isolation and their validation through simulation are also presented in the paper to demonstrate the performance of various
converters and strengthen the review of IPQCs. The paper is
presented in ten sections including introduction and conclusion.
The other sections include a state of art on these converters,
their configurations, control strategies, components selection
and design, performance evaluation, comparative features,
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SINGH et al.: COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SINGLE-PHASE AC-DC POWER FACTOR CORRECTED CONVERTERS WITH HF ISOLATION
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potential applications, selection considerations for specific
applications, latest trends, and future development.
II. STATE-OF-THE-ART
AC-DC converters employing HF transformer isolation are
developed in wide power ratings from fraction of Watt to several kW to feed DC power in computer power supplies, UPS,
battery chargers, induction heating, welding units, electronic
ballasts, medical equipments, small rating ASDs in fans, compressors, and telecommunication applications. This family of
power supplies is developed to improve power quality in terms
of low value of THD and crest factor of input current, high
power-factor, low EMI and RFI at AC mains and regulated,
reduced ripple and stabilized DC output voltage under varying
loads. These converters are explored in last decade in variety
of control strategies [5], [6], magnetic [3], [4], [7], circuit
integration [6], [7], ASIC developments [7], configurations
[10], [12], [14]–[17], current conduction modes [13], electronic
ballast and DC regulator applications [14], circuit and components count optimization [18], use of DSP and microcontrollers
[19], enhanced reliability and high efficiency in buck, boost
and buck-boost topologies with HF transformer isolation for
voltage matching, multiple outputs, reduction in size, losses,
weight, etc. A number of circuit configurations have been
developed to meet specific requirements of large number of applications along with a high level of power quality at input AC
mains and output DC loads. This section consists of sequence
of development and status of these types of AC-DC converters
technology integrating HF isolation.
Because of excessive use of AC-DC converters in a number
of applications, the power quality has become important to
maintain clean power supply to the consumers. Depending
upon the voltage levels, the AC mains voltage is converted into
DC power to feed variety of loads through these single-phase
isolated AC-DC converters, classified into three major categories, namely, single-phase buck, boost, and buck-boost
configurations with improved power quality at input AC mains
and output DC load.
These AC-DC converters are developed using HF transformer
isolation with single or multiple outputs in buck and boost categories, namely, forward, push-pull, half-bridge and full-bridge
and in buck-boost configurations of flyback, Cuk, SEPIC, and
Zeta types of converters. They are available in varying power
from mW to several kW for the use in small instruments to
telecommunication power supplies. Furthermore, the advancement in integrated magnetics technology employing several inductors and HF transformer into one core provides a compact,
small size, low-cost and reduced component count, modular and
efficient AC-DC converters for use in computers and other similar sectors.
One of the important reasons for such tremendous development of these isolated AC-DC converters is the availability of
HF (in the range of hundreds of kHz) solid-state switching device, namely, MOSETs [5] which have a high level of performance because of their high switching capability with almost
negligible losses. However, in few applications specially designed BJT (bipolar junction transistor) and IGBTs (insulated
Fig. 1. Classification of improved power quality single-phase AC-DC converters with HF transformer isolation.
gate bipolar transistor) are used with reasonable switching frequency (in the range of tens kHz). Moreover, many manufacturers are developing dedicated power modules for the use in
specific converters to reduce their losses, size, weight, and cost.
Another set of important components required in these converters technology is sensing devices used in feedback current
and voltage loops. Because of heavy cost constraints, a low-cost
current and voltage sensors are preferred in these converters.
A major reason for such development of these converters is
fast growth in microelectronic devices. Due to high volume requirements, many manufacturers such as Unitrode, Analog Devices, Siemens, Fairchild, National Semiconductor, etc., have
developed many dedicated ICs [6], [7], consequently, cost effective and compact closed-loop control circuitry of these converters with adequate speed and accuracy are obtained. There
are a number of ASICs [7] available for dedicated applications.
Moreover, due to the importance of enhancing the power quality,
several standards [1], [2] are imposed on the users and manufacturers of these converters. A variety of instruments are available to measure the performance of AC input in terms of powerfactor (PF), crest factor (CF), total harmonic distortion (THD),
harmonic spectrum, displacement factor, VA, VAR, W, energy
consumed, at AC mains and voltage ripple, sag, surge, swell,
notch, etc. These measuring instruments are known as power analyzers, power scopes, power monitors, spectrum analyzers, etc.
III. CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS
HF transformer isolated single-phase IPQCs are classified
on the basis of voltage levels at the input and output as buck,
boost, and buck-boost topologies. Moreover, AC-DC buck and
boost converters are categorized into forward, push-pull, halfbridge, and full-bridge configurations with HF transformer isolation. Similarly, buck-boost types of converters are also subclassified into flyback, Cuk, SEPIC, and Zeta converters mostly
with single active device (MOSFET) to achieve HF transformer
isolation. These converters are cascaded with basic diode bridge
at input side used to convert single-phase AC voltage into DC
feeding various kinds of loads resulting in total 12 basic circuit topologies. However, there are further several modifications
in each converter to enhance their performance. Fig. 1 shows
the classification of these HF transformer isolated single-phase
IPQCs.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, VOL. 7, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2011
Fig. 2. Buck forward AC-DC converter with voltage follower control.
Fig. 3. Buck push-pull AC-DC converter with voltage follower control.
Fig. 4. Half-bridge buck AC-DC converter with voltage follower control.
The improved power quality AC-DC converters fed from
single-phase AC mains is classified into three major categories,
namely, buck, boost, and buck-boost topologies. All these three
types of converters are further classified into four types of
configurations. Some of these converters are also known as
(single-phase, single-stage converter and/or single-stage,
single-switch converter).
A. Buck AC-DC Converters
The single-phase buck converters are subclassified into four
types, namely, forward, push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge
AC-DC converters. Normally, these are used in different power
ratings starting from a forward converter in low power to fullbridge converter in high-power applications. Figs. 2–5 show the
basic circuits of these four types of converters.
1) Buck Forward AC-DC Converter [20]–[35]: Fig. 2 shows
the basic circuit configuration of this type of AC-DC converter.
Fig. 5. Buck full-bridge AC-DC converter with voltage follower control.
It employs a diode bridge rectifier to convert AC voltage into
an uncontrolled DC output, which supplies a forward converter.
It converts uncontrolled DC into controlled HF AC voltage to
be fed to HF transformer used to isolate and match the required
output voltage of the converter needed for a specific application.
The HF AC is rectified using half-wave rectifier that provides
better efficiency due to voltage drop of only one diode. During
turnoff time, a third winding is used to return stored energy back
to DC source, resulting in flux resetting in the HF transformer
core. Normally, output DC voltage is controlled using its feedback into the controller [20], which adjusts the duty cycle of the
device to any change in the system such as sudden change of the
load or input AC voltage amplitude and/or frequency. Moreover,
there are many variations of forward converter operation such as
using two devices [24] or multiple outputs, continuous current
mode (CCM) [27] and discontinuous current mode (DCM) [29]
of operation, etc. The applications of these converters in battery
charger from few watts to kW range [20], [29] have been reported in the literature.
2) Buck Push-Pull AC-DC Converter [36]–[49]: Fig. 3
shows a basic circuit of a buck push-pull AC-DC converter,
which has push-pull configurations of both sides of HF
center-taped transformer. A small value capacitor ( ) is used
at intermediate DC bus to provide a developed voltage source
type to the input of buck push-pull inverter [4], [5]. The turns
ratio in the HF transformer employed for isolation is decided
by the required voltage at DC output and available range of
input voltage. An input HF - filter is used to eliminate EMI,
RFI noise and switching frequency interference. There are also
several circuit configurations [6], [7] of this type of converter
with variations to further enhancing the power quality at input
AC mains and output DC loads [46].
3) Buck Half-Bridge AC-DC Converter [50]–[63]: A
single-phase buck half-bridge AC-DC converter topology with
the output push-pull rectifier is shown in Fig. 4. The half-bridge
converts raw DC to HF AC to feed HF transformer used for
isolation and voltage matching [4], [5] to the requirement of
the DC load or HF fed AC load such as electronic ballasts
and
)
used in lighting sector. A set of two capacitors (
provides another AC terminal for this type of HF inverter which
restricts its rating for low power applications. A number of
techniques such as resonant soft switching circuits, ZVS/ZCS,
etc., are used to improve the performance of these converters
[6], [7]. Various combinations of passive filters with CCM and
SINGH et al.: COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SINGLE-PHASE AC-DC POWER FACTOR CORRECTED CONVERTERS WITH HF ISOLATION
Fig. 6. Boost forward AC-DC converter with current multiplier control.
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Fig. 8. Boost half-bridge AC-DC converter with current multiplier control.
Fig. 9. Boost full-bridge AC-DC converter with current multiplier control.
Fig. 7. Boost push-pull AC-DC converter with current multiplier control.
DCM operation [58] have also been reported for power factor
improvement.
4) Buck Full-Bridge AC-DC Converter [73]–[91]: Fig. 5
shows a typical circuit of a buck full-bridge converter. At the
output of the diode rectifier, a small size - filter provides a
DC voltage source to feed the HF bridge inverter to operate it
as a buck converter [4], [5]. This configuration can have output
bridge converter in high-power ratings. However, push-pull rectifier in output stage results in high efficiency due to reduced
losses in only one diode conducting at any time. The bridge
inverter can be controlled either unipolar or bipolar mode depending upon ease in control. However, the size of filter and
transformer is lower for unipolar switching of bridge inverter
[5]. This topology has been reported for UPS applications with
soft switching [67] and ZVS/ZCS [69], etc.
B. Boost AC-DC Converters
These single-phase boost AC-DC converters shown in
Figs. 6–9 are classified into four basic types of configurations,
namely, forward, push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge HF
transformer isolated AC-DC converters. If these topologies are
fed from a DC current source and accordingly controlled in
required manner then they operate as boost AC-DC converters
[5]. It is a combination of a boost cell at input of these converters which may be an inductor of appropriate value to result
in their behavior as boost converters, while still maintaining
single-stage conversion with input current shaping feature for
high-power quality at AC mains.
1) Boost Forward AC-DC Converter [20]–[35]: Fig. 6 shows
a typical circuit of boost forward AC-DC converter, in which a
boost cell and conventional forward DC-DC converter is combined without much additional components [21]. The boost cell
is sharing three components (MOSFET, series diode, and capacitor ) with forward converter and the boost cell needs only an
inductor ( ) with series diode resulting in reduction in component count, size, cost, and losses. Moreover, it needs small
value of inductor ( ) and offers high level of power quality at
input AC mains and DC output. Many variations of this converter such as with CCM/DCM [27], [29], [31], zero voltage
switching (ZVS)/ zero current switching (ZCS) [32] and zero
current transition [33] are available to improve its performance
or to reduce the cost, size, and weight.
2) Boost Push-Pull AC-DC Converter [36]–[49]: Fig. 7
shows a basic circuit of boost push-pull AC-DC converter in
which only a small value inductor ( ) is added in a conventional push-pull converter to function it as a boost converter
[38]. The HF output of the transformer can be rectified to
DC either using push-pull or bridge converter or may be used
directly in some typical applications [4], [5]. It offers better
utilization of HF transformer and thus is used in high-power
ratings. This converter topology is also available with several
variations such as flyback current fed [43], with ZVS/ZCS [48],
active clamp and voltage doubler [49], etc.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, VOL. 7, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2011
3) Boost Half-Bridge AC-DC Converter [50]–[63]: Fig. 8
shows a basic topology of a single-phase boost half-bridge
AC-DC converter, which has also used only an additional inductor ( ) of low value to provide a current source for boosting
voltage level of conventional half-bridge DC-AC HF converter.
In some applications of very low output DC voltage, it uses
self-driven synchronous rectifier at output stage to enhance the
efficiency of this converter [51]. Normally, this converter is
operated in discontinuous current mode through input inductor
for reducing harmonics of AC mains current and achieving high
power factor. There are several circuit variations such as with
symmetrical [53] and asymmetrical transformer [56], diagonal
switches [59], and voltage doubler with ZVS/ZCS [54], [60]
for PFC. Recently reported applications are in telecom power
supplies [53], emergency lights [55], battery chargers [57],
UPS [61], and PMBLDCM drives [62], [63].
4) Boost Full-Bridge AC-DC Converter [64]–[79]: Fig. 9
shows one of circuits of single-phase boost full-bridge AC-DC
converter. It almost does not need any additional component except placing an inductor in the input of MOSFET -bridge to
operate it as a boost converter with modified control. For the
boost operation, both devices of a leg (upper and lower switches)
are made simultaneously, which provides a brief short circuit of
input inductor ( ) to store energy and later to provide boosting
feature required for power factor correction for its operation as
a PFC boost converter. Here, both legs of MOSFETs are operated sequentially in this mode and provides boost PFC converter
operation along with HF inversion required by isolating transformer. The output stage may use any rectifier configuration
but diode-bridge is preferred for better utilization of HF transformer. Several circuit variations have been reported for this
topology such as boost converter fed full-bridge [70], ZVS/ZCS
with series/parallel resonant circuit [71] and with two series
connected transformers [75]. This converter is normally used
in high-power rating such as UPS [67], telecom power supplies
[73], and PMBLDCM drives [76].
Fig. 10. Flyback AC-DC converter with current multiplier control.
Fig. 11. Cuk AC-DC converter with voltage follower control.
C. Buck-Boost AC-DC Converters
These single-phase buck-boost AC-DC converters are further
classified as flyback, Cuk, SEPIC, and Zeta HF transformer isolated AC-DC converters. They have some similarity as all of
them use only single switching device (MOSFET) and offer
buck-boost feature between input and output. They can be operated in discontinuous and continuous current modes. They also
offer high-level of power quality with reduced number of sensors and can be implemented with integrated magnetics to provide reduced size, cost, and weight. The concept of input current
shaping in single-stage conversion along with power factor correction and multiple regulated outputs is extensively employed
in these converters to meet exact requirements of the number of
applications. Figs. 10–13 show the basic circuits of these four
types of single-phase buck-boost AC-DC converters.
1) Buck-Boost Flyback AC-DC Converters [80]–[101]:
Fig. 10 shows a basic circuit of buck-boost flyback AC-DC
converter, which employs a simple flyback DC-DC converter
having HF transformer isolation for voltage matching, electrical
safety, cost reduction, simple control with reduced sensors,
etc. An input filter is quite important to improve the power
Fig. 12. SEPIC AC-DC converter with voltage follower control.
Fig. 13. Zeta AC-DC converter with voltage follower control.
quality at AC mains. There are several circuit configurations
of flyback converter and may have several DC outputs. These
variations are on the basis of active clamp and charge control
SINGH et al.: COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SINGLE-PHASE AC-DC POWER FACTOR CORRECTED CONVERTERS WITH HF ISOLATION
[81], quasi-resonant ZCS, resonant charge pump circuit [84],
CCM/DCM operation [90], [101], and synchronous rectification [95]. Normally, DCM operation is used for improved
power quality with simple control. This type of converter is
very popular for low-power applications due to simple control
and less component count. However, application in drives [93]
has also been reported in the low-power range.
2) Buck-Boost Cuk AC-DC Converter [102]–[117]: Fig. 11
shows the basic circuit of a single-phase buck-boost Cuk
AC-DC converter, which provides high level of power quality
at AC mains and DC output. It has several features such as
low-noise level, integrated magnetics having transformer and
both inductors ( and ) on the same core, energy transfer
through capacitors, etc. [102], [107]. Input current shaping
is inherent in this converter in discontinuous current mode
at constant frequency [108] and duty cycle decided by DC
output voltage controller, thus, it is known as an ideal current
shaper. The integrated magnetics in this converter offers very
low switching current ripple, wide range of input and output
voltage, small size, natural protection against inrush current,
and high overall conversion efficiency [113]–[116].
3) Buck-Boost SEPIC AC-DC Converter [118]–[140]:
Fig. 12 shows a circuit configuration of single-phase Single
Ended Primary Inductance Converter (SEPIC) for AC-DC conversion with high level of power quality at input AC mains and
DC outputs. This converter inherently incorporates input PFC
stage with reduced components count and small size, resulting
in high efficiency, high reliability, and high-power factor. It
may have multiple outputs required in some applications with
isolation and proper voltage regulation [118]. Its operation
in CCM and DCM with proper design offers fast dynamic
response, small size, and improved power quality of low value
of input current CF, THD and high-power factor [128], [138].
4) Buck-Boost Zeta AC-DC Converter [141]–[156]: Fig. 13
shows a circuit diagram of a Zeta converter for AC-DC conversion with improved power quality. This converter is the latest
addition to this family of single-stage input current shapers. It
also uses single switching device and inherently provides an
inrush current, overload, and short circuit protections [142]. It
has been reported for high-power applications such as telecom
power supplies [151] and PMSM drives [152]. It can operate in
CCM as well as DCM [153], [154], [156] with improved power
quality at input AC mains. These converters are also called resistance emulators as they behave as a resistive load to input AC
mains.
IV. CONTROL APPROACHES
Closed-loop control of output DC voltage of these isolated AC-DC converters is the essential requirement while
maintaining high level of power quality at input AC mains is
required in steady state as well as during transient operation. A
large number of control schemes are reported of these AC-DC
converters to meet these requirements along with fast dynamic
response in different circuit configurations. However, the design
of these converters is modified to simplify their control.
Control schemes consist of two loops an inner fast current
loop and an outer slow voltage loop. Current mode and voltage
mode PWM are used. The latest is one of the modest and
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simplest control scheme is PWM fixed frequency control. The
closed-loop control of output DC voltage to desired value
is achieved using proportional integral (PI) or proportional,
integral and derivative (PID) or proportional derivative (PD) or
sliding mode controllers. The output of this voltage controller
is compared with saw tooth carrier wave to generate PWM
signal for the gating of switching device (usually MOSFET)
with proper isolation and amplification. This scheme can
easily be used in the single switching device-based converters
(forward, flyback, Cuk, SEPIC, and Zeta) when they are operated in discontinuous current mode of operation [13], [108],
which inherently provides an input current shaping (ICS) and
power-factor correction (PFC) in single-stage conversion.
Usually, low-cost sensors such as opto-couplers operated in
linear range, potential dividers, etc., are used for sensing DC
voltage and small shunt, or extra small winding on an inductor
or extra terminal on switching device (MOSFET and IGBT)
or low-cost CT (current transducers) are used to sense current
(if required). Because of heavy cost constraints, this type of
controller is implemented into single integrated circuit (IC) to
provide compact, reliable, and cost effective control of these
converters.
The control of these converters having more than one
switching device is implemented using either low cost microcontrollers or dedicated DSPs or ASICs (specific application
integrated circuits) depending upon the power rating, customer
requirements, cost considerations, and the number of converter
devices to be controlled. Sometimes inner current loops are
also incorporated along with output voltage loop to provide
fast dynamic response and inherent protection of the switching
devices. In these converters, in addition to classical PI, PD,
PID and SMC controllers, some new and advanced closed-loop
controllers such as adaptive fuzzy logic, neural network-based
controllers are also used to provide fast response, while maintaining the stability of the converter system over wide operating
range.
Moreover, because of heavy application potential of these
converters, many manufacturers have developed dedicated
ICs, namely, Unitrode (UC series of ICs such as UC-3854),
Motorola (MC series such as MC-34261), Analog Devices
(ADMC-401), Siemens (TDA-16888), Texas (TMS320F24X),
Microchip (dsPIC 30F), Fairchild (ML 4425), etc., for the
control of these converters.
V. COMPONENTS SELECTIONS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The selection of components for these isolated AC-DC converters is very important to obtain a high-level of power quality
at input AC mains and DC outputs. These HF isolated AC-DC
converters consist of input diode bridge with EMI filter, HF
DC-AC converter to feed HF transformer with input cell such as
boost cell, output AC-DC converters with filters, resonating circuits for soft switching, snubbers and other protective devices,
sensors used for feedback and closed-loop controllers. The converters in different stages normally use diodes and switching device, which is normally MOSFETs. In some cases, a specially
designed HF bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and insulated
gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are used as switching device
in low cost and medium to high-power rating converters. In the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, VOL. 7, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2011
case of low voltage output DC power supplies, low voltage drop
synchronous rectifiers are employed at the last stage to reduce
voltage drop across the diodes and therefore to achieve high efficiency of the system.
Because of heavy volume requirement, many manufacturers
are offering diode-bridge along with switching devices, protection and sometimes gating circuits in the form of power module
and intelligent power module (IPMs) of complete converters.
These specially designed IPMs provide compactness, cost reduction, reduced noise, high efficiency, small size, and lightweight of these AC-DC converters.
The HF transformer used for isolation and voltage matching
is an essential and main component of these AC-DC converters.
The use of high switching frequency reduces the size, cost,
weight, losses of this transformer, which substantially affects
the performance, and cost of these converters. The evolution
of new and improved magnetic materials for core, better conducting material with special wire configuration such as Litz
wire and high grade insulating materials, has revolutionized
the packaging of such HF types of converters. The concept of
integration of magnetics such as several required inductors in
the same core of the HF transformers has resulted in reduction
in cost, size, and weight.
Some of the important components are the energy storage
elements such as capacitors, inductors and other devices required in filters, boost cells, resonating circuits, snubbers and
other protective devices. There are requirements of different
types of capacitors such as HF and DC capacitors to be used
in filters resonating circuits snubbers, etc. Similarly, different
types of inductors are required such as HF, power frequency,
and DC excitation even for single converter, which are made
in different forms of cores such as ferrite, amorphous, air core,
etc. Moreover, their values, size, and cost play an important role
in the operation of these converters to offer high level of performance. Another major design consideration is the layout of
these components to reduce noise level, proper operation, and
compact size. Special manufacturing techniques are used to optimize packaging and integration of all these components of a
converter.
Since these converters are used in a wide variety of applications, they may be one part of the total system; therefore they
are to be integrated in limited space of the equipment. It may
be a power supply of a computer, which has many DC outputs,
and its control is to be supervised by the computer itself. Similarly, it may be an input AC-DC converter for variable frequency
AC motor drives to be used in small rating fans, pumps, compressors, refrigerators, etc. It may be part of UPS, telecommutation power supplies or battery chargers, to be integrated with
remaining system to offer compact, high-power density, lightweight, efficient and reduced cost of complete system.
VI. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Single-phase improved power quality HF transformer
isolated AC–DC converters are designed for operation in
continuous current mode (CCM) and discontinuous current
mode (DCM) with current multiplier and voltage follower
approaches, respectively. The modeling and simulation of these
TABLE I
DESIGN EQUATIONS OF ISOLATED PFC TOPOLOGIES IN CCM AND DCM
topologies have been carried out in MATLAB-SIMULINK environment. The design equations and performance parameters
of these AC–DC converters in terms of power quality indices
are given in Tables I–III. The minimum value of inductance
for operating these AC-DC converters in DCM is given by
equations in Table I. The simulations are carried out for a 48 V
SINGH et al.: COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SINGLE-PHASE AC-DC POWER FACTOR CORRECTED CONVERTERS WITH HF ISOLATION
547
TABLE II
POWER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF ISOLATED PFC TOPOLOGIES IN CCM (AT 48 V DC 100 W LOAD)
TABLE III
POWER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF ISOLATED PFC TOPOLOGIES IN DCM (AT 48 V DC 100 W LOAD)
DC power supply having 100 W load with single-phase input
supply voltage of 220 V, 50 Hz having 3% source impedance.
The design values of the components obtained from the design
equations given in Table I are optimized iteratively to have
desired power quality. These component values have been
given in Tables II and III along with other control parameters.
The power quality indices such as total harmonic distortion of
AC mains current (THDi), distortion factor (DF), displacement
power factor (DPF), power factor (PF), crest factor (CF), and
) are compared at full-load and
output voltage ripple (
given in Tables II and III. The input current waveform for these
converters along with their harmonic spectrum, and THD are
shown in Figs. 14–19 for comparison. It can be seen that the
input current in these converters meets IEC-61000-3-2 standard
requirements. These converter topologies are evaluated for
the load perturbation (i.e., load application and load removal)
from 20% to 100% load and vice versa. The results obtained
are summarized in Tables IV and V. Moreover, the transient
responses of a few topologies are shown in Figs. 20 and 21.
It is observed that most of the topologies show overshoot and
undershoot of DC link voltage ( ) within the designed value
(5% of ) with fast tracking of the reference DC link voltage.
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Fig. 14. Current waveforms and its THD for buck AC-DC converter topologies
in CCM. (a) Forward buck topology (Fig. 2).( b) Push-pull buck topology
(Fig. 3). (c) Half-bridge buck topology (Fig. 4). (d) Bridge buck topology
(Fig. 5).
Fig. 16. Current waveforms and its THD for buck-boost AC-DC converter
topologies in CCM. (a) Flyback topology (Fig. 10). (b) Cuk topology (Fig. 11).
(c) SEPIC topology (Fig. 12). (d) Zeta topology (Fig. 13).
Fig. 15. Current waveforms and its THD for boost AC-DC converter topologies in CCM. (a) Forward boost topology (Fig. 6). (b) Push-pull boost topology
(Fig. 7). (c) Half-bridge boost topology (Fig. 8). (d) Bridge boost topology
(Fig. 9).
Fig. 17. Current waveforms and its THD for buck AC-DC converter topologies
in DCM. (a) Forward buck topology (Fig. 2). (b) Push-pull buck topology
(Fig. 3). (c) Half-bridge buck topology (Fig. 4). (d) Bridge buck topology
(Fig. 5).
VII. COMPARISON OF PFC CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES
device rating, power density and cost of the circuit, which shall
be helpful in the selection of an appropriate PFC converter
topology for a particular application. The voltage and current
ratings are given in per unit (PU) with rated input voltage
The performance comparison of the isolated AC/DC PFC
converters is presented in Tables III–V, on the basis of some
additional parameters such as voltage ripple, transient response,
SINGH et al.: COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SINGLE-PHASE AC-DC POWER FACTOR CORRECTED CONVERTERS WITH HF ISOLATION
Fig. 18. Current waveforms and its THD for boost AC-DC converter topologies in DCM. (a) Forward boost topology (Fig. 6). (b) Push-pull boost topology
(Fig. 7). (c) Half-bridge boost topology (Fig. 8). (d) Bridge boost topology
(Fig. 9).
549
The single switch topologies can be preferred in sequence
of flyback, Zeta, Ćuk, and SEPIC converter. Because Zeta
and flyback converter topologies provide additional protection
against over current and inrush current as compared to Ćuk and
SEPIC converter topologies. Moreover, the flyback converter
topology requires only a capacitor as an output filter and the
Ćuk converter topology requires smaller core, and has lower
core and copper losses. The selection criteria for various converter topologies are enumerated in the next section.
In hardware implementation, the power factor of 0.99 is
achievable in many cases [20], [29], [93], [113], [115], [152],
however, the line regulation and load regulation depends on
the turns ratio of HF transformer and gains of PFC controller.
Moreover, the current multiplier control in CCM operation is
more stable during step change in the load as compared to the
voltage follower control in DCM operation. The control and
protection circuit layouts play major role in EMI and noise
suppression, where as processor speed, sampling frequency of
the sensed variables have bearing on the rise time, and response
time of the controller. The turn on time of the PFC switch
depends on the delay in the isolation circuit between the processor and power circuit. Inductors for HF circuits usually have
gapped core or multiple toroidal cores connected in parallel to
avoid the saturation during transient conditions.
The push-pull and half-bridge (two-switch) converters have
equal switching losses as compared to single switch converters,
e.g., flyback, Cuk SEPIC, and Zeta converters because only one
switch operates at a time, however, they can be used for highpower applications with cost of additional switch and associated
circuitry.
in half-bridge
Moreover, the switch voltage stress is
converter as compared to
in push-pull converter. The
full-bridge converter has same switch voltage stress and the
transformer size as half-bridge converter for double power
processing capability.
VIII. SELECTION CRITERIA AND POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
Fig. 19. Current waveforms and its THD for buck-boost AC-DC converter
topologies in DCM. (a) Flyback topology (Fig. 10). (b) Cuk topology (Fig. 11).
(c) SEPIC topology (Fig. 12). (d) Zeta topology (Fig. 13).
(220 V) and rated load current (2.1 A) as base values. It is
observed that the cost increases with increase of passive and
active components and their power rating.
Selection of right converter for specific application is an important task for the users. The following are the few criteria to be
considered in the selection of appropriate topology of the converter for a particular application.
— Rating (W, kW, etc.).
— Level of input power quality (PF, CF, THD, etc.).
— Level of power quality at DC output (voltage ripple, regulation, sag, swell, etc.).
— Type of load (linear, nonlinear, constant, variable).
— Type of output voltage (constant, variable, etc.).
— Number of outputs (single, multiple).
— Cost.
— Size.
— Weight.
— Efficiency.
— Noise level (EMI, RFI, etc.).
— Reliability.
— Nature of output (buck, boost, buck-boost).
— Environmental factors (ambient temperature, types of
cooling, altitude, pollution level, humidity, etc.).
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TABLE IV
COMPARISON OF PFC TOPOLOGIES WITH CURRENT MULTIPLIER CONTROL IN CCM (V
= 48 V, I
= 2 08 A)
TABLE V
COMPARISON OF PFC TOPOLOGIES WITH VOLTAGE FOLLOWER CONTROL IN DCM (V
= 48 V, I
= 2 08 A)
In addition to these criteria, there are a number of other factors
such as magnetic materials, switching frequency, type of solidstate device, etc., to be considered in selection of most suitable
converter for a particular application.
These HF transformer isolated improved quality AC-DC
converters are finding widespread applications due to their numerous advantages of high efficiency, small size, low cost, and
compactness apart from a high level of power quality at input
AC mains and DC outputs. Some of major applications are
power supplies in information technology equipments such as
:
:
personal computers, laptop computers, work stations, printers,
scanners, fax machines, cordless phones, mobile phones,
copiers, power supplies in telecommunication systems, battery
chargers, UPS, etc. These converters are also used in measuring
and testing instruments, medical equipments, induction heaters,
lighting industries with electronic ballasts for various kinds of
bulbs, welding units, microwave heating, dielectric heating,
small ovens, small rating adjustable speed drives (ASDs) in
refrigeration, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC),
small boiler feed pumps, fans, compressors, domestic appli-
SINGH et al.: COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SINGLE-PHASE AC-DC POWER FACTOR CORRECTED CONVERTERS WITH HF ISOLATION
551
IX. LATEST TRENDS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Fig. 20. Transient and steady-state response of push-pull boost AC-DC
converter topology. (a) Push-pull boost PFC converter under CCM operation.
(b) Push-pull boost PFC converter under DCM operation.
Fig. 21. Transient and steady-state response of SEPIC AC-DC converter
topology. (a) Under CCM operation of PFC converter. (b) Under DCM
operation of PFC converter.
ances such as washing machines, etc. Moreover, because of
highly efficient AC-DC conversion with new configurations and
control approaches, these converters are considered as potential
power processors in newer applications that are developed day
by day in the near future.
The HF transformer isolated AC-DC converters have been
developed to a reasonably matured level and are extensively
used in fraction of Watt to several kWs rating in power supplies, ASDs, etc. Apart from it, there are newer developments
in these converters for improving their performance in terms of
high level of power quality, high efficiency, and compact size.
One of the new trends is soft switching technology to reduce the
switching losses, which permits these converters to operate at
further high switching frequency to improve dynamic response
and to reduce the size of transformers and filter components
by operating at higher frequency. The magnetic integration is
used to integrate magnetic components in one single core and
therefore to help in using higher flux density material. Another
important trend is the sensor reduction, which has revolutionized these converters to reduce cost, component count and enhanced reliability. Some of these converters are having simple
control and new control concepts, which further reduce the requirements of sensors and inherently provide power factor correction without any sensor on AC mains. Development of dedicated specific application integrated circuits (ASICs) for the
control of these converters has reduced the size, cost and is increasing their applications in the new fields.
Advancement in solid-state devices towards low conduction
losses and switching losses, improved gating requirements is
providing a real boost to the applications of these AC-DC converters especially in low voltage DC power supplies and HF
equipments. The module development through circuit components integration is resulting in cost and size reduction and improvement in their efficiency.
Development of improved magnetic materials with reduced
losses is considered a real hope to allow the use of HF resulting
in further reduction in size of transformers required for isolation. Indirect sensing, improved gate drive and protective features integration in intelligent power module (IPM) are expected
to have a new direction in the development of these AC-DC converters. Development of dedicated processors and new ASICs
are also a big hope in the near future to reduce the size, cost and
intelligent control, compactness, high reliability, and high efficiency of these AC-DC converters. Soft switching technology
is also expected to improve thermal design; to reduce size and
enhancing the efficiency of the HF isolated AC-DC converters.
The evolution of new circuit configurations in this technology
is considered to further widespread use of them in other additional future applications. The chip size integration of some of
these converters especially in small power rating is expected to
revolutionize these HF isolated AC-DC converters.
The control schemes for these converters are implemented
using digital signal processors (DSPs) or low-cost advanced microcontrollers known as digital signal controllers (DSCs). Typical examples of such controllers are TI-2812 (Texas Instruments) and dsPIC 30F6010 (Microchip). The dsPIC 30F6010
is a specifically designed DSC for the power electronics applications with a 10 bit analog to digital converter (ADC), Hall-effect sensor/encoder sense terminals, eight channels for PWM
and high current sink/source, input/output (I/O: 25 mA/25 mA)
ports. The selection of these digital controllers depend upon the
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type of application, total cost of the system, number of PWM
channels required, desired number of input and output ports, accuracy level, and operating frequency. For PFC operation, the
switch selected is mostly MOSFET due to HF operation typically above 40 kHz. However, care must be taken for the isolation of the control circuit and power circuits.
These converters for PFC applications have resulted in very
high efficiency for their operation in various applications as reported in the literature [1]–[156]. Typical efficiency range reported in the literature is 75%–80% for forward buck converters
[23], 75%–90% for forward boost converters [31]. Push-pull
buck converter operates in the efficiency range of 85%–90%,
whereas push-pull boost is reported to have more than 95% efficiency [49]. Half-bridge buck and boost converters result in
80%–90% efficiency [61], however, full-bridge buck converter
offers 85%–95% efficiency [77] and full-bridge boost converter
results in 75%–95% [78], [79]. The buck-boost converters usually operate in efficiency range of 90%–95%, however, typical efficiency reported for flyback converter is around 91.3%
[95], 95.2% for Cuk converter [109], 91.5% for SEPIC converter
[137], and 85%–94% for zeta converter [151]. There may be further improvements in the efficiency of these converters owing to
the further research.
X. CONCLUSION
A comprehensive review of the improved power quality
HF transformer isolated AC-DC converters has been made to
present a detailed exposure on their various topologies and
its design to the application engineers, manufacturers, users
and researchers. A detailed classification of these AC-DC
converters into 12 categories with number of circuits and concepts has been carried out to provide easy selection of proper
topology for a specific application.
These AC-DC converters provide a high level of power
quality at AC mains and well regulated, ripple free isolated DC
outputs. Moreover, these converters have been found to operate
very satisfactorily with very wide AC mains voltage and frequency variations resulting in a concept of universal input. The
new developments in device technology, integrated magnetics
and microelectronics are expected to provide a tremendous
boost for these AC-DC converters in exploring number of additional applications. It is hoped that this exhaustive design and
simulation of these HF transformer isolated AC-DC converters
is expected to be a timely reference to manufacturers, designers,
researchers, and application engineers working in the area of
power supplies.
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Bhim Singh (SM’99–F’10) was born in Rahamapur,
India, in 1956. He received the B.E. (electrical)
degree from the University of Roorkee, Roorkee,
India, in 1977, and the M.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees
from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi,
New Delhi, India, in 1979 and 1983, respectively.
In 1983, he joined the Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Roorkee, as a Lecturer,
and in 1988 became a Reader. In December 1990, he
joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT
Delhi, as an Assistant Professor, where he became
an Associate Professor in 1994 and Professor in 1997. Since September 2007,
he has been ABB Chair Professor at IIT Delhi. He has guided 35 Ph.D.
dissertations, 120 M.E./M.Tech./M.S.(R) theses, and 60 BE/B.Tech. Projects.
His fields of interest include power electronics, electrical machines, electric
drives, renewable energy generation, power quality, Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS), High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems.
Dr. Singh is a Fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineering
(FNAE), The National Academy of Science, India (FNASc), the Institution
of Engineers (India) (FIE), and the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (FIETE), a Life Member of the Indian Society for
Technical Education (ISTE), System Society of India (SSI), and the National
Institution of Quality and Reliability (NIQR). He has received the Khosla
Research Prize of the University of Roorkee in 1991. He is a recipient of the
J. C. Bose and Bimal K Bose awards from The Institution of Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) for his contribution in the field of power
electronics. He is also a recipient of the Maharashtra State National Award
of the Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE) in recognition of his
outstanding research work in the area of power quality. He has received the
PES Delhi Chapter Outstanding Engineer Award in 2006. He has been the
General Chair of the IEEE International Conference on Power Electronics,
Drives and Energy Systems (PEDES’2006) held in New Delhi.
Sanjeev Singh (S’09–M’11) was born in Deoria,
India, in 1972. He received the B.E. (electrical)
degree from Awadhesh Pratap Singh University
(APSU), Rewa, India, in 1993, the M.Tech degree
from Devi Ahilya University (DAVV), Indore, India,
in 1997, and the Ph.D. degree from the Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, in 2011.
He joined the North India Technical Consultancy
Organization, Chandigarh, as a Project Officer, in
1997, and in 2000, he joined the Sant Longowal
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sangrur,
Punjab, as Lecturer in the Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering. His area of interest includes power electronics, electrical machines
and drives, energy efficiency and power quality.
Dr. Singh is a Life Member of the Indian Society for Technical Education
(LMISTE), the System Society of India (LMSSI), and the Institution of Engineers (India) (LMIE).
556
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, VOL. 7, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2011
Ambrish Chandra (SM’99) received B.E. degree
from the University of Roorkee (presently IIT),
Roorkee, India, the M.Tech. degree from the Indian
Institute of Technology (IIT), New Delhi, and
the Ph.D. degree from the University of Calgary,
Calgary, AB, Canada, in 1977, 1980, and 1987,
respectively.
He worked as a Lecturer and later as a Reader at
the University of Roorkee. Since 1994, he has been
working as a Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure,
Universié du Québec, Montréal, Canada. His main research interests are power
quality, active filters, static reactive power compensation, flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), and control and integration of renewable energy resources.
Dr. Chandra is a Professional Engineer in Quebec, Canada.
Kamal Al-Haddad (S’82–M’88–SM’92–F’07) was
born in Beirut, Lebanon, in 1954. He received the
B.Sc.A. and M.Sc.A. degrees from the University
of Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC,
Canada, in 1982 and 1984, respectively, and the
Ph.D. degree from the Institut National Polythechnique, Toulouse, France, in 1988.
From June 1987 to June 1990, he was a Professor
with the Department of Engineering, Université du
Québec à Trois Rivières. Since June 1990, he has
been a Professor with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, QC, where
he has been the holder of the Canada Research Chair in Electric Energy
Conversion and Power Electronics since 2002. He has supervised more than
70 Ph.D. and M.Sc.A. students working in the field of power electronics. He
was the Director of graduate study programs at the ETS from 1992 to 2003.
He is a Consultant and has established a very solid link with many Canadian
industries working in the field of power electronics, electric transportation,
aeronautics, and telecommunications. He is the Chief of ETS-Bombardier
Transportation North America division, a joint industrial research laboratory
on electric traction system and power electronics. He is the coauthor of the
Power System Blockset Software of Matlab. He has coauthored more than 300
transactions and conference papers. His fields of interest are in high efficient
static power converters, harmonics and reactive power control using hybrid
filters, switch mode and resonant converters including the modeling, control,
and development of prototypes for various industrial applications in electric
traction, power supply for drives, telecommunication, etc.
Prof. Al-Haddad received the Outstanding Researcher Award from ETS in
2000. He is a Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering and a Life
Member of the Circle of Excellence of the University of Quebec. He is active
in the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, where he is Vice President for Technical Activities, an AdCom Member and serves as an Associate Editor of the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS.