Michael P. Bahrman Jan G. Johansson Bo A. Nilsson
ABB Inc. ABB Utilities AB
Abstract – Voltage Source Converter (VSC) technology has been selected as the basis for several
ABB Utilities AB voltage support combined with an energy storage source) permit continuous and independent control of real and reactive power. Reactive power control is also independent of that at any other terminal. Reactive power control can be recent projects due to its controllability, compact modular design, ease of system interface and low environmental impact. This paper describes the rationale for selection of VSC technology and the latest technical developments utilized in several recent projects.
Keywords – VSC - HVDC – IGBT - Valves – PWM -
FACTS - STATCOM – SVC – Flicker – Power Quality used for dynamic voltage regulation to support the interconnecting ac system following contingencies. This capability can increase the overall transfer levels. Forced commutation with VSC even permits black start, i.e., the converter can be used to synthesize a balanced set of three phase voltages much like a synchronous machine.
2. GENERAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
1. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Dynamic Reactive Power Compensation – SVC vs.
STATCOM Traditional HVDC and FACTS installations have often provided economic solutions for special transmission applications. HVDC is well-suited for long-distance, bulkpower transmission, long submarine cable crossings, and asynchronous interconnections. Static var compensators
(SVC) provide a reserve source of dynamic reactive power thereby raising power transfer limits. HVDC and FACTS technologies permit transmitting more power over fewer transmission lines.
Deregulated generation markets, open access to
An SVC provides voltage regulation and dynamic reactive power reserve by means of thyristor-controlled reactors
(TCR) and thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC) for var absorption and production respectively. A STATCOM accomplishes the same effect by using a VSC to synthesize a voltage waveform of variable magnitude with respect to the system voltage as shown in Figure 1. Although both FACTS devices require filters which form an integral part of the net transmission, formation of RTO’s, regional differences in generation costs and increased difficulty in siting new transmission lines, however, have led to a renewed interest in FACTS and HVDC transmission often in non-traditional applications. This is especially true with the lag in transmission investment and the separation in ownership of generation and transmission assets. HVDC and FACTS transmission technologies available today offer the planner increased flexibility in meeting transmission challenges.
HVDC transmission and reactive power compensation with voltage source converter (VSC) technology has certain capacitive reactive power supply, the filters are usually a larger part of the reactive power supply in an SVC. For very weak system applications, it is advantageous to have smaller filters. Often control of these FACTS devices is coordinated with mechanically-switched capacitor banks (MSC) to bias their dynamic operating range and maintain reactive power reserve margin.
The STATCOM branch offers both reactive power absorption and production capability whereas an SVC requires separate branches for each. The STATCOM, especially when controlled with PWM, allows faster attributes which can be beneficial to overall system performance. HVDC Light™ and SVC Light™ technology developed by ABB employs voltage source converters
(VSC) with series-connected IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) valves controlled with pulse width modulation response and thereby improves power quality. This is very useful to mitigate flicker from disturbances caused by electric arc furnaces at steel mills. For normal ac network disturbances where oscillatory modes usually do not exceed
1.5 Hz, however, the additional bandwidth may provide no real system benefit.
(PWM). VSC converters used for power transmission (or

Figure 1. STATCOM
One of the main reasons for installing an SVC or
STATCOM in transmission networks is to increase the power transfer capability where limited by post-contingency voltage criteria or undervoltage loss of load probability.
Determining the optimum mix of dynamic and switched compensation is a challenge. Control systems are designed to keep the normal operating point within the middle of the
SVC or STATCOM dynamic range.
If, after a disturbance, the FACTS device temporarily hits its capacitive limit, reactive power production will be decreased. For an SVC this decrease will be with voltage squared, whereas with a STATCOM it will be with voltage.
Most overhead transmission voltage support applications require more dynamic capability on the capacitive side than on the inductive side. It is more economical to do this with
1.150
TSC branches than with STATCOM branches. Depending on the rating criteria, it can often be more economical to use a larger SVC especially considering the extra dynamic vars supplied at nominal voltage. With parallel shunt banks, the difference in the composite device V-I characteristics becomes less as illustrated in Figure 2.
Finding the optimal FACTS solution must be evaluated together with the owner in each unique situation for the respective transmission system. It is usually recommended to base the decision on a thorough system study. Ultimately, it is the owner/user’s task to define the system requirements for the FACTS device, and the supplier to determine the optimal solution.
2.2 DC Transmission System – Current Source
Converters vs. VSC
Conventional HVDC transmission employs linecommutated, current-source converters requiring a synchronous voltage source in order to operate. The conversion process demands reactive power from filters, shunt banks, or series capacitors which are part of the converter station. Any surplus or deficit in reactive power must be accommodated by the ac system. This difference in reactive power needs to be kept within a given band to keep the ac voltage within the desired tolerance. The weaker the system or the further away from generation, the tighter the reactive power exchange must be to stay within the desired voltage tolerance.
1.100
1.050
1.000
0.950
0.900
With 20 MVAR HF
0.850
-3.000
1.150
1.100
1.050
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
With 20 MVAR HF + 2x50MVAR MSC
2.000
1.000
0.950
0.900
0.850
-3.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
<--- Capacitive ------STATCOM Current (p.u.)------- Inductive --->
2.000
Figure 2. V-I Diagram ±150 MVAR STATCOM
Figure 3. VSC P-Q
Proper control of the converter and its associated reactive power compensation allows the ac system voltage to be held within a fairly tight and acceptable range. Unlike a generator or static var compensator, however, a conventional
HVDC converter cannot provide much dynamic voltage support to the ac network. HVDC conversion technology using voltage source converters, however, can not only control the power flow but also provide dynamic voltage regulation to the ac system. Figure 3 depicts the P - Q

characteristics for a VSC designed for HVDC transmission.
The capacitive limit is due to imposing a voltage limitation.
If the system voltage is reduced, this limit increases. The reactive power control range available depends on the active power operating point.
Depending on the converter rating, series-connected IGBT valves are arranged in either a three-phase two-level or three-level bridge. In three-level converters, IGBT valves may also be used in place of diodes for neutral point clamping. Each IGBT position is individually controlled and monitored via fiber optics and equipped with integrated antiparallel, free-wheeling diodes. Each IGBT has a rated voltage of 2.5 kV with rated currents up to 1500 A. Each
VSC station is built up with modular valve housings which are constructed to shield electromagnetic interference (EMI).
The valves are cooled with circulating water and water to air heat exchangers. PWM switching frequencies for the VSC typically range between 1-2 kHz depending on the converter topology, system frequency and specific application.
Control
System
Figure 4. VSC Transmission
The following factors make VSC-based transmission attractive:
•
Independent control of reactive and active power
•
Reactive control independent of other terminal(s)
•
Simpler interface with ac system
•
Compact filters
•
Provides continuous ac voltage regulation
•
No minimum power restriction
•
Operation in extremely weak systems
•
No commutation failures
•
No restriction on multiple infeeds
•
No polarity reversal needed to reverse power
•
Black-start capability
•
Variable frequency
•
HVDC Light cable - economic extruded polymer
2.2.1 VSC Converter Design
VSC-based HVDC transmission utilizes several important technological developments:
•
High voltage valves with series-connected IGBTs
•
Compact, dry, high-voltage dc capacitors
•
High capacity control system
•
Solid dielectric DC cable
A special gate unit and voltage divider across each IGBT maintain an even voltage distribution across the series connected IGBTs. The gate unit not only maintains proper voltage sharing within the valve during normal switching conditions but also during system disturbances and fault conditions. A reliable short circuit failure mode exists for individual IGBTs within each valve position.
Figure 5. PWM Signal for Three-Level VSC
Each VSC is effectively mid-point grounded and coupled to the AC bus via phase reactors and a power transformer with intermediary shunt AC filters. The AC filters are tuned to multiples of the switching frequency. This arrangement minimizes harmonic content and avoids dc voltage stresses in the transformer which allows use of a standard AC power transformer for matching the AC network voltage to the converter AC voltage necessary to produce the desired DC transmission voltage.
DC capacitors are used across the dc side of the VSC. For transmission applications there may also be DC filters and a zero-sequence blocking reactor. The filters and zerosequence reactor are used to mitigate interference on any metallic telephone circuits that run adjacent to the DC cables. The total capacitance of the pole to ground DC capacitors vary with the application. DC capacitance is higher for VSC used for flicker mitigation.
2.2.2 VSC Control and Protection
In the VSC-based HVDC transmission schemes described herein, the switching of the IGBT valves follows a pulsewidth modulation (PWM) pattern. This switching control allows simultaneous adjustment of the amplitude and phase angle of the converter AC output voltage with constant dc

voltage even with a two-level converter. With these two independent control variables, separate active and reactive power control loops can be used for regulation.
The active power control loop can be set to control either the active power or the DC side voltage. In a DC link, one station will be selected to control the active power while the other must be set to control the DC side voltage. The reactive power control loop can be set to control either the reactive power or the AC side voltage. Either of these two modes can be selected independently at either end of the DC link.
The station control and monitoring system (SCM) consists of two primary parts: 1) human machine interface (HMI) and data storage and 2) control and protection (CP).
Communication among the different parts is via LAN (Local
Area Network) with optical fibers.
The HMI is via local and remote OWS (Operator Work
Stations). The OWS allows the operator on-line access to operational status and settings of control and protection systems and to integrated diagnostic information such as the event list, alarm list, fault list, and disturbance recordings of
AC ref1
-
AC voltage i i

 


P


Q



P


Q
⋅
-
⋅
(
-
DC-ref2
DC-ref1
U
⋅ sin(
δ
⋅
) ) the control and protection system. Serial connections to existing SCADA-systems are made via established standards and common hardware.
The control and protection system is comprised of state of the art computers, micro-controllers and digital signal processors. Each VSC has two independent CP systems for redundancy to ensure high reliability. Multiple transient fault recording (TFR) functions are integrated into the CP. This allows recording of any signals in the CP at selectable time spans and resolutions limited only by data storage capacity.
This feature provides complete information about the dynamic performance of the converter.
Control and protection is implemented with a fully graphical block diagram programming language supported by an extensive library. A graphical debugger tool is available for ease in troubleshooting. For the VSC-based HVDC and SVC systems, the gate units contain a primary valve/bridge protection that acts in only few ns. A back-up protection that operates in less than 3
µ s is also provided based on the current flowing in the DC capacitors and phase reactors. cos(
δ
) )
Figure 6. Control of VSC-Based Transmission System i i u
AC2

3. VSC BASED PROJECTS
Table 1 lists the VSC based transmission projects in operation or under construction, their ratings and the rationale for selecting VSC technology. Certain aspects, unique features or attributes of five of these projects will be described below. These are HVDC Light transmission projects Murray Link, Cross Sound Cable Interconnector, and Troll A and SVC Light reactive power compensation projects Polarit and Holly STATCOM.
VSC Project
Hellsjön
Hagfors
Gotland
Rating
3 MW, ±10 kV
10 km
0-44 MVAR
50 MW, ±80 kV
70 km underground
VSC Rationale
Development
Tjæreborg
Directlink
7 MW, ±10 kV
4 km underground
3 x 60 MW, ±80 kV
65 km underground
Moselstahlwerk 0-38 MVAR
Eagle Pass 36 MVA
Cable Intercon.
Murray Link
Polarit
40 km submarine
200 MW, ±150kV
180km underground
0-164 MVAR
EAF flicker mitigation
- Wind power
- Environmental
- Voltage support
- Stabilize AC lines
- Wind power testing
- Variable frequency
- Voltage support
- Asynchronous Tie
- Weak systems
- Environmental
- Permitting
EAF flicker mitigation
- Weak system
- Voltage support
- Asynchronous Tie
- Black start
- Controllability
- System interface
- Asynchronous Tie
- Weak systems
- Environmental
- Permitting
EAF flicker mitigation
Troll A
Holly
2 x 40 MW, ±60 kV
70 km submarine
-80/+100 MVAR
- Active filtering
- Offshore platform
- Var. speed drive
- Environmental
- Black start
- Voltage support
- Retired generator
- Cap bank control
- Small site
Table 1. VSC Based Projects
3.1 Murray Link – HVDC Light
At 180 km, Murray Link is the world’s longest underground cable transmission. Murray Link is rated to deliver 200 MW at a dc transmission voltage of ± 150 kV. Cable conductor cross section is 1400 mm
2
Al, overall outer cable diameter is
83.7 mm and cable weight is 7.8 kg/m.
Figure 7. Murray Link – Berri Station
Figure 8 shows the result of a negative 10 MW step response test during commissioning of Murray Link. The link is operating with power control at Red Cliffs and both terminals in ac voltage control. Ac voltage remains constant during the power step. Figure 9 shows the result a two percent ac voltage step response test at Red Cliffs during which the ac power remains constant.
Figure 8. Murray Link – Power Step Test
Figure 9. Murray Link – AC Voltage Step Test
3.2 Cross Sound Cable – HVDC Light
The Cross Sound Cable provides a directly controllable merchant interconnection between the New England and
Long Island systems bypassing the congested New York
City transmission network. The interconnection is rated 330
MW, ± 150 kV. The 40 km submarine cable is buried on the sea bottom. The Cross Sound Cable increases regional reliability by increasing the ability of the New England and
New York networks to share generating capacity. It can also reduce the overall cost of power to consumers as well as reduce overall CO
2
emissions by allowing the shared use of more efficient generation units. The attributes of HVDC

Light
TM
transmission simplify system operation and the interconnection’s interface with each regional system. reactive power, the third trace is ac voltage, the fourth trace is the dc voltage and the bottom trace is the DC current.
3.3 Troll A – HVDC Light
The Troll A Project consists of 2 x 40 MW,
±
60 kV dc bipolar HVDC transmission links to an offshore production platform in the North Sea 70 km from the Norwegian coast.
The power supply will be produced more efficiently on the mainland thereby substantially reducing CO
2
emissions and associated taxes. The VSC inverters used for transmission will directly control variable-speed, pre-compressor drive motors for efficiency and ease of starting. High voltage, cable-wound motors will be used to eliminate large power transformers on the platform.
Figure 10. Cross Sound – Station Design
Figure 10 illustrates the design of for the Cross Sound converter stations. The IGBT valve stacks, control and protection system, valve-cooling package and auxiliary power system are enclosed in pre-fabricated housings. These housings along with the ac and dc filters are installed inside a warehouse-like metal building. The only outdoor equipment consists of power transformers, liquid-to-air heat exchangers and PLC filters.
Figure 12. Troll A 2 x 40 MW Offshore Supply
The offshore dual inverter terminal is designed for compactness in a marine environment. The AC side of each inverter is directly connected to its respective motor via a breaker and AC cables. The motor shafts are coupled though a gearbox to the compressors.
Figure 11 shows the result of a -10 % power step response test at the New Haven terminal. The step was entered on the direct axis component of the current order (ID_ORDER).
The quadrature axis component of the current order
(IQ_ORDER) was not changed. Time divisions are one second. The top trace is active power, the second trace is
Figure 13. Troll A Platform Housing with Valves
Factors influencing the selection of HVDC Light transmission are listed below:
•
Power level and distance
•
Fewer submarine cables
•
Better conductor utilization
•
Independent power and voltage control
•
Variable frequency for motor speed control
•
Black start capability

•
High voltage motor drive
3.4 Polarit – SVC Light
Polarit is an SVC Light installation in Finland used for reactive power compensation and flicker mitigation for an electric arc furnace (EAF). The flicker level was established by the local utility to assure that the steel mill did not cause any adverse effects while operating the EAF. The compensation consists of a ± 82 MVAR VSC, 10.8 MVAR of switching frequency filters and 79.2 MVAR of lower order harmonic filters for the EAF. The compensation is directly connected to the 33 kV arc furnace bus. The dynamic range for the net compensations scheme is approximately 0 - 164 MVAR.
The top trace in Figure 14 shows the EAF MW and MVAR consumption along with reactive power exchange with the network. The second trace shows the 33 kV EAF bus voltage. Operation with and without the SVC Light
STATCOM is shown. The required flicker reduction is well over 3. Polarit was commissioned and taken into commercial operation in the fall of 2002.
Figure 14. EAF Flicker Mitigation
3.5 Holly STATCOM – SVC Light
The VSC used in the Holly STATCOM located in Austin
Texas is based on the Polarit design described in Section 3.4.
It consists of a single ± 95 MVAR, 32 kV VSC and 15
MVAR of high frequency filters for the PWM switching harmonics. This combination gives a continuous dynamic range from –80 MVAR to +100 MVAR plus a short time capacitive overload of 10 percent. The VSC has built in redundancy. Three 31.2 MVAR, 138 kV mechanicallyswitched capacitor banks are included and controlled to shift the VSC dynamic range depending on system operating conditions.
The Holly STATCOM provides the voltage regulating capability and contingency voltage support thereby allowing retirement of an older inefficient power plant without sacrificing system reliability. A fully rated standby transformer is provided. The unit is under construction and commissioning is scheduled for October 2004.

4. CONCLUSION
Recent projects have demonstrated that VSC-based transmission technology has come of age both for HVDC transmission schemes and for enhancing performance of ac transmission through application of new FACTS devices.
Although VSC-based schemes may not always be the most economical solution for the higher rated transmission applications, their special attributes and ease of application provide special benefits which merit serious consideration.
In some applications, VSC transmission may be the only solution. As the technology matures and ratings increase, more applications can be expected.
5. REFERENCES
[1] M. Byggeth, K. Johannesson, C. Liljegren, U. Axelsson,
“Gotland HVDC Light – The World’s First Commercial
Extruded HVDC Cable System”, [CIGRÉ 2000, Paper no.
14-205]
[2] B. Railing, J. Miller, G. Moreau, J. Wasborg, Y. Jiang-
Häfner, D. Stanley, “Directlink VSC-Based HVDC Project and Its Commissioning”, [CIGRÉ 2002]