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5-2010
Distributed Renewable Energy Generation and
Landscape Architecture: A Critical Review
Osmer DeVon Beck
Utah State University
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DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATION AND LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE: A CRITICAL REVIEW
by
Osmer DeVon Beck
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
of
MASTER OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Approved:
_____________________
Keith M. Christensen
Major Professor
_____________________
Bo Yang
Committee Member
_____________________
Michael E. Dietz
Committee Member
_____________________
Byron R. Burnham
Dean of Graduate Studies
UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY
Logan, Utah
2010
ii
Copyright © Osmer DeVon Beck 2010
All Rights Reserved
iii
ABSTRACT
Distributed Renewable Energy Generation and
Landscape Architecture: A Critical Review
by
Osmer DeVon Beck, Master of Landscape Architecture
Utah State University, 2010
Major Professor: Keith Christensen
Department: Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning
Governments and utility organizations around the world have mandated and
provided incentives for new distributed renewable energy generation (DREG) capacity,
and market projections indicate strong growth in distributed renewable energy generation
installations in the coming years. New distributed renewable energy generation utilities,
by definition, will be primarily located in built environments near consumers; these
utilities are often planned and designed by landscape architects, yet no evidence-based,
distributed renewable energy generation research is explicitly done by landscape
architects or recognizes the role landscape architects play in planning and designing these
spaces. The research and analysis provided by this study indicates that distributed
renewable energy generation lacks a strong foundation as an independent concept which
could benefit from clear broad phraseology linked to organized sub-terms/phrases for
specific forms of DREG, that there has been some research done on topics familiar to
landscape architects, that more needs to be done to meet important research questions and
iv
recommendations already posed, and that landscape architects are positioned to
contribute to future distributed renewable energy generation research.
(92 pages)
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge the exceptional help and support of major professor, Keith
Christensen, and the quality input and expectations of committee members, Dr. Bo Yang
and Dr. Michael Dietz. I also thank family, friends, and colleagues for prayers,
encouragement, and confidence in me along the way.
Osmer DeVon Beck
vi
CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................ v
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... viii
PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 2
METHODS ................................................................................................................... 9
RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 16
Article Summary Results ........................................................................................ 21
Explicit Future Research Recommendations .......................................................... 26
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 29
Foundation ............................................................................................................... 29
Current DREG LARR ............................................................................................. 30
Future DREG LARR ............................................................................................... 32
Landscape Architect Contribution Opportunities ................................................... 34
Limitations of this Study ......................................................................................... 38
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 40
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 42
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................. 48
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1
State-by-state DREG initiatives, adapted from Hoffman (2008).................................. 3
2
DREG search terms/ phrases, bold terms/phrases are represented in relevant
articles ........................................................................................................................... 9
3
LARR search terms/ phrases, bold terms/phrases are represented in relevant
articles ......................................................................................................................... 10
4
Landscape architecture related research term/phrase definitions ............................... 13
5
Publications of overlapping articles ............................................................................ 19
6
Geographic region where research was conducted ..................................................... 20
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1
Article sorting rules..................................................................................................... 11
2
Number of relevant LARR articles by primary term/phrase ...................................... 17
3
Number of relevant DREG articles by primary term/phrase ...................................... 18
4
Number of relevant articles by year ............................................................................ 19
5
Number of relevant articles by DREG type ................................................................ 20
6
Percent relevant articles compared to percent Landscape Journal articles ................ 21
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Citing climate change and other concerns associated with current fossil fuel
energy generation, governments and utility organizations around the world are mandating
and providing incentives for new distributed renewable energy generation (DREG)
capacity. Market projections also indicate strong growth in DREG installations around
the world in the coming years. New DREG utilities, by definition, will be primarily
located in built environments near consumers. These spaces are often planned and
designed by landscape architects. Strangely, no evidence-based, DREG research is
explicitly done by landscape architects or recognizes the role landscape architects play in
planning and designing these spaces. There may, however, be future research and
professional roles where landscape architects can contribute to the effective incorporation
of DREG.
2
INTRODUCTION
The scope of this study will be focused on distributed renewable energy
generation (DREG). DREG is an overlap of distributed generation (DG); ―small,
modular, decentralized, grid-connected or off-grid energy systems located in or near the
place where energy is used‖ (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2010) and
renewable energy (RE); energy that is ―naturally replenishing but flow limited‖ (Energy
Information Administration 2010). Major DREG sources include: biomass, micro hydro,
geothermal, solar, and wind. DG offers lower initial investment costs over centralized
generation, greater flexibility matching supply capacities with actual demand, shorter
return on investment, transmission and distribution savings, and over 200 more benefits
identified by Lovins (2002). RE offers increased energy security, climate change
mitigation, and lasting supply.
In light of these benefits and others, governments and utility organizations are
mandating and providing incentives for new DREG capacity. For example, The Asia
Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (2009), a task force made up of
seven countries, expects to incentivize 1.8 GW of new RE and DG capacity by 2014. The
US federal government has placed into effect a 30% tax credit, viable until 2016, for all
newly installed residential RE. Japan has set a target of 30% of all households to have
solar panels by 2030 (Energy Information Administration 2009a). Germany has
established a 27 cent per kilowatt hour feed-in tariff to incentivize small scale renewable
electricity generation (Energy Information Administration 2009a). There are four funding
sources for distributed RE projects in Australia including a ―Low Emissions Technology
3
Demonstration Fund,‖ ―Renewable Energy Development Initiative,‖ ―Solar Cities,‖ and
―Renewable remote Power Generation Program‖ (Newton 2008). Thailand is working
toward a 2400 MW DREG by 2011 goal (Sukkumnoed 2003). In the UK, all new office
buildings constructed between 2010 and 2014 must have greater than 15% on-site RE and
that will increase to 20% or greater between 2015 and 2020 (Simms, Djokic, and Murray
2008). Many states are making efforts to push DREG (Table 1).
Table 1. State-by-state DREG initiatives, adapted from Hoffman (2008)
State
California
Washington
Nevada
Arizona
New Mexico
Colorado
Maryland
Pennsylvania
New York
Delaware
North Carolina
DC
New Hampshire
DREG Initiative
3000 MW distributed solar and 50% of new homes equipped with solar electric
capacity by 2020 (California Energy Commission 2007). One Million Solar Roof
Initiative to install solar on one million homes and business‘ by 2018 (National
Governors Association 2008)
2X multiplier for distributed forms of renewable energy
1% solar by 2015 with a 2.45X multiplier for distributed PV
4.5% customer-sited distributed renewable generation by 2025
1.5-3% distributed renewable
0.8% solar electric by 2020 with half customer sited
2% solar by 2022
0.5% PV by 2020
0.15% distributed generation by 2013
3X multiplier for PV before 2015 and 2.005% PV by 2019
0.2 % solar by 2018
0.386 % solar electric by 2021
0.3 % solar electric by 2014
Many power companies are also making the shift. Western US based Rocky
Mountain Power offers incentives for home and business installed solar (DSIRE 2009);
Austin Energy in Texas intends to have 100 MW of customer owned solar energy
installed by 2020 (Hoff et al. 2006); WE Energies in Wisconsin is promoting DREG by
4
using several models including: community wind models, multi-party ownership models
for anaerobic digesters, third party ownership models, a project aggregation model,
renewables-as-appliance model, and a new construction model (ICF International 2007).
Many other municipal, state, country, utility, and non-profit organization incentives,
mandates, programs, and rebates exist around the world. Some directly promote DREG
like the ones mentioned above and many others generally promote RE and or DG thereby
indirectly promoting DREG.
Similarly, market projections indicate strong growth in DREG installations
around the world in the coming years. Pike Research (2009) forecasts that the DREG
market will more than double in value between 2008 and 2013 reaching $60.6 billion. In
a global market study at the end of 2008, the American Wind Energy Association (2009)
predicted 30 fold growth in the small wind turbine market within five years. The UK
small and micro wind systems sector has been growing at an annual rate of 80% and is
expected to continue (Renewable UK 2010). The most recent September 2009
International Energy Agency issue of ―Trends in Photovoltaic Applications‖ presented
graphs illustrating exponential growth between 1992 and 2008, with 2008 growth adding
another 5.56 GW of photovoltaic (3.34 GW distributed photovoltaic), or a 150% increase
over 2007 with no signs of slowing.
All these new incentivized, mandated, and projected DREG utilities, by
definition, will be primarily located near consumers. General energy consumption
categories include residential, commercial, transportation, and industrial (Energy
Information Administration 2009b). These general consumption categories correlate with
5
the built environment categories often planned and designed by landscape architects. The
American Society of Landscape Architects (2010) describes the types of built
environment which landscape architects work on to include, academic campuses,
corporate and commercial, gardens and arboreta, historic preservation and restoration,
hospitality and resorts, institutional, land planning, monuments, parks and recreation,
reclamation, residential, streetscapes and public spaces, transportation corridors and
facilities, and urban design. The occupational information network describes the work of
a landscape architect to include: ―parks and other recreational facilities, airports,
highways, hospitals, schools, land subdivisions, and commercial, industrial, and
residential sites‖ (O*Net Online 2009).
Even though possible DREG locations and the sites that landscape architects plan
and design are conceptually the same, it appears that no evidence based (peer reviewed)
DREG research is either explicitly done by landscape architects or recognizes the role
landscape architects play in planning and designing the built environment.
To determine whether or not evidence based DREG research is either explicitly
done by landscape architects or recognizes the role landscape architects play in planning
and designing the built environment; a systematic search of published literature was
conducted through various search databases including Ebsco Host, Google Scholar,
Scopus, and Scopus Web. For Ebsco Host, all 49 available databases were selected for
full text search including the Avery Index to Architecture Periodicals and Academic
Search Premier. In Google Scholar and Scopus/Scopus Web the searches were performed
with default settings. One hundred and twenty-six searches for each database were
6
performed based on a matrix of 43 possible DREG phrases and landscape architect,
landscape architecture, and ASLA (American Society of Landscape Architects, the field‘s
professional organization). Each article was reviewed for use of landscape architect,
landscape architecture, or ASLA in context with DREG.
Three hundred and seventeen articles containing the qualifying terms/ phrases
were identified and reviewed for relevancy. Only 14 non peer-reviewed articles had any
reasonable relevance. Two articles were about ASLA design awards that included on-site
energy generation in the plan, but lacked evidence based research support (American
Society of Landscape Architects 2008a; American Society of Landscape Architects
2008b). Two articles were product evaluations; one for a residential scale wind turbine
and the other for solar powered irrigation equipment (Sorvig 1994; Thayer and Hansen
1988). One article identified the landscape architecture of a site as an opportunity for
biomass production (Bergfeld 2009). Two articles and one conference program referred
to the presence of landscape architects on design teams who worked on plans that
included DREG (The University of Massachusetts 2008; ECE Connection 2008;
European Wind Energy Association 2003). One article cited the responsibility of
landscape architects in siting trees so as to not inhibit solar access. One article cited an
unpublished master‘s thesis that mapped solar potential (Flanders et al. 2009). Two other
master‘s theses made mention of DREG; one made brief mention of DREG in a larger
sustainability context (Topping 2005) while the other extensively addressed DREG as
part of a more broad discussion on the incorporation of RE, large and small, into the
landscape of the Netherlands, yet provided little to no evidence based support for DREG
7
specifically (Boekel 2008). Two articles on large wind generation made mention of a
specific landscape architects qualifications including large and small wind energy
generation site aesthetic design experience (National Research Council of the National
Academies 2007; The British Wind Energy Association 2006). The most relevant article
was a pamphlet produced by a landscape architect on how to site a residential micro wind
turbine in Vermont, although it was lacking evidence based support (Vissering 2005).
While the search returned no evidence based research explicitly mentioning
landscape architecture, or being done by landscape architects, the non-evidenced based
research indicates landscape architects are incorporating DREG into site designs,
consulting on siting DREG projects, participating in groups that address DREG,
landscape architecture students are considering DREG in personal research, DREG
market professionals are looking to landscape architects as clients, and that the landscape
component of a site may provide opportunities for DREG.
In addition to the reviewed literature, the Leaders in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) criteria and Sustainable Sites Initiative (SSI) address DREG. Landscape
architects are core practitioners in SSI and LEED certified projects. The New
Construction & Major Renovations energy and atmosphere (EA) credit 2 requires 1-13%
on-site RE (U.S. Green Building Council 2009a), the Neighborhood Development EA
credit 11 requires 5-20% on-site RE (U.S. Green Building Council 2009b), the Existing
Buildings EA credit 4 requires 3.12% on-site RE (U.S. Green Building Council 2009c),
the Homes EA credit 10 offers up to 10 points for on-site RE (U.S. Green Building
Council 2008), and the Core & Shell EA credit 2 requires at least 1% on-site RE (U.S.
8
Green Building Council 2009d). Most LEED projects will need to incorporate some level
of on-site RE generation. Furthermore, the American Society of Landscape Architects is
the lead author on the SSI with credits 5.9, 5.10, 8.4, and 8.5 all requiring on-site RE or
the purchase of off-site RE. Of note, credit 8.5 specifically requires 50% of landscape
energy needs to be provided by on-site RE or 100 % by off-site RE (American Society of
Landscape Architects, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center at The University of Texas
at Austin, and United States Botanic Garden 2009). As these two rating systems become
more accepted and as more agencies, companies, and individuals require the use of these
systems, landscape architects will increasingly be exposed to and need to participate in
DREG planning and design.
Given this, it is reasonable to suggest that landscape architects should be active in
DREG-related research. The following is an examination of the most likely places where
that can happen.
9
METHODS
Using Ebsco Host, all 49 available databases were selected for full text, peerreviewed search including the Avery Index to Architecture Periodicals and Academic
Search Premier. In total, 2666 searches were performed based on a matrix of 43 possible
iterations of DREG (Table 2) and 62 landscape architecture related research (LARR)
topics identified in Powers and Walker‘s review of Landscape Journal articles (2009,
100) (Table 3).
Table 2. DREG search terms/phrases, bold terms/phrases are represented in
relevant articles
DREG Search Terms/ Phrases
"Small wind"
"Independent electric generation"
"Microgrid"
"Distributed renewable energy generation"
"Renewable energy" "Distributed generation"
"Distributed renewable generation"
"Small scale wind"
"Distributed cogeneration"
"Micro-hydro"
"Distributed energy network"
"Micro generation"
"Renewable remote area power systems"
"Embedded generation"
"Clean DG"
"Rooftop solar"
"Decentralized energy planning"
"Distributed energy resources"
"Regional energy plan"
"Dispersed generation"
"Renewable distributed energy generation"
"Building integrated photovoltaics"
"Distributed multi-generation"
"Micro wind"
"Distributed micro-power"
"Distributed utility"
"Demand side generation"
"Distributed energy sources"
"Residential scale generation"
"Decentralized generation"
"Consumer generated energy"
"Renewable distributed generation"
"Active electric power"
"Decentralized electricity generation"
"Residential energy storage"
"On site energy generation"
"PVACCEPT"
"On-site renewable generation"
"Photovoltaic–fuel cell hybrid system"
"Personalized energy"
"Micro-level energy planning"
"Clean distributed generation"
"Regional integrated energy plan"
10
Table 3. LARR search terms/phrases, bold terms/phrases are represented in
relevant articles
LARR Search Terms/Phrases
Horticulture
Aesthetic
Design process
Hermeneutics
Phenomenology
Social factors
Climatic factors
Design and build
Stormwater
Community planning
GIS
Post occupancy
Evaluation
Computer analysis
Ecological design
Psychological factors
Water use
Neighborhood design
Long-term monitoring
Gender
Landscape assessment
Streetscape
Bioregionalism
Social class
Resource management
Urban Plaza
Waste
Behavioral factors
Open space
Parking
Garbage
Ethnicity
Shoreline
Photography
Sustainability
Historic preservation
Byway
Music
Health
Cultural landscape
Land use planning
Storytelling
Pedagogy
Biography
Land use policy
Poetry
Creativity
Landscape archeology
Wildlife
Visual simulation
Gaming
Religion
Mining
Drawing
Role play
Garden design
Design theory
Film
Studio project
Vegetation
Design method
Computer programs
Sense of place
Picturesque
Some of the LARR terms/ phrases were slightly modified to better reflect explicit,
in text usage such as ―social and psychological factors‖ being changed to ―social factors‖
and ―psychological factors.‖ Searches were then performed for all of the 2666 possible
overlaps.
The results were narrowed for relevance by excluding book reviews, review
essays, editor‘s intros, abstract lists, product reviews, opinion pieces, and publication end
notes. Coding rules shown in (Figure 1) were used to determine if the article was actually
referring to DREG, an aspect of LARR, and if the two were connected. The LARR terms/
phrases were evaluated according to the definitions in Table 4.
11
Figure 1. Article sorting rules
12
Figure 1. Continued
Articles deemed relevant on the above grounds were coded further to extract primary
DREG phrase, primary LARR term/ phrase, year, publication, primary country of
research, and primary RE type. Summaries of the relationships were recorded where they
existed. The relevant articles were reviewed to identify future research recommendations
based on questions or explicit identification of such. The recommendations were recorded
in full. The coded information was used to identify the most common LARR terms/
phrases, the most common DREG phrases, the publication years and trend, the
13
Table 4. Landscape architecture related research term/phrase definitions
Term/Phrase
Definition
Term/Phrase
Definition
Aesthetic
Dealing with the quality of the
visual appearance,
memorability, uniqueness, and
associative experiences
Intangible perception of tangible
environmental stimuli often
layered over time
High visual quality,
environmental framing to
highlight view of scene
Factors involving the
relationships between people as
influenced by the environment
Sex of a person
Phenomenology
Of or relating to the understand
of human experience
Planning for physical and non
physical aspects in a given area
that bring about the association
of individuals into a group
Human ethnic heritage
Preservation of structures,
landscapes, or other important
features in a state as close to the
original as possible, historical
designation is associated with
different requirements in
different locations, so it qualifies
if it is explicitly stated as such
Written history of an individual
Photography
Music
Religion
Explicitly stated in reference to a
person's formalized belief system
Poetry
Garden
Design
General description for the
practice of designing primarily
the soft-scape of a single site
Living plants generally and
associated descriptive massing
Drawing
Horticulture
Discipline of plant propagation
Climatic
Factors
Factors associated with
temperature, air, or precipitation
or combinations of the three
Computer
Programs
GIS
Sense of
Place
Picturesque
Social
Factors
Gender
Ethnicity
Historic
Preservation
Biography
Vegetation
Community
Planning
Neighborhood
Design
Streetscape
Parking
Storytelling
Film
The process of designing so as
to build the canvas for a smaller
associative group
Area adjacent to street which
varies width depending on street
type and location
Area associated with the
parking of automobiles
Act of photographing
Auditory composition
Verbally recounting experience
either fictional or real
Written and verbal arrangement
of words so as to communicate
an idea artistically
Visual form of communication
and expression
Technology which associates
visual and audible sensory
information into a meaningful
arrangement that can be shared
Software
Specific software used for
geographic modeling and
mapping
14
Design and
Build
General description for the
practice of overseeing or directly
participating in the designing of
a site and building of a site as
designed by the same individual
or group of individuals
Accumulation of precipitation
following storm events
Post Occupancy
Evaluation
Evaluation of design goals and
objectives for a period of time
following construction
Computer
Analysis
Water Use
How water is used in the
landscape generally
Ecological
Design
Landscape
Assessment
Inventory and analysis of a
specified geographical area
Long-Term
Monitoring
Resource
Management
Formalized plan for the use of
resources given specified goals
and or objectives
Bioregionalism
Open Space
Space devoted to uses beside
architecture beyond two
thousand square ft
Edge between water and land,
width varies according to
location
Planning for specific patterns of
use in a given geographical area
Waste
Use of a computer and
associated software to analyze
inputs
Design sensitive to and or using
principles of the naturally
functioning landscape
Observing the use of a space
over time to determine given
criteria
System of areas representing
distinct natural traits and
associated or further defined for
given objectives
Unused portion of available
energy
Health
Design
Theory
Guiding direction supporting
land use planning
Free roaming fauna
Practice of extracting resources
from beneath the natural surface
Guiding principles behind design
practice
Design
Process
Application of principles and
techniques to create a design
Stormwater
Shoreline
Land Use
Planning
Land Use
Policy
Wildlife
Mining
Garbage
Disposed of material
Sustainability
System that provides a loop for
energy with minimal input
indefinitely
Level of physical human well
being
Study of teaching principles
Organizing of previously
unrepresented associations
Form of entertainment
associated with some form of
interaction and associated
objective
Pedagogy
Creativity
Gaming
publication source, and the research location. Where multiple LARR terms/ phrases,
DREG phrases, or DREG forms appeared in one paper with nearly equal representation,
15
all were associated with that article. The articles were sorted according to CELA
conference paper tract categories and compared to Powers and Walker‘s Landscape
Journal ―percentage of published subjects by category‖ graph (2009, 104). All of the
synthesized summaries were reviewed for trends, related research, types of research, and
possible relationship to landscape architecture. Based on this review, recommendations
are discussed and proposed.
16
RESULTS
Two hundred and twenty-five of the 2666 possible overlaps in the search matrix
resulted in 612 articles (see Appendix) containing 1437 possible combinations of DREG
and LARR terms/ phrases. A review of the 612 articles yielded only 30 which contain an
actual overlap. Of those, only four scored high in all three categories of RE, DG, and
LARR search terms/ phrases according to the code rules (Figure 1).
―Waste‖ was the most common LARR search term, showing up in 23% of the
relevant articles, and ―health,‖ second most common, showed up in 22% of the articles
(Figure 2). A result of a partial article indicates the equal use of at least two terms/
phrases in the article where it appeared. ―Micro hydro,‖ the most common DREG search
phrase, was found in 37% of the relevant articles, and the primary search phrase in 27%
of them (Figure 3).
The 30 remaining articles were the result of 15 out of the 43 possible DREG
iterations (Table 2 phrases in bold) combined with 22 out of the 62 possible LARR terms/
phrases (Table 3 terms/ phrases in bold).
The first year a relevant overlapping article appeared was 1994. A trend line
indicates that, up to the present, the number of articles has increased on average;
however, 2008 and 2009 both showed fewer articles than the previous year (Figure 4).
Papers were published in 23 different journals. Sixty-six percent of the journals
had published just one overlapping article. Five of the identified 30 articles were
published in Energy Sources Part B: Economics, Planning & Policy, three in Local
Environment, and two in Journal of Power and Energy (Table 5).
17
Sense of Place
Parking
LARR Terms/Phrases
Social Factors
Community Planning
Land-use Planning
GIS
Gender
Computer Programs
Vegetation
Aesthetics
Health
Waste
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
# of Relevant Articles
Figure 2. Number of relevant LARR articles by primary term/phrase
Articles contained research conducted in 12 different countries. The United
Kingdom was cited in seven articles as the primary geographic location of research while
10 articles were more general in nature and could not be associated with a particular
location. The United States and Australia were associated with two articles each (Table
6).
Wind, solar, biomass, and micro hydro were each represented in some of the
relevant articles. Solar was the primary renewable source in 24% of the articles, micro
hydro and general RE each appeared in 18% of the articles, and 9% of the articles made
reference to numerous forms of RE equally (Figure 5).
18
"Decentralized Energy Planning"
"Distributed Renewable Generation"
"Distributed Renewable Energy Generation"
"Clean Distributed Generation"
"On- site renewable generation"
DREG Phrase
"Distributed utility"
"Building integrated photovoltaics"
"Dispersed generation"
"Embedded generation"
"Microgrid"
"Micro wind"
"Micro generation"
"Small wind"
"Renewable Energy" "Distributed Generation"
"Micro-hydro"
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
# of Articles
Figure 3. Number of relevant DREG articles by primary phrase
A comparison between Landscape Journal ―percentage of published subject by
category‖ prepared by Powers and Walker (2009, 100) and this study‘s percentage of
published subject by category showed few similarities. This study‘s articles represented
6 out of the 10 categories. The most obvious comparisons included: 45% of this study‘s
articles were in the ―sustainability‖ category compared to 5% of the Landscape Journal
articles, and 25% of the Landscape Journal articles were in the ―history and culture‖
category compared to 0% identified by this study (Figure 6).
19
9
8
# of Articles
7
6
# of Articles per Year
Trend Line
5
4
R² = 0.2393
3
2
1
0
Year
Figure 4. Number of relevant articles by year
Table 5. Publications of overlapping articles
Title
# of
Occurrences
Title
# of
Occurrences
Energy Sources Part B: Economics,
Planning & Policy
5
Environment
1
Local Environment
Journal of Power and Energy
3
2
Focus on Geography
Global Environmental Politics
1
1
Advances in Applied Ceramics
1
International Journal of Innovation
Management
1
Annual Review of Energy & the
Environment
1
International Journal of Sustainable
Energy
1
Area
ASHRAE
Australian Geographic Studies
BioScience
1
1
1
1
Journal of International Affairs
Journal of Urban Technology
N.Y.U. Environmental Law Journal
Planning Theory & Practice
1
1
1
1
Colorado Journal of International
Environmental Law and Policy
1
Turkish Journal of Electrical
Engineering & Computer Sciences
1
Disasters
Ecos
1
1
Widener Law Journal
1
20
Table 6. Geographic region where research was conducted
Geographic Location
Not Applicable
United Kingdom
Australia
United States
Africa
Canada
China
10
7
2
2
1
1
1
Denmark
India
Malaysia
Nepal
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
1
1
1
1
1
1
Wind
DREG Type
Various
Solar
Micro Hydro
General
Biomass
0
1
2
3
4
5
# of Articles
Figure 5. Number of relevant articles by DREG type
6
7
8
9
Percent of Articles
21
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
This Study
Landscape
Journal
CELA Conference Paper Tract Categories
Figure 6. Percent relevant articles compared to percent Landscape Journal articles
Article Summary Results
The summaries are presented by CELA conference paper tract category, then by
the search term/ phrase used to locate the article, and finally by groups of similar articles.
Human and Environment Relationships: Aesthetics. In describing the way in
which the US should proceed in promoting solar energy generation, reference is made by
Detsky to work done by Australian energy officials to teach professionals best practice
and aesthetic principles as it relates to siting solar utilities. It suggests that Australia has
either gathered research in this respect or has done some of their own research (Detsky
22
2003). In a study on building integrated photovoltaics, it is proposed that building
integrated photovoltaics are a great aesthetic solution for distributed solar generation (Li
and Lam 2008). In an extensive article titled ―The Aesthetics of Wind,‖ Brisman (2005)
makes a few passing references to smaller distributed forms such as the obvious height
differences between small and large turbines, the history of traditional distributed wind
power near residences or other places power was needed including the associated visual
acceptance of these forms, and a brief mentioning of a few incentives associated with
small wind. One challenge to wind is that some communities have passed laws that
prohibit the use of wind in residential areas primarily due to the aesthetics of the utility
(Pimentel and Rodrigues 1994). A general study focused on understanding user
preferences toward the uptake and use of DREG mentions the need for installers, policy
makers, and particularly designers to take an active role in matching the utility to the
users‘ non-functional related preferences (Pimentel and Rodrigues 1994).
Human and Environment Relationships: Gender. Two articles addressed the
idea of gender in relation to DREG utilities. The first study explores the introduction of
micro hydro into Indian villages. The study does not consider gender extensively but does
imply that access to electricity increases gender equality (Uitto 2008). A second study on
community perception and attitudes toward wind power and other distributed utilities
considers gender among other socio-demographic attributes. The author concluded that
there are not any perception or attitude differences toward wind that can be associated
with gender (Devine-Wright 2005).
23
Human and Environment Relationships: Sense of Place. In a conceptualization
of what a solar city might be like, Beatley (2007) suggests that solar utilities can and
should play a role in the overall creation of ―place.‖ Little to no other direction is
explicitly offered.
Human and Environment Relationships: Social Factors. Reference to ―social
factors‖ in Rankine, Chick, and Harrison‘s (2006) study on life-cycle assessment of a
rooftop wind turbine point out the need to research the social factors associated with
rooftop wind power in order to understand the full sustainability of that form of utility.
Landscape Design and Implementation: Vegetation. Two ―micro hydro‖ studies
consider the adjacent riparian vegetation. The first is a broad discussion on climate
change with one of the strategies including provisions to protect the riparian corridor and
riparian vegetation near micro hydro installations (Rojas Blanco 2006). The other study is
focused on ―micro hydro‖ and emphasizes the need to care for the health of the riparian
system, including the vegetation, in a larger corridor context as more ―micro hydro‖ units
are installed (U.S. Green Building Council 2009d). A third study looks at the effect of
rain forest vegetation on solar access in remote areas of Australia. They determined that
there needs to be a break in the forest vegetation of at least 40 meters and an array height
of 7 meters to allow optimal solar access on a standard site while a north facing slope
needed a gap of 100 meters or more and a 4 meter high array (Curtis and Turton 2002). In
a study on sustainable development, Kaygusuz (2007) mentions the possibility of using
solar and or wind power to pump water for energy crops which in turn could also increase
wildlife diversity in these areas.
24
Landscape Planning and Ecology: Land-use Planning. A study on the possible
planning issues that need to be addressed in the transition to urban sited wind turbines
acknowledges the many challenges associated with land use planning and distributed
wind utilities. The prescription of the study in relation to land use planning is one of
circumspection and caution (Peel and Lloyd 2007). A second article, discussing some of
the ways climate change will affect planning professions, makes reference to how proper
land use planning can lead to increased use of distributed RE (Campbell 2006).
Urban Design: Parking. Making reference again to Beatley‘s (2007) paper on
envisioning solar cities, he makes reference to the use of wind turbines on light poles in
parking lots in the City of Honolulu as part of an overall approach to sustainability.
Methods of Inquiry: Computer Programs. Two studies incorporated the use of
computer programs to optimize the overall efficiencies between energy production and
energy use. One focused on hydrogen as the main energy source but both addressed the
use of photovoltaic panels on a single residential structure (Golding and Blyton 2007; Li
and Lam 2008).
Methods of Inquiry: GIS. Two studies focused on GIS as a method of inquiry.
The first is a study done by Miranda (2006) that offered a discussion on a number of GIS
modeling techniques that can aid in finding solutions to many of the common challenges
of siting distributed wind energy generation. In a second study, Möller (2003) used GIS
to model a system with maximized efficiency between wood chip distribution sites and
distributed biomass energy generation sites. The result is some suggestions for a better
25
wood chip transport system and some discussion about challenges that may come in the
future if proper planning is not done now.
Sustainability: Health. Seven studies made mention of the associated health
benefits and challenges of DREG. Two studies made mention of the negative impacts
associated with in home biomass combustion and the associated air pollution (Kaygusuz
2007; Pimentel and Rodrigues 1994). The other articles implied that the driving forces for
distributed renewable in remote areas is the associated health benefits of refrigeration and
other energy requiring medical facilities and equipment (Martinot et al. 2002; Peterson
2006; Yüksel 2007). Some studies just say that electricity is associated with better health
(Kammen 1999; Pokharel et al. 2008).
Sustainability: Waste. The highest percentage of articles was on waste. Phillips,
Beyers, and Good (2009) proposed a way to use the waste heat of a distributed solar
thermal system to cool a house and to heat water. Beatley (2007) seconds this idea by
saying that properly incorporated solar can capitalize on waste streams. Maryland offers
tax incentives for individuals who use municipal solid waste to generate electricity and
provide net metering for the same (Reiley 2009). Walker and Cass (2007) talk about
agricultural waste being an important home cooking and heating DREG resource. In
another document, Walker et al. (2007) talks about the growing amount of community
power being produced from waste. Kammen (1999) mentions the use of waste on an
industrial scale. In looking at future biomass potential in Australia, Bennett (1999)
promotes the idea that waste wood will be profitable for combined heat and power
generation provided gasification technology increases. Khan, Chhetri, and Islam (2007)
26
talk about the possibility of using waste cooking oil for solar thermal applications. Lovins
and Lotspeich (1999) talk about the prime position that developing countries are in to
avoid the wasteful infrastructure associated with extensive transmission and distribution
networks by simply planning for DREG. Rankine (2006) offers insight into how small
wind turbines compare to large ones in a detailed study on life cycle assessment. The
results illustrate that, per kWh, small wind turbines are quite comparable to large ones
and the recommendations tell how small turbines could be even better than they currently
are (Rankine, Chick, and Harrison 2006).
Explicit Future Research Recommendations
Six articles explicitly made mention of future research needs and the following
list is a recounting of each of them.
- ―published studies of income generation and economic benefits from renewable energy
are still limited and call for further research‖ (Martinot et al. 2002, 340)
- "… research is needed on successful experiences and business models, social benefits
and income generation, technology applications that meet user needs, and sectoral policy
lessons from emerging policy successes and failures - grounded in the specific culture,
politics, institutions, and history of each country.‖ (Martinot et al. 2002, 340)
-―… a key question is whether or not the outcomes of government support for smallscale, localized community energy projects can add up to more than the sum of the ―small
parts‖ of renewable energy generation and carbon reduction‖ (Walker et al. 2007, 78-79)
- ―Are there impacts more subtle, distant in space and time or accumulative, which a
multiplicity of small projects can help realize?" (Walker et al. 2007, 78-79)
27
- ―…how (do) renewable energy technologies take on different meanings and
associations, how the public does or does not differentiate between socio-technical
configurations, how multiple public roles are interconnected, how learning mechanisms
operate, and how the expectations of the public held by other actors shape technology and
system development.‖ (Walker and Cass 2007, 467)
- ―… geography needs to be involved, integrating analysis of space, identity, inequality,
agency and structure into our understanding of the emerging social patterning of what
might constitute a low carbon energy system.‖ (Walker and Cass 2007, 467)
- ―… further research probing links between respondent‘s political ideology, their
memories or representations of past development in the locality, levels of trust in public
and private sector organizations and their support for future local energy development
would be useful.‖ (Devine-Wright 2005, 66)
-―It is certainly the case that future research is required to investigate how widely shared
these beliefs are in support of local aspects of renewable energy development across
locations of diverse socio-economic status.‖ (Devine-Wright 2005, 66)
- ―There is surprisingly little information on such important matters as long-term
performance, the economic costs and benefits, the effectiveness of subsidies, and the
social consequences of renewable energy.‖ (Kammen 1999, 35, 40)
- ―To date, urban wind-turbines are still relatively exceptional, and involve new learning
and understanding by all involved.‖ (Peel and Lloyd 2007, 352)
28
- ―Should this type of industrial structure (urban wind-turbines) become the norm in the
city, would the impact still be of ‗graceful and majestic structures with a modern and
clean image‘?‖ (Peel and Lloyd 2007, 352)
29
DISCUSSION
The research and analysis indicate that DREG lacks a strong foundation as an
independent concept; that some research has been done on topics familiar to landscape
architects; that more DREG LARR is needed; and that landscape architects can expand
the reach, depth, and scope of DREG LARR.
Foundation
DREG lacks a strong foundation as an independent concept due to strong
associations within DG and RE separately, and no consensus on phraseology.
In 9 of the 30 relevant articles, the most common DREG search phrase was a
combination of ―Distributed Generation‖ and ―Renewable Energy‖ (Figure 3). The high
number of associations with this phraseology indicates strong ties to separate realms of
research. Articles tended to focus on either renewable energy in the larger context with
passing mention of distributed generation (Beatley 2007; Brisman 2005; Golding and
Blyton 2007; Martinot et al. 2002; Reiley 2009; Walker et al. 2007; Detsky 2003), or to
focus on distributed generation with only passing mention of renewable energy (Miranda
2006; Möller 2003).
Beyond the use of ―Distributed Generation‖ and ―Renewable Energy‖ separately,
many other phrases are used to describe DREG (Table 2). Some of the most common
phrases identified in this study are associated with specific types of renewable energy
such as ―Small Wind,‖ and ―Micro Hydro‖ (Figure 3). The diversity of challenges
associated with each form of DREG validates the use of separate phrases, for example,
research on the visual effects of a wind turbine will differ from research on the visual
30
effects of a photovoltaic panel, yet those sub-terms/ phrases should fall under a broader
organizational framework and clear DREG phraseology. The remaining phrases in Figure
3 indicate no consensus on what that phraseology should be. Not only does the lack of
clear phraseology make it difficult to find DREG related research, the lack of clear
phraseology excludes it from isolated data collection. Currently, DREG data is often
lumped in with all renewable energy or with specific forms such as wind or solar, which
often includes larger centralized utilities.
DREG research progress will depend on identifiable general and sub terminology/
phraseology, and a well developed and accepted conceptual foundation including
disassociation with distributed non-renewable energy generation and centralized
renewable energy generation. The ideal framework will consist of a phase such as
―distributed renewable energy generation‖ that inherently relates to the primary aspects
of distributed and renewable combined. Sub-phrases should also be composed to reflect
the scale of the distributed utility and the type of renewable energy such as community
wind turbine or residential wind turbine.
Current DREG LARR
Research on topics familiar to landscape architects has been on the rise in recent
years, has focused on a few key LARR terms/ phrases, has focused on a few important
DREG LARR overlaps, and has included most DREG forms resulting in a budding pool
of best practice knowledge.
Increased interest and promotion of DREG in recent years has been mirrored by
increased DREG LARR. The first know instance of DREG LARR occurred in 1994 and
31
has increased on average to the present. Over two thirds of the DREG LARR has
occurred in the last five years (Figure 4). The results did indicate a decline in ‘08 and ‘09
possibly due to economic slowing and a possible lack of research funding.
The growing amount of DREG LARR has been focused on a few key subject
areas. The most common subject area was waste (Figure 2). A distributed utility that can
capitalize on a waste stream and turn it into energy could provide tremendous savings,
and the site where that occurs is a step closer to sustainability. The related subject area of
health was the next most common (Figure 2). Increased health is considered an outcome
of the displacement of non-renewable forms by renewable ones and the way in which
distributed utilities can provide electricity for improved health services in remote areas.
Aesthetics was also a common LARR term/ phrase (Figure 2) which can be associated
with the impending increased visual impact of more utilities near users. Research focus
on a comparatively small number of LARR terms/ phrases indicates both a lack of overall
research to cover all the subject areas and the importance of the ones getting attention.
Of the major sources of DREG, solar, wind, biomass, and micro hydro were all
nearly equally represented in the DREG LARR, a few articles addressed DREG generally
(Campbell 2006; Caird and Roy 2008; Kammen 1999; Reiley 2009; Lovins and
Lotspeich 1999; Walker and Cass 2007), and no articles directly represented geothermal
(Figure 5). Solar was the most common and seems to be the broadest application for
DREG (Figure 5). Solar is represented by two energy generation strategies; thermal and
photovoltaic. Wind energy is somewhat limited in its distributed smaller forms due to
technological challenges, however as those challenges are decreasing, more siting
32
challenges are becoming apparent. Biomass fell a little lower on the number of articles in
which it was the primary form of DREG (Figure 5) perhaps because there is not a definite
differentiation between centralized and distributed forms, however it is possible this is
the DREG form that could relate most to landscape architects. Landscape architects deal
with soft-scape and vegetation; that could be planned and designed to include energy
crops and efficient biomass energy systems. Micro hydro was a common form of DREG
for remote areas, yet little discussion was given to how micro hydro could be used in
more urban streams and waterways.
Evolving technology makes it challenging to study individual DREG forms. For
example, the visual forms of wind turbines and photovoltaic panels have been much the
same for many years, but outputs, economics, and perceptions have not. The space
needed to power a home on PV generated power is greater today than it will likely be in 5
years. It is important with this type of research to incorporate some type of update
mechanism so that DREG constants can be applied to changing variables.
The growing collection of DREG LARR on a few key subject areas such as
waste, health, aesthetics, and vegetation has resulted in momentum for future research, a
focus on key subject areas, and some important best practice guidance (see article
summary results) which can be carried forward and added to.
Future DREG LARR
Many of the DREG LARR articles cite increased research needs, particularly for
studies conducted in the most common DREG LARR geographic locations.
33
Six articles included either questions or specific future research recommendations
(see explicit research recommendation results) (Martinot et al. 2002; Walker and Cass
2007; Walker et al. 2007; Devine-Wright 2005; Kammen 1999; Peel and Lloyd 2007).
These questions and recommendations could total more than 50 individual study foci
multiplied by various scales ranging from specific sites and geographic locations to
global ramifications. A few of the main research concepts include questions about visual
impacts, public expectations, social impacts, economics, business models, meaning,
political systems, implementation, public vs private associations, technology
performance, and perceptions.
Nearly a quarter of the studies were conducted in the UK (Table 6). An analysis
of these articles indicate that a primary driving force behind research and the need for
future research lies in the slow acceptance of DREG by the public. Six out of the seven
articles were aimed at understanding community values, finding appropriate scales, and
finding appropriate methods of implementation as it relates to DREG (Campbell 2006;
Caird and Roy 2008; Devine-Wright 2005; Peel and Lloyd 2007; Walker and Cass 2007;
Walker et al. 2007). Another force driving research seems to be focused on understanding
if DREG will meet the goals for which it is intended, as illustrated by the study that
focused on the life cycle costs to understand if a small turbine would meet the goal of
carbon reduction equal to that of a large turbine (Rankine, Chick, and Harrison 2006).
Research in other countries such as the US may be hindered by the lack of a national
focus on DREG and associated research funding.
34
Future DREG research will be needed to meet government mandated goals and
answer questions associated with installation of these utilities from very specific sites to
global networks. Immediate research is particularly needed to understand public
acceptance, issues of scale, and visual preferences.
Landscape Architect Contribution Opportunities
Landscape architects are positioned to move DREG LARR forward by
broadening the audience, by adding expertise to areas being researched, and by
expanding the scope of research.
As landscape architects become involved in DREG research, the literature forum
for the dissemination of knowledge will broaden. Currently, no DREG related research
exists explicitly in Landscape Journal, and out of the over 40 publications identified as
key for landscape architecture scholarship (Erickson 2009), only Local Environment, is
associated with past DREG LARR (Devine-Wright 2005; Peel and Lloyd 2007; Peterson
2006). As landscape architects select publications for future DREG LARR it is likely that
much of this will be in journals where DREG research has not been reported previously.
The journals where DREG LARR has been occurring (Table 5) are important for
improved collaboration discussion, including discussion on the professional role of
landscape architects as it applies to DREG. A broadened audience may increase the
research and improve the dissemination of knowledge such that best practice can be
implemented more quickly.
In addition to a broader forum for research publication, landscape architects can
add to the research that has been done. Past landscape architect scholarship on LARR
35
subject areas as evidenced by Landscape Journal publications, is within 15% of, or
exceeds similar DREG LARR, with the exception of the subject category of
―Sustainability‖ (Figure 6). Where DREG LARR has been occurring, landscape
architects may provide additional insight, for example, where past DREG LARR on
micro hydro sites may illustrate riparian vegetation degradation, a landscape architect
may add to that discussion by recognizing the ecological and aesthetic role of the
vegetation and perform research on how to best integrate the two with the needed
function of the micro hydro utility.
Many more questions and future directions posed by landscape architects will
expand the scope of DREG where it overlaps with LARR terms/ phrases. In the cases of
―History and Culture,‖ ―Design Theory,‖ ―Communication and Visualization,‖ and
―Design Education and Pedagogy,‖ no DREG research has been done (Figure 6). Nor has
DREG research been done on other LARR terms/ phrases (Table 3). Landscape architects
may pose and contribute to questions like:
-What effect does a community wind turbine located in a public park have on
sociological and psychological park experience?
-What will be the plant palette for a yard focused on producing enough biomass fuel to
power an automobile or home?
-How does the installation of DREG modify or change the ―sense of place‖ associated
with a given site?
-Which forms of DREG are the most influential in creating a sense of place or destroying
it?
36
-Will it actually save water to heavily irrigate a residential energy crop that could be used
for biomass energy generation rather than rely on coal fired electricity which uses a lot of
water?
-How do DREG utilities affect the psychological perception of a space?
-Are there gender preferences for particular applications of DREG and how should design
respond?
-Are there ethnic preferences for particular applications of DREG?
-How does DREG affect the perceptions of a historic site?
-What is the process for seamlessly incorporating DREG into a historic site?
-Do DREG utility applications differ by social class?
-How can DREG utilities be employed to influence behavior?
- How does DREG change cultural landscapes, and how could it be seamlessly
incorporated?
-What vegetative patterns improve DREG?
-How can vegetation be employed to screen DREG utilities without inhibiting
productivity?
-Does landscape microclimate effect DREG efficiency?
-What is the best resource mix for maximized DREG?
-How can public or private open space be maximized for DREG production?
-What is the public perception and preferences associated with open space DREG?
-How does micro hydro impact stream ecology?
-How does landscape and planning design theory relate to DREG utility design?
37
-What are the most appropriate methods for the design of DREG utilities?
-How can DREG be incorporated into community planning?
-How is the best way to incorporate DREG into neighborhood design?
-How can streetscapes be employed to incorporate DREG?
-Does an urban plaza with installed DREG affect public acceptance of the utilities?
-What opportunities exist for DREG incorporation into parking lot design?
-What is the best medium for illustrating the visual changes created by DREG?
-What computer programs can be used to model optimal combination of DREG given
multiple best practice inputs?
-What data layers are needed for planning and designing DREG utilities with GIS?
-What are the lessons learned from DREG utility post occupancy evaluations?
-What should be the long term monitoring protocol for DREG utilities?
-How do ecological design principles apply to DREG design?
-How do bioregions relate to DREG placement?
-What are the most appropriate waste streams for DREG utilities to capitalize on?
-What are the links between health and DREG?
-How should DREG design be incorporated into landscape architecture curriculums?
Where landscape architects participate in DREG research, more professionals will
be exposed to the results, additional insight will be added including new approaches for
existing research focuses, and the scope of research will expand.
38
Limitations of this Study
While all efforts were made to ensure accuracy and quality, there are a few
limitations to this study.
It is possible that there could have been higher percentages of geothermal and
biomass articles had clear distributed terminology/ phraseology been available for these
forms. In the search matrix, solar and wind specific terms/phrases out-numbered biomass,
micro hydro, and geothermal terms/phrases (Table 2). Despite going to great lengths to
incorporate as many DREG phrase variations as possible into the search for articles, it
became evident as the evaluation of the articles went along that there are additional
variations such as ―small turbine‖ meaning ―small wind turbine,‖ ―distributed
renewables‖ for ―distributed renewable energy generation,‖ ―distributed solar
generation,‖ ―distributed wind generation,‖ ―rooftop wind,‖ etc.. Many of these phrases
are not key phraseology but may have led to a few additional overlaps.
By limiting the search to the topic terms/ phrases identified by Powers and
Walker (2009, 100) which they attributed to each CELA subject category (Table 3), some
applicable research may have been missed. There are, for example, variations in the idea
of aesthetics. Aesthetics could refer to terms/ phrases like visual quality, visual
experience, and appearance. Additional terms/ phrases could also have been added to
headings. For example, under the ―sustainability‖ heading, ―energy cycling‖ or ―life cycle
assessment‖ could have been added. Using the CELA headings themselves could have
returned a broader set of results. For example, the category term ―sustainability‖ may
39
have returned articles that could have gone beyond a discussion of waste, garbage, health,
bioregionalism, and ecological design.
A few relevant articles may have been overlooked where the correlation was not
explicit enough. Identifying all implicit connections were beyond the scope of this
research but may be of value in more direct study of specific research categories in the
future.
Some initial effort was made to quantify the quality of overlap in the articles as
part of the sorting process, but due to the small number of articles containing an overlap,
this assessment was largely left out of the analysis. No effort was made to differentiate
the quality of the research in the articles.
It is possible that research was missed because it was published in a journal not
available in the searched data bases or under different search terms/ phrases. Finally,
there may have been relevant articles in other languages that were not included in this
study.
40
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study contributes to the profession of landscape architecture an
awareness of the current gap in research and suggestions on how to fill that gap. The
research and analysis indicate that DREG lacks a strong foundation as an independent
concept which could benefit from disassociation with the broader, more established fields
of RE and DG and from clear broad phraseology linked to organized sub-terms/ phrases
for specific forms of DREG. There has been some research done on topics familiar to
landscape architects, which has been increasing in recent years, has focused on a few
select LARR terms/ phrases, and has included most of the primary forms of DREG.
Despite the efforts that have been made, more needs to be done to meet important
research questions and recommendations already posed, and to understand how to best
meet the goals and mandates set up to promote DREG. Landscape architects can expand
the reach of DREG LARR knowledge into multiple publications where none has been
previously, can add to the depth of DREG LARR that has been done, and can broaden the
scope of DREG LARR by asking new questions about overlaps that have not yet been
addressed.
In addition to the prescribed steps just mentioned, possible next steps may include
a survey of landscape architecture professionals to catalog research questions they have
and how they are currently involved in DREG; a survey of landscape architecture
professors to establish a more formal research agenda; and a survey of current DREG
researchers to understand their awareness of landscape architects, the type of work
landscape architects do, and future collaboration opportunities.
41
Now is the time to be foresighted in researching best practice so the built
environments of the future, which will include DREG utilities, take forms that maximize
efficiency, minimize environmental impact, and enhance human experience.
42
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