SUMMARY Current S (Section 19.1) Current is the amount of charge flowing through a conductor per unit time. The SI unit of current is the ampere, equal to 1 coulomb per second 1 1 A 5 1 C s 2 . If a net charge DQ flows through a wire in time Dt, the current through the wire is I 5 DQ Dt (Equation 19.1). E / / Resistance and Ohm’s Law (Section 19.2) In a conductor, the resistance R is the ratio of voltage to current: R 5 V I (Equation 19.2). The SI unit of resistance is the ohm 1 V 2 , equal to 1 volt per ampere. In materials that obey Ohm’s law, the potential difference V between the ends of a conductor is proportional to the current I through the conductor; the proportionality factor is the resistance R. For a given conducting material, resistance R is proportional to length and inversely proportional to cross-sectional area. For a specific material, this relationship can be expressed as R 5 r 1 L A 2 (Equation 19.3), where r is the resistivity of that material. Resistance and resistivity vary with temperature; for metals, they usually increase with increasing temperature. S E DQ Current I 5 Dt I I L / Resistance: R 5 S E a A L Also, R 5 r , A b I Vab Lower potential Higher potential Vab I where r 5 resistivity of material. / Electromotive Force and Circuits (Section 19.3) A complete circuit is a conductor in the form of a loop providing a continuous current-carrying path. A complete circuit carrying a steady current must contain a source of electromotive force (emf), symbolized by E. An ideal source of emf maintains a constant potential difference Vab 5 E (Equation 19.5), but every real source of emf has some internal resistance r. The terminal potential difference Vab then depends on current: Vab 5 E 2 Ir (Equation 19.7). r a E 5 emf; r 5 internal resistance E b + I Ideal emf source: Vab 5 E; r 5 0 Real emf source: Vab 5 E 2 Ir emf source R Energy and Power in Electric Circuits (Section 19.4) A circuit element with a potential difference V and a current I puts energy into a circuit if the current direction is from lower to higher potential in the device and takes energy out of the circuit if the current is opposite. The power P (rate of energy transfer) is P 5 VI (Equation 19.9). A resistor R always takes energy out of a circuit, converting it to thermal energy at a rate given by P 5 Vab I 5 I 2R 5 Vab2 R (Equation 19.10). / Resistors in Series and in Parallel (Section 19.5) When several resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , care connected in series, the equivalent resistance Req is the sum of the individual resistances: Req 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 1 c. (Equation 19.12). When several resistors are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance Req is given by 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 c. Req R1 R2 R3 (19.13) R1 a I R1 x R2 y R3 b I a I R2 R3 b I Loop 1 Junction + I2 I1 + Kirchhoff’s Rules (Section 19.6) Kirchhoff’s junction rule is based on conservation of charge. It states that the algebraic sum of the currents into any junction must be zero: gI 5 0 (Equation 19.14). Kirchhoff’s loop rule is based on conservation of energy and the conservative nature of electrostatic fields. It states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences around any loop must be zero: gV 5 0 (Equation 19.15). Be especially careful with signs when using Kirchhoff’s rules. Loop 2 E I1 1 I2 At any junction: SI 5 0 Loop 3 R E Around any loop: SV 5 0 Electrical Measuring Instruments (Section 19.7) The ideal behavior for a meter is for it to measure the circuit quantities of interest without changing or disturbing them. An ammeter always measures the current passing through it. An ideal ammeter would have zero resistance, so that including it in a branch of a circuit would not affect the current in that branch. A voltmeter always measures the potential difference between two points. An ideal voltmeter would have infinite resistance, so that no current would flow through it. Resistance–Capacitance Circuits (Section 19.8) When a capacitor is charged by a battery in series with a resistor, the current and capacitor charge are not constant. The charge varies with time as q 5 Qfinal 1 1 2 e 2t/RC 2 (Equation 19.17). In a time t 5 RC, there is a significant change in the charge on the capacitor. This time is called the time constant, or relaxation time, and is the same for charging or discharging. *Applications of Currents (Sections 19.9 and 19.10) The conduction of nerve impulses is basically an electrical process. Currents through the body as small as 0.1 A can be fatal because they interfere with this process (which also occurs in heart and other muscle cells). In house wiring, one line entering the house is always neutral, or at the same voltage as the ground (to which it is connected). The other one or two wires are hot. The maximum current available from an individual circuit is limited by the resistance of the wires; if they carry too much current, I 2R power loss causes them to overheat. Protection against overloading of circuits is provided by fuses or circuit breakers. + E i i, q 1q R q versus t i 2q C O i versus t t