Chapter 2
Higher Education in
Science and Engineering
Highlights.....................................................................................................................................2-4
Undergraduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees ...............................................................2-4
Graduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees.........................................................................2-4
Postdoctoral Education .............................................................................................................2-5
International S&E Higher Education ........................................................................................2-5
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................2-7
Chapter Overview .....................................................................................................................2-7
Chapter Organization ................................................................................................................2-7
The U.S. Higher Education System .............................................................................................2-7
Institutions Providing S&E Education......................................................................................2-7
Online and Distance Education ................................................................................................2-9
For-Profit Institutions .............................................................................................................2-10
Cost of Higher Education .......................................................................................................2-10
Undergraduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees in the United States ................................2-11
Curricular Reform ...................................................................................................................2-11
Remedial Education ................................................................................................................2-11
Undergraduate Enrollment in the United States .....................................................................2-12
Undergraduate Degree Awards...............................................................................................2-15
Graduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees in the United States .........................................2-17
Graduate Enrollment in S&E ..................................................................................................2-17
Financial Support for S&E Graduate Education ....................................................................2-19
Interdisciplinary Education .....................................................................................................2-21
S&E Master’s Degrees ...........................................................................................................2-21
S&E Doctoral Degrees ...........................................................................................................2-24
Postdoctoral Education ..............................................................................................................2-30
International S&E Higher Education .........................................................................................2-31
Higher Education Expenditures ..............................................................................................2-31
Educational Attainment ..........................................................................................................2-33
First University Degrees in S&E Fields .................................................................................2-33
Global Comparison of S&E Doctoral Degrees .......................................................................2-35
Global Student Mobility .........................................................................................................2-36
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................2-37
Notes ..........................................................................................................................................2-38
Glossary .....................................................................................................................................2-38
References ..................................................................................................................................2-39
List of Sidebars
Carnegie Classification of Academic Institutions........................................................................2-8
Baccalaureate Origins of S&E Doctorate Recipients ..................................................................2-9
Interdisciplinary Dissertation Research .....................................................................................2-22
Professional Science Master’s Degrees .....................................................................................2-22
Doctoral Completion and Attrition ............................................................................................2-25
Globalization and Doctoral Education .......................................................................................2-32
2-1
2-2 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
International Changes in the Ratio of Natural Science and Engineering Degrees to the
College-Age Population ........................................................................................................2-34
Changes in European Higher Education Since the Bologna Process .......................................2-35
List of Tables
Table 2-1. Postsecondary 2- and 4-year Title IV degree-granting institutions offering
distance education courses and enrollments in college-level credit-granting distance
education courses, by level of education and institution type: 2006–07...............................2-10
Table 2-2. Top 10 colleges and universities awarding degrees in computer sciences and
psychology, by level of degree: 2007 ...................................................................................2-11
Table 2-3. Primary support mechanisms for S&E doctorate recipients, by Carnegie
classification of doctorate-granting institution: 2007 ...........................................................2-21
Table 2-4. Median number of years from S&E doctorate recipients’ entry to graduate
school to receipt of doctorate, by Carnegie classification of doctorate-granting
institution: 1993–2007 ..........................................................................................................2-26
Table 2-5. Foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates, by country/economy of origin:
1987–2007 .............................................................................................................................2-27
Table 2-6. Asian recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates, by field and country/economy of
origin: 1987–2007 .................................................................................................................2-27
Table 2-7. European and North American recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates, by field
and region/country of origin: 1987–2007 .............................................................................2-28
Table 2-8. Source of funding of S&E postdoctoral students: 1993–2006 .................................2-32
List of Figures
Figure 2-1. Enrollment and degrees per thousand population and per billion dollars
GDP: 1970–2006...................................................................................................................2-12
Figure 2-2. Freshmen intending S&E major, by race/ethnicity: 1993–2008 .............................2-14
Figure 2-3. Foreign undergraduate student enrollment in U.S. universities, by top 10
places of origin and field: April 2009 ...................................................................................2-14
Figure 2-4. Engineering enrollment, by level: 1979–2007 ........................................................2-15
Figure 2-5. S&E bachelor’s degrees, by field: 1993–2007 ........................................................2-16
Figure 2-6. Female share of S&E bachelor’s degrees, by field: 1993–2007 .............................2-16
Figure 2-7. Minority share of S&E bachelor’s degrees, by race/ethnicity: 1995–2007 ............2-17
Figure 2-8. S&E graduate enrollment, by citizenship and race/ethnicity: 1993–2006 ..............2-18
Figure 2-9. Full-time S&E graduate students, by field and mechanism of primary
support: 2006.........................................................................................................................2-19
Figure 2-10. Full-time S&E graduate students with primary support from federal
government, by field: 1996 and 2006 ...................................................................................2-20
Figure 2-11. S&E master’s degrees, by field: 1993–2007 .........................................................2-23
Figure 2-12. S&E master’s degrees, by sex: 1993–2007 ...........................................................2-23
Figure 2-13. S&E master’s degrees, by race/ethnicity and citizenship: 1995–2007 .................2-23
Figure 2-14. S&E doctoral degrees earned in U.S. universities, by field: 1993–2007 ..............2-24
Figure 2-15. S&E doctoral degrees earned by U.S. citizen and permanent resident
underrepresented minorities, by race/ethnicity: 1995–2007 .................................................2-26
Figure 2-16. S&E doctoral degrees, by sex, race/ethnicity, and citizenship: 1995–2007 .........2-26
Figure 2-17. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients, by selected Asian country/economy
of origin: 1987–2007 .............................................................................................................2-28
Figure 2-18. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients, by selected Western European
country: 1987–2007 ..............................................................................................................2-29
Figure 2-19. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Europe, by region: 1987–2007 ..........2-29
Figure 2-20. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Canada and Mexico: 1987–2007 .......2-29
Figure 2-21. Plans of foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates to stay in United
States: 1987–2007 .................................................................................................................2-30
Figure 2-22. Short-term stay rates of foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates,
by place of origin: 1996–99 and 2004–07.............................................................................2-30
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
2-3
Figure 2-23. Postdoctoral students at U.S. universities, by field: 1993–2006 ...........................2-31
Figure 2-24. Postdoctoral students at U.S. universities, by field and citizenship status:
1993–2006 .............................................................................................................................2-31
Figure 2-25. Attainment of tertiary-type A and advanced research programs, by
country and age group: 2006 .................................................................................................2-33
Figure 2-26. First university natural sciences and engineering degrees, by selected
countries: 1998–2006 ............................................................................................................2-34
Figure 2-27. Natural sciences and engineering doctoral degrees, by selected country:
1993–2006 .............................................................................................................................2-35
Figure 2-28. Foreign students enrolled in tertiary education, by country: 2006........................2-36
2-4 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
Highlights
Undergraduate Education, Enrollment, and
Degrees
Enrollment in U.S. higher education is projected to continue rising because of increases in the U.S. college-age
population.

Reflecting changes in the population of 18-year-olds,
the number of high school graduates is expected to increase 6% between 2004–05 and 2017–18, a slower rate
of growth than between 1992–93 and 2004–05 (25%).

Postsecondary enrollment rose from 14.5 million in fall
1993 to 18.7 million in fall 2006, and is projected to increase to 20.1 million students in 2017.

Postsecondary enrollment of all racial/ethnic groups is
projected to increase, but the percentage that is white is
projected to decrease to 61% in 2017, whereas the percentages that are black and Hispanic are projected to increase.
The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees has risen steadily over the past 15 years.

The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded reached
a new peak of 485,800 in 2007.

Most S&E fields (except computer sciences) experienced
increases in the number of degrees awarded in 2007. In
computer sciences, the number of bachelor’s and master’s
degrees increased sharply from 1998 to 2004 but has decreased since then.

S&E bachelor’s degrees have consistently accounted for
roughly one-third of all bachelor’s degrees for the past 15
years.
The share of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women increased in many major S&E fields from 1993 to 2007.

Women have earned 58% of all bachelor’s degrees since
2002; they have earned about half of all S&E bachelor’s
degrees since 2000, but major variations persist among
fields.

In 2007, men earned a majority of bachelor’s degrees
awarded in engineering, computer sciences, and physics (81%, 81%, and 79%, respectively). Women earned
half or more of bachelor’s degrees in psychology (77%),
biological sciences (60%), social sciences (54%), agricultural sciences (50%), and chemistry (50%).

Among fields with notable increases in the proportion of
bachelor’s degrees awarded to women are earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (from 30% to 41%); agricultural sciences (from 37% to 50%); and chemistry (from
41% to 50%).

Women’s share of bachelor’s degrees in computer sciences, mathematics, and engineering has declined in recent
years.
The racial/ethnic composition of those earning S&E
bachelor’s degrees is changing, reflecting both population change and increasing college attendance by members of minority groups.

For all racial/ethnic groups except white, the total number
of bachelor’s degrees, the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees, and the number of bachelor’s degrees in most S&E
fields has generally increased since 1995.

Between 1995 and 2007, the proportion of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded to Asians/Pacific Islanders increased from 8% to 9%; to black students, from 7% to
8%; to Hispanic students, from 6% to 8%; and to American Indian/Alaska Native students, from 0.5% to 0.7%,
although the shares to black and American Indian/Alaska
Native students have remained fairly flat since 2000. The
proportion of S&E degrees awarded to white students declined from 73% to 64%.

For white students, the total number of bachelor’s degrees,
the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees, and the number of
bachelor’s degrees in most S&E fields remained fairly flat
from 1995 through 2001 as their numbers in the collegeage population dropped but rose again through 2007.
Students in the United States on temporary visas earned
only a small share (4%) of S&E bachelor’s degrees in
2007.

The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded to students on temporary visas increased from about 14,700
in 1995 to 18,800 in 2004 before declining to 17,400 in
2007.

Students on temporary visas earned larger shares of
bachelor’s degrees in certain fields in 2007: 9% of those
awarded in economics and about 10% of those awarded in
electrical and industrial engineering.
Graduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees
S&E graduate enrollment in the United States continued to rise, reaching a new peak of almost 600,000 in fall
2006.

Following a long period of growth, graduate enrollment
in S&E declined in the latter half of the 1990s but has
increased steadily since 1999. First-time full-time enrollment, an indicator of future trends in enrollment, has also
increased since the late 1990s.

Graduate enrollment in computer sciences and engineering has decreased in recent years, although first-time
full-time enrollment in these fields increased in 2005 and
2006.
2-5
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Foreign S&E graduate students in U.S. institutions increased in fall 2006 after 2 years of decline.
ported they planned to stay in the United States and about
half had accepted firm offers of employment.

S&E graduate students on temporary visas increased
from 22% to 25% of all S&E graduate students from
1993 to 2006.

More than 90% of 2004–07 U.S. S&E doctorate recipients from China and 89% of those from India reported
plans to stay in the United States, and 59% and 62%, respectively, reported accepting firm offers of employment
or postdoctoral research in the United States.

The number of first-time full-time S&E graduate students
with temporary visas increased in fall 2005 and fall 2006
after declining 18% from 2001 to 2004. The increases
(and previous declines) were mainly in computer sciences
and engineering.
Master’s degrees awarded in S&E fields increased from
86,400 in 1993 to 121,000 in 2006 but declined in 2007.

Between 2000–03 and 2004–07, the percentage reporting definite plans to stay in the United States decreased
among U.S. S&E doctorate recipients from all of the top
five countries/economies of origin (China, India, South
Korea, Taiwan, and Canada). However, for all but Taiwan,
increases in the number of doctorate recipients more than
offset declines in the percentage staying.

Increases occurred in most major science fields, although
the number of master’s degrees awarded in engineering
and computer sciences has dropped since 2004.
Postdoctoral Education

The number and percentage of master’s degrees awarded
to women in most major S&E fields have increased since
1993.
The number of doctorate recipients with S&E postdoctoral appointments at U.S. universities increased to almost 50,000 in fall 2006.

The number of S&E master’s degrees awarded increased
for all racial/ethnic groups from 1995 to 2007, and the
percentage awarded to Asians/Pacific Islanders, blacks,
Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives increased during that time period.

More than two-thirds of academic postdoctoral appointments were in biological and medical/other life sciences.
The number of S&E doctorates awarded by U.S. academic institutions reached a new peak of almost 41,000
in 2007.

The number of U.S. citizen and permanent resident S&E
postdocs at these institutions increased more modestly,
from approximately 16,700 in 1993 to 21,100 in 2006.

After rising from the mid-1980s through 1998, the number of S&E doctorates declined through 2002 but has
increased in recent years. The largest increases were in
engineering and biological/agricultural and medical/other
life sciences.

The recent growth through 2007 occurred among both
U.S. citizens/permanent residents and temporary residents.
Foreign students make up a much higher proportion
of S&E master’s and doctoral degree recipients than of
bachelor’s degree recipients.

Foreign students received 24% of S&E master’s degrees,
33% of S&E doctoral degrees, and 4% of S&E bachelor’s
degrees in 2007.

The number of S&E master’s degrees earned by temporary residents rose from 1995 to 2004 and then dropped
through 2007.

The number of S&E doctorates earned by temporary residents rose to a new peak of 13,700 in 2007.
Most foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates plan to
stay in the United States after graduation.

Among 2004–07 graduates, more than three-quarters of
foreign S&E doctorate recipients with known plans re-

Temporary visa holders accounted for 57% of S&E postdocs in 2006. They accounted for much of the increase in
the number of S&E postdocs, especially in biological and
medical sciences.

An increasing share of academic S&E postdocs are funded through federal research grants. In fall 2006, 56% of
S&E postdocs at U.S. universities were funded through
this mechanism, up from 52% in 1993. Federal fellowships and traineeships funded a declining share of S&E
postdocs.
International S&E Higher Education
Students in China earned about 21%, those in the
European Union earned about 19%, and those in the
United States earned about 11% of the more than 4
million first university degrees awarded in S&E in 2006.

The number of S&E first university degrees awarded in
China, Poland, and Taiwan more than doubled between
1998 and 2006, and those in the United States and many
other countries generally increased. Those awarded in Japan decreased in recent years.

In China, the number of first university degrees awarded
in natural sciences and engineering has risen particularly sharply since 2002. In comparison, those awarded in
Germany, Japan, United Kingdom, and the United States
have remained relatively flat.
2-6 

In the United States, S&E degrees are about one-third of
bachelor’s degrees and have been for a long time. More
than half of first degrees were awarded in S&E fields in
Japan (63%), China (53%), and Singapore (51%).

In the United States, about 5% of all bachelor’s degrees
are in engineering. In Asia about 20% are in engineering,
and in China about one-third are in engineering (although
the percentage has declined in recent years).
In 2006, the United States awarded the largest number of
S&E doctoral degrees of any individual country, followed
by China, Russia, Germany, and the United Kingdom.

The numbers of S&E doctoral degrees awarded in China, Italy, and the United States have risen substantially
in recent years. The numbers of S&E doctoral degrees in
India, Japan, South Korea, and many European countries
have risen more modestly.

Women earned 40% of S&E doctoral degrees awarded in
the United States in 2006, about the same as the percentages earned by women in Australia, Canada, the European Union, and Mexico. The percentage of S&E doctoral
degrees earned by women ranged from less than 20% in
some countries to 50% or more in others.
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
International migration of students and highly skilled
workers expanded over the past two decades, and countries are increasingly competing for foreign students. In
particular, migration of students occurred from developing countries to the more developed countries and from
Europe and Asia to the United States.

Some countries expanded recruitment of foreign students as their own populations of college-age students
decreased, both to attract highly skilled workers and increase revenue for colleges and universities.

The United States remains the destination of the largest number of foreign students worldwide (undergraduate and graduate), although its share of foreign students
worldwide decreased from 25% in 2000 to 20% in 2006.

In addition to the United States, other countries that are
among the top destinations for foreign students include
the United Kingdom (11%), Germany (9%), and France
(8%).
2-7
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Introduction
Chapter Overview
Higher education performs a number of societal functions, including developing human capital, building the
knowledge base (through research and knowledge development), and disseminating, using, and maintaining knowledge
(OECD 2008). S&E higher education provides the advanced
skills needed for a competitive workforce and, particularly
in the case of graduate S&E education, the research capability necessary for innovation. This chapter focuses on the
development of human capital by higher education; chapter
5 focuses on S&E research.
Indicators presented in this chapter are discussed in the
context of national and global events, including changing
demographics, increasing foreign student mobility, and
global competition in higher education. After declining in
the 1990s, the U.S. college-age population is currently increasing and is projected to increase for the next decade. The
composition of the college-age population is also changing,
with Asians and Hispanics becoming an increasing share of
the population. Recent enrollment and degree trends, to some
extent, reflect these changes. Increases in foreign students
contributed to most of the growth in overall S&E graduate
enrollment in recent years, but after 11 September 2001, the
number of foreign students coming to the United States for
graduate education dropped. In 2006 the number of foreign
S&E graduate students increased (although they have not yet
regained earlier levels). Finally, although the United States
has historically been a world leader in providing broad access to higher education and in attracting foreign students,
many other countries are expanding their own higher education systems, providing expanded educational access to their
own population, and attracting growing numbers of foreign
students. The effects of these trends, as well as the effects
of the recent global financial crisis on domestic and foreign
student enrollment in U.S. institutions, remain to be seen.
This chapter does not address the issues of quality of
higher education or demand for S&E-educated personnel.
Although the quality of higher education and especially
the quality of learning outcomes are important, adequate
national quantitative measures of quality do not yet exist.
This chapter makes no attempt to determine whether current or future trends in degrees are adequate for the expected
short- or long-term needs of the labor market. For information on labor market conditions for recent S&E graduates,
see chapter 3, “Labor Market Conditions for Recent S&E
Graduates,” particularly the sidebar “Projected Growth of
Employment in S&E Occupations.” Chapter 5, “Trends in
Academic Employment of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers,” contains information on academic employment.
Chapter Organization
This chapter describes characteristics of the U.S. higher
education system and trends in higher education worldwide.
It begins with characteristics of U.S. higher educational institutions providing S&E education, followed by characteristics of undergraduate education, enrollment, and degrees;
graduate education, enrollment, and degrees; and postdoctoral education. Trends are discussed by field and demographic group. The chapter highlights the flow of foreign
students into the United States by country and their intentions to remain in this country. The chapter then presents
various international higher education indicators, including comparative S&E degree production in several world
regions and the growing dependence of all industrialized
countries on foreign S&E students.
The data in this chapter come from a variety of federal
and nonfederal sources, primarily from surveys conducted
by the National Science Foundation’s (NSF’s) Division of
Science Resources Statistics and the National Center for
Education Statistics. Most of the data in the chapter are from
censuses of the population—for example, all students receiving degrees from U.S. academic institutions—and are
not subject to sampling variability. When sample data are
used, differences are discussed only if they are statistically
significant at the 95% confidence level.
The U.S. Higher Education System
Higher education in S&E is important, because it produces an educated S&E workforce and an informed citizenry.
It has also been receiving increased attention as an important component of U.S. economic competitiveness. In his 24
February 2009 address to a joint session of Congress, President Obama called for every American to commit to at least
1 year of postsecondary education. This section discusses
the characteristics of U.S. higher education institutions providing S&E education as well as trends in and the characteristics of students and degree recipients.
Institutions Providing S&E Education
The U.S. higher education system consists of a large
number of diverse academic institutions that vary in their
missions, learning environments, selectivity, religious affiliation, types of students served, types of degrees offered, and
whether public or private and for-profit or nonprofit (NCES
2008a). The number of these degree-granting institutions
(including branch campuses) has increased from about 3,000
in 1975 to about 4,300 in 2007, with most of the growth in
the 1970s and 1980s, and again from 2000 to 2007. The latter growth occurred largely because of growth in the number of for-profit institutions (NCES 2009b). In 2007, U.S.
academic institutions awarded more than 2.9 million associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees; 23% of
these degrees were in S&E (appendix table 2-1).
2-8 
Research institutions are the leading producers of S&E
degrees at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels. In
2007, research institutions (i.e., doctorate-granting institutions with very high research activity) awarded 70% of
S&E doctoral degrees, 40% of master’s degrees, and 36%
of bachelor’s degrees in S&E fields. (See sidebar “Carnegie
Classification of Academic Institutions.”) Master’s colleges
and universities awarded another 28% of S&E bachelor’s
degrees and 25% of S&E master’s degrees in 2007. Baccalaureate colleges were the source of relatively few S&E
bachelor’s degrees (13%) (appendix table 2-1). (See sidebar
“Baccalaureate-Origins of S&E Doctorate Recipients.”)
Community colleges (also known as 2-year colleges or
associate’s colleges) are important in preparing students to
enter the workforce with certificates or associate’s degrees
and in preparing students to transition to 4-year colleges or
universities (Karp 2008). Thus, they provide the education
needed for S&E or S&E-related occupations that require less
than a bachelor’s degree, and they provide the first 2 years
of many students’ education before they transfer to an S&E
program at a 4-year college or university. Community colleges serve diverse groups of students and offer a more affordable means of participating in postsecondary education.
Compared with 4-year colleges, community colleges enroll
greater concentrations of low-income, first-generation, minority, immigrant, part-time, older, and academically underprepared students. The more than 1,000 U.S. community
colleges enrolled more than 6 million students, or about a
third of all postsecondary students in the 2006–07 academic year, more than half of whom were enrolled part time
(NCES 2008a).
Community colleges also act as a bridge between high
school and college. Dual enrollment programs, which enable
high school students to take courses that can earn them college credit, are one way to make this link. In 2002–03, 71%
of U.S. public high schools offered dual credit courses, and
57% of U.S. postsecondary institutions had high school students taking courses for college credit (NCES 2005a, b). In
2006, 42 states had dual enrollment policies (WICHE 2006).
Historically, dual enrollment opportunities were offered
to high-achieving, academically oriented students. However, dual enrollment programs are increasingly viewed as
means to support postsecondary achievement by averageachieving students and students in career and technical
education programs. Students enrolled in dual enrollment
programs can take college courses on a college campus or
courses taught by high school teachers certified as college
adjuncts. Courses vary in their eligibility requirements and
target populations. Dual enrollment programs are presumed
to have many positive outcomes, including early acclimation
to postsecondary education, increased high school graduation, decreased need for remediation, and success in postsecondary education. Dual enrollment helps to upgrade career
and technical education curricula with high-level academic
and technical experiences (Karp et al. 2008).
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
Carnegie Classification of
Academic Institutions
The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of
Higher Education is widely used in higher education
research to characterize and control for differences in
academic institutions. The 2005 version of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching’s
basic classification scheme for colleges and universities is more complex than previous versions and includes subcategories, new names, and new criteria for
categories. Academic institutions are categorized primarily on the basis of highest degree conferred, level
of degree production, and research activity.* In this
report, several categories have been aggregated for
statistical purposes. The characteristics of those aggregated groups are as follows:
 Doctorate-granting universities include institutions
that award at least 20 doctoral degrees per year.
They include three subgroups based on level of research activity: very high research activity (96 institutions), high research activity (103 institutions),
and doctoral/research universities (84 institutions).
 Master’s colleges and universities include the 663
institutions that award at least 50 master’s degrees
and fewer than 20 doctoral degrees per year.
 Baccalaureate colleges include the 767 institutions
for which baccalaureate degrees represent at least
10% of all undergraduate degrees and that award
fewer than 50 master’s degrees or 20 doctoral degrees per year.
 Associate’s colleges include the 1,814 institutions
in which all degrees are associate’s degrees or bachelor’s degrees account for less than 10% of all undergraduate degrees.
 Special-focus institutions are the 806 institutions in
which at least 75% of degrees are concentrated in a
single field or a set of related fields.
 Tribal colleges are the 32 colleges and universities
that are members of the American Indian Higher
Education Consortium.
* Research activity is based on two indices (aggregate level of
research and per capita research activity) derived from a principal
components analysis of data on R&D expenditures, S&E research
staff, and field of doctoral degree. See http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/ for more information on the classification
system and on the methodology used in defining the categories.
2-9
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Baccalaureate Origins of S&E Doctorate Recipients
Although baccalaureate colleges produce relatively
small numbers of undergraduate S&E degree holders
compared with doctorate- and master’s-granting institutions, they are important contributors to producing future
S&E doctorate recipients (NSF/SRS 2008). When adjusted by the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in
all fields, baccalaureate colleges as a group yield more
future S&E doctorates per hundred bachelor’s degrees
awarded than other types of institutions, except research
universities. Private institutions, whether research universities or baccalaureate colleges, outperform public
institutions in the proportion of their bachelor’s degree
recipients who go on to receive S&E doctorates. The
number of 1997–2006 S&E doctorate recipients per
hundred bachelor’s degrees awarded in all fields 9 years
earlier is higher among private research universities and
a subset of baccalaureate schools, the Oberlin 50 liberal arts schools.* The Oberlin 50 colleges have a higher
yield in the social and behavioral sciences and about the
same yield in the natural sciences but a far lower yield
in engineering than the private research universities. In
engineering, the research universities, both public and
private, yield more future doctorates than either public
or private baccalaureate colleges. The yield of future
doctorate recipients is only partly related to the range of
fields that the various types of institutions offer. Research
institutions (both public and private) and the Oberlin 50
schools award more than half of their bachelor’s degrees
in S&E fields. Baccalaureate and master’s institutions
(both public and private) award approximately one-third
of their bachelor’s degrees in S&E fields.
Online and Distance Education
Online education and distance education enable institutions of higher education to reach a wider audience by expanding access to students in remote geographic locations
and providing greater flexibility for students who have time
constraints. Online education is a relatively new phenomenon and online enrollment has grown substantially over the
past 5 years. Institutions believe that higher fuel costs and
rising unemployment will drive increased demand for online
courses in coming years (Allen and Seaman 2008).
About two-thirds of 2-year and 4-year colleges and universities offer distance education courses (table 2-1). Distance education is prevalent in public 2-year colleges (97%)
and public 4-year colleges and universities (88%). A little
more than half of private not-for-profit 4-year institutions
offered online courses. Public 2-year colleges account for
most of the enrollment (4.8 million), followed by public
4-year colleges (3.5 million). Private not-for-profit and
Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs)
are important baccalaureate-origin institutions of black
S&E doctorate recipients. In 2006, about one-third of
black S&E doctorate recipients received their baccalaureate degrees from HBCUs. When the data were adjusted
for the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded, HBCUs
as a group yielded about as many future S&E doctorates
per thousand bachelor’s degrees awarded as non-HBCU
institutions. The Oberlin 50 colleges and the private
research universities yielded the most S&E doctorate
recipients per thousand black recipients of bachelor’s degrees, but private HBCUs as a group have a yield similar to private baccalaureate colleges and public research
universities. Similarly, Hispanic-serving institutions are
important baccalaureate-origin institutions of Hispanic
S&E doctorate-recipients. Because few tribal colleges or
universities award bachelor’s degrees in S&E, tribal colleges are not a major source of American Indian S&E
doctorate recipients (NSF/SRS 2009d).
* The Oberlin 50 institutions are Albion College, Alma College,
Amherst College, Antioch University, Barnard College, Bates College,
Beloit College, Bowdoin College, Bryn Mawr College, Bucknell University, Carleton College, Colgate University, Colorado College, Davidson College, Denison University, DePauw University, Earlham College,
Franklin and Marshall College, Grinnell College, Hamilton College,
Hampton University, Harvey Mudd College, Haverford College, College of the Holy Cross, Hope College, Kalamazoo College, Kenyon
College, Lafayette College, Macalester College, Manhattan College,
Middlebury College, Mount Holyoke College, Oberlin College, Occidental College, Ohio Wesleyan University, Pomona College, Reed
College, Smith College, St. Olaf College, Swarthmore College, Trinity College (CT), Union College (NY), Vassar College, Wabash College, Wellesley College, Wesleyan University, Wheaton College (IL),
Whitman College, Williams College, and College of Wooster. Two of
these institutions (Hampton University and Manhattan College) are now
Carnegie master’s-granting institutions.
private for-profit 4-year institutions both accounted for a
little more than 1.8 million enrollments in 2006–07. Most
(more than 80%) of the 3.9 million students who took at
least one online course in fall 2007 were undergraduates
(Allen and Seaman 2008).
Colleges and universities’ most prevalent reasons for offering online courses are meeting students’ need for flexible
schedules (68%); offering courses to those who would not
have access because of geographic, family, or work-related
reasons (about two thirds); making more courses available
(46%); and seeking to increase student enrollment (45%)
(NCES 2009b). A smaller percentage of institutions offering programs in engineering (16%) than those offering
programs in other major disciplines (psychology; social
sciences and history; computer and information sciences;
education; health and related sciences; business; and liberal
arts and sciences, general studies, humanities) (from 24%
to 33%) offered fully online programs in 2007 (Allen and
Seaman 2008).
2-10 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
Table 2-1
Postsecondary 2- and 4-year Title IV degree-granting institutions offering distance education courses and
enrollments in college-level credit-granting distance education courses, by level of education and institution
type: 2006–07
Institution type
All institutions .......................
Public 2-year .....................
Private for-profit 2-year .....
Public 4-year .....................
Private not-for-profit
4-year ............................
Private for-profit 4-year .....
Institutions (n)
Institutions offering college-level creditgranting distance education courses (%)
Enrollments in college-level creditgranting distance education courses
Graduate/
first
Either level Undergraduatea professionala
Graduate/
first
Either level Undergraduate professional
4,200
1,000
500
600
65
97
16
88
66
97
16
87
60
na
na
82
12,153,000
4,844,000
72,000
3,502,000
9,803,000
4,840,000
72,000
2,611,000
2,349,900
3,700
na
890,900
1,500
300
53
70
51
70
46
S
1,854,000
1,869,000
1,124,000
1,144,000
730,400
724,800
na = not applicable, 2-year institutions do not offer graduate degrees, although they sometimes offer individual graduate courses; S = suppressed, reporting
standards not met
a
Based on number of institutions that had undergraduate or graduate/first professional programs in 2006–07.
NOTES: Total includes private not-for-profit 2-year institutions not reported separately. Institutions may offer both undergraduate and graduate/first
professional courses. Figures rounded to nearest 100. Detail may not add to total because of rounding. Standard errors for data available in source
publication.
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, Distance Education at Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions: 2006-07, NCES 2009-044 (2009).
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
For-Profit Institutions
Cost of Higher Education
The rapid growth of for-profit institutions has been seen
by some as a competitive threat to public and nonprofit colleges and universities in the United States (Bailey, Badway,
and Gumport 2001). Over the past 10 years, the number
of for-profit institutions has grown and the number of degrees that they have awarded has more than doubled (NCES
2009a; appendix table 2-2). In 2007, about 2,800 academic
institutions in the United States operated on a for-profit basis. More than half of these institutions offer less-than-2-year
programs and less than half are degree-granting institutions.
Of the degree-granting institutions, close to half award associate’s degrees as their highest degree (NCES 2008b).
For-profit academic institutions awarded 2%–3% of S&E
degrees at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels and
29% of those at the associate’s level in 2007. Computer sciences accounted for 97% of the associate’s degrees and 86%
of the bachelor’s degrees awarded by for-profit institutions
in science and engineering fields in 2007 (appendix table
2-3). For-profit institutions award relatively few S&E master’s and doctoral degrees; those they do award are mainly in
psychology. For-profit institutions are among the top institutions awarding master’s and doctoral degrees in psychology. In addition, a for-profit institution, the University of
Phoenix Online Campus, awarded more computer sciences
bachelor’s degrees than any other academic institution in the
United States in 2007 (table 2-2).
Affordability and access to U.S. higher education institutions are perennial concerns (NCPPHE 2008; NSB 2003).
In the 2008–09 academic year, average tuition and fees at
4-year colleges rose at a rate greater than inflation. Compared with the previous academic year, average tuition and
fees rose 6.4% for in-state students at public 4-year colleges,
5.9% for students in private 4-year colleges, and 4.7% for
students at public 2-year colleges, while the Consumer Price
Index increased by 5.6% between July 2007 and July 2008
(College Board 2008). Another inflation index, the Higher
Education Price Index, which measures the average relative
level in the price of a fixed-market basket of goods and services purchased by colleges and universities each year, rose
3.6% in that year (Commonfund Institute 2008). For students
at public 4-year colleges, tuition and fee increases over the
past decade have been larger than in previous decades and
the net price (that is, the published price minus grant aid and
tax benefits) has risen since 2003–04 (College Board 2008).
In the coming years, greater tuition increases may occur in
response to state reductions in higher education funding as a
result of the financial downturn that began in 2008.
2-11
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Table 2-2
Top 10 colleges and universities awarding degrees in computer sciences and psychology, by level of degree:
2007
Degree/academic institution
Degrees (n) Degree/academic institution
Degrees (n)
Computer sciences associate’s
All institutions............................................................
ECPI College of Technology .................................
Full Sail Real World Education ..............................
American Intercontinental University Online .........
Kaplan University ..................................................
Anthem College .....................................................
Keiser University (Ft. Lauderdale campus)............
ECPI Technical College (Richmond, VA) ...............
Western International University ...........................
Technical Career Institutes....................................
Coleman College ...................................................
27,680
769
333
300
226
222
214
209
187
177
162
Computer sciences bachelor’s
All institutions...........................................................
University of Phoenix Online Campus..................
American Intercontinental University Online ........
Strayer University .................................................
University of Maryland University College ...........
Pennsylvania State University (main campus) .....
Colorado Technical University Online ..................
DeVry University–Illinois .......................................
Rochester Institute of Technology .......................
University of Maryland Baltimore County ............
Full Sail Real World Education .............................
42,596
1,993
867
668
646
486
468
362
355
351
330
Psychology master’s
All institutions............................................................
Webster University ................................................
Teachers College at Columbia University .............
Troy University ......................................................
Pepperdine University ...........................................
Chicago School of Professional Psychology ........
Prairie View A&M University ..................................
Nova Southeastern University...............................
National University ................................................
Alliant International University (San Diego, CA) ....
Capella University .................................................
18,594
622
365
316
313
303
279
258
246
239
220
Psychology doctorates
All institutions...........................................................
Alliant International University (San Diego, CA) ...
Capella University ................................................
Nova Southeastern University..............................
Carlos Albizu University .......................................
Pacific Graduate School of Psychology...............
Argosy University Chicago ...................................
Chicago School of Professional Psychology .......
Argosy University Sarasota ..................................
Rutgers University New Brunswick ......................
California Institute of Integral Studies ..................
4,696
249
131
91
85
67
59
58
56
55
54
SOURCES: National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, Completions Survey; and National Science
Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, Integrated Science and Engineering Resources Data System (WebCASPAR), http://webcaspar.nsf.gov.
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Undergraduate Education, Enrollment,
and Degrees in the United States
Undergraduate education in S&E courses prepares students majoring in S&E for the workforce. It also prepares
nonmajors to become knowledgeable citizens with a basic
understanding of science and mathematics concepts. This
section includes indicators related to enrollment and intentions to major in S&E fields, the need for remediation at
the college level, and recent trends in the number of earned
degrees in S&E fields.
Curricular Reform
Research on how students learn, as well as concern for
the number of young people entering S&E, have driven numerous efforts to improve instructional materials and practices and to assess the effectiveness of curricular reforms
(Fortenberry et al. 2007; Lewis and Lewis 2008; Quitadamo
et al. 2008). Education innovators in all S&E fields are examining problems in student learning and designing ways to
address them through integration of disciplinary knowledge
and education research.
Many of these newer methods involve more interaction between students and faculty, improved technology,
teamwork, and applications to real-world problems (Brainard 2007). Although research indicates that many of the
newer methods are effective in improving student understanding of the scientific process and fundamental concepts,
they are not widely adopted. Universities and departments
are often unaware of or resistant to new models of instruction, and strong incentives to improve teaching are often
lacking (Brainard 2007).
Remedial Education
Remedial education (also known as developmental education) offers below-college-level courses or instruction to
students who enter college without skills in reading, writing, or mathematics adequate for college-level courses. In
recent years, state university systems have moved remedial
education out of 4-year colleges and universities and into
community colleges. In the 2003–04 academic year, about
29% of community college students had taken at least one
remedial course in their first year of study (NCES 2008a),
and nearly 60% of students take at least one remedial course
at some point during their college education (Attewell et al.
2006). Mathematics was the most common remedial course
taken in 2004 (NCES 2008a). Although more than half of
students pass remedial writing and reading courses, less
2-12 
than half pass their remedial mathematics courses (Attewell
et al. 2006). (For information on the relationship between
achievement in science and mathematics courses and postsecondary remediation rates, see chapter 1, “Relationship of
High School Courses Taken to Postsecondary Success.”)
Some have recently begun to question the effectiveness of
remedial education (Bailey 2009; Calcagno and Long 2008).
Fewer than half of students in all remedial classes complete
the required sequence of remedial courses and few of these
students go on to college-level courses (Bailey 2009). States
and individual colleges and universities lack consensus on
the criteria and cutoff points used for assessing college readiness and on the best strategies to address poor skills. Efforts
in some colleges are more effective than others. Although
some students may make progress, they still may not reach
college-level skills and knowledge. Various efforts have attempted to bridge the gaps in expectations between K–12
and higher education expectations for achievement (Cohen
et al. 2006), and several states are currently developing initiatives to improve remedial education. Chapter 1, “Transition to Higher Education,” provides more information on the
transition from high school to college as well as information
specifically on states’ efforts to establish standards for transitioning into higher education.
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
Figure 2-1
Enrollment and degrees per thousand population
and per billion dollars GDP: 1970–2006
Population ages 20–24 and 25–29 years
Thousands
25
20–24 years old
25–29 years old
20
15
10
5
0
1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006
Ratio
100
80
Enrollment and degrees
Undergraduate enrollment (all fields)
per hundred 20–24 year-olds
60
40
Graduate S&E enrollment per
thousand 25–29-year-olds
20
Undergraduate Enrollment in the
United States
Recent trends in higher education enrollment reflect the
expanding U.S. college-age population. This section examines trends in undergraduate enrollment by type of institution, field, and demographic characteristics. For information
on enrollment rates of high school seniors, see chapter 1,
“Transition to Higher Education.”
Trends in Enrollment and Degrees in Light
of Population and Economic Trends and
World Events
Trends in the college-age population, economic trends,
and world events have influenced recent trends in college
enrollment and degrees. Population trends and, to a lesser extent, economic factors are also used in projections of future
enrollment and degree trends. Undergraduate enrollment,
S&E bachelor’s degrees, and graduate S&E enrollment
have generally risen over time at a faster rate than population growth, reflecting increases in the percentage of the
population participating in higher education. The greatest
gains in higher education relative to the population occurred
in the 1980s (figure 2-1). The college-age (20–24-year-old)
population in the United States declined through the mid1990s, especially for whites (NSF/SRS 2007). Undergraduate enrollment in all fields and bachelor’s degrees in some
fields declined in that period, and graduate S&E enrollment
and S&E doctoral degrees declined a few years later. In contrast to population trends, the economy has generally grown
faster than higher education enrollment and degrees. That is,
enrollment and degrees have generally declined over time
S&E bachelor’s degrees
per thousand 20–24-year-olds
0
1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006
Enrollment and degrees per billion dollars GDP
Graduate enrollment and
bachelor’s degrees (thousands)
Undergraduate
enrollment (thousands)
250
Graduate S&E
enrollment
200
150
80
Undergraduate enrollment
(all fields)
60
S&E bachelor’s degrees
40
100
20
50
0
0
1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006
GDP = gross domestic product
NOTES: Data on graduate enrollment not available before 1975. Data
on undergraduate enrollment and bachelor's degrees not available
for 1999.
SOURCES: Population: Census Bureau, Current Population Reports,
Series P-25, Nos. 1000, 1022, 1045, 1057, 1059, 1092, and 1095, and
2000 through 2008 Population Estimates; and National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of Education Statistics 2008
(NCES 2009-020), http://www.nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/
tables/dt08_015.asp, accessed 19 May 2009; Undergraduate
enrollment and S&E bachelor’s degrees: NCES, Integrated
Postsecondary Education Data System, Completions Survey; and
National Science Foundation/Division of Science Resources Statistics,
WebCASPAR database, http://webcaspar.nsf.gov; Graduate S&E
enrollment: NSF/SRS, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering, and WebCASPAR database,
http://webcaspar.nsf.gov. See appendix tables 2-12, 2-14, and 4-1.
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
relative to the U.S. economy as measured by gross domestic
product (GDP). This pattern reverses, however, in economic
recessions. Upturns in enrollment and degrees relative to
GDP occurred during recession periods in 1973–75, 1980–
82, 1990–91, and 2001 (figure 2-1). Finally, higher education enrollment and degrees are affected by world events
in very specific ways. For example the dot-com bust in the
early 2000s was followed by a precipitous decline in enrollment and degrees in computer sciences, and the 9/11 attacks
on the United States were followed by a steep drop in international student enrollment through 2004. (See “S&E Bachelor’s Degrees” and “Foreign Undergraduate Enrollment.”)
Overall Enrollment
Enrollment in U.S. institutions of higher education at
all levels rose from 14.5 million students in fall 1993 to
18.5 million in fall 2007 (appendix table 2-4). More than
7 million students (about 38% of all students enrolled in
higher education institutions in the United States) were enrolled in associate’s colleges in 2007. Research universities
(doctorate-granting universities with very high research activity) accounted for 13% and master’s-granting universities
accounted for 22% of all students enrolled (appendix table
2-4). (See sidebar “Carnegie Classification of Academic
Institutions” for definitions of the types of academic institutions.) These trends are expected to continue in the near
future.
Projections of High School Graduation and
College Enrollment Trends
Because of increases in the population of 18-year-olds
(rather than changes in graduation rates), the number of high
school graduates is expected to increase through 2017, although at a lower rate than in the recent past. The number
of high school graduates is projected to increase 6% between 2004–05 and 2017–18 to 3.3 million graduates. From
1992–93 to 2004–05, the number of high school graduates
increased 25% (NCES 2008c). (See chapter 1 for more information on high school graduation rates, course taking,
and transition from secondary to postsecondary education.)
Among public schools, the number of high school graduates is projected to increase 8% nationally, but large variations exist among the states, with increases projected in 27
states (mainly in the South and West) and the District of
Columbia and decreases projected in 23 states (mainly in
the Midwest and Northeast) (NCES 2008c). Arizona, Georgia, Nevada, Texas, and Utah are projected to have the largest percentage increases. Louisiana, Maine, North Dakota,
Rhode Island, and Vermont are projected to have the largest
percentage decreases in public high school graduates.
Similarly, enrollment in higher education is projected to
increase through 2017. These projections are based primarily on population projections but also incorporate information about household income (a measure of ability to pay)
and age-specific unemployment rates (a measure of opportunity costs).1 According to Census Bureau projections, the
number of college-age (ages 20–24) individuals is expected
2-13
to grow from 21.8 million in 2010 to 28.2 million by 2050
(appendix table 2-5). From 2010 to 2050, Asians are projected to increase from 4% to 6% and Hispanics are projected
to increase from 18% to 37% of the college-age population,
whereas blacks are projected to decrease from 15% to 12%
and whites are projected to decrease from 60% to 40% of the
college-age population (NCES 2008c).
Largely because of these demographic changes, postsecondary enrollment is expected to increase 13%, to 20.1
million students, in 2017 (NCES 2008c). Increased enrollment in higher education is projected to come mainly from
minority groups, particularly Hispanics. Enrollment of all
racial/ethnic groups is projected to increase, but the percentage that is white is projected to decrease from 65%
in 2006 to 61% in 2017, whereas the percentages that are
black and Hispanic are projected to increase from 13% and
11%, respectively, to 14% for both groups. (For further
information on assumptions underlying these projections,
see “Projection Methodology” in Projections of Education
Statistics to 2017 [NCES 2008c], http://nces.ed.gov/
programs/projections/projections2017/app_a.asp, accessed
23 June 2009.)
Undergraduate Enrollment in S&E
Freshmen Intentions to Major in S&E. Since 1972, the
annual Survey of the American Freshman, National Norms,
administered by the Higher Education Research Institute
at the University of California at Los Angeles, has asked
freshmen at a large number of universities and colleges
about their intended majors.2 The data provided a broadly
accurate picture of degree fields several years later.3 For at
least the past two decades, about one-third of all freshmen
planned to study S&E. In 2008, about one-third of white,
black, Hispanic, and American Indian freshmen and 47% of
Asian freshmen reported that they intended to major in S&E
(figure 2-2). The proportions planning to major in S&E were
higher for men than for women in every racial/ethnic group,
with the exception of blacks. In 2007 and 2008, similar percentages of black men and black women planned to major
in S&E (appendix table 2-6). For most racial/ethnic groups,
about 10%–16% planned to major in social/behavioral sciences, about 6%–10% in engineering, about 8%–10% in biological/agricultural sciences, 1%–2% in computer sciences,
2%–3% in physical sciences,4 and 1% in mathematics or statistics. Higher proportions of Asian freshmen than of those
from other racial/ethnic groups planned to major in biological/agricultural sciences (18%) and engineering (14%). The
percentage of all freshmen intending to major in computer
sciences has dropped in recent years, whereas the percentage intending to major in biological/agricultural sciences has
increased. (See appendix table 2-13 and “S&E Bachelor’s
Degrees” for trends in bachelor’s degrees.) Generally, the
percentages earning bachelor’s degrees in particular S&E
fields are similar to the percentages planning to major in
those fields, with the exception of engineering and social/
behavioral sciences. The percentage earning bachelor’s
degrees in engineering is smaller than, and the percentage
2-14 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
earning bachelor’s degrees in social/behavioral sciences is
larger than, previous years’ percentages planning to major
in those fields. (See NSB 2008, pages 2-24 and 2-25, for a
discussion of longitudinal data on undergraduate attrition in
S&E.)
The demographic composition of students planning
S&E majors has become more diverse over time. Women
increased from 44% of freshmen planning S&E majors in
1993 to 47% in 2008. White students declined from 79% in
1993 to 69% in 2008. On the other hand, the proportion of
Asian students increased from 6% to 12% and the proportion
of Hispanic students increased from 4% to 12%. American
Indian students were roughly 2% and black students were
roughly 11% of freshmen intending to major in S&E in both
1993 and 2008 (appendix table 2-7).
Foreign Undergraduate Enrollment. The number of
foreign students enrolled in bachelor’s degree programs in
U.S. academic institutions rose 5% in the 2007–08 academic
year to approximately 178,000 (IIE 2008). The increase was
the second in a row after 4 years of decline, but the number
of foreign undergraduates in 2007–08 was still 7% below
the peak in 2001–02. Among new foreign undergraduates,
enrollment increased 7% in 2007–08, the fourth increase in
a row, suggesting that enrollment increases are likely to continue. South Korea (almost 33,000), Japan (almost 21,000),
China (16,500), Canada (13,600), and India (13,600) accounted for the largest numbers of foreign undergraduates
in the United States in 2007–08. The number of Chinese
undergraduates increased 65% over the previous year and
the numbers of South Korean and Indian undergraduates
increased 17% and 8%, respectively. Among all foreign students (undergraduate and graduate) in 2007–08, the number
of those studying the physical and life sciences increased
2%; agricultural sciences, 20%; engineering, 7%; and computer sciences, 4%, compared with the preceding year (IIE
2008). The number of foreign students studying mathematics decreased 9%.
More recent data from the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services show an 11% increase in undergraduate
enrollment of foreign students in science and engineering
from April 2008 to April 2009, mostly in engineering. South
Korea, China, Japan, Canada, and India were among the top
countries sending foreign undergraduates in spring 2009
and were also among the top countries sending foreign S&E
undergraduates (figure 2-3; appendix table 2-8). Nepal and
Saudi Arabia, which accounted for fewer total undergraduates in the United States, were also among the top countries
sending foreign undergraduates in S&E fields, sending more
than Canada and Japan.
Engineering Enrollment. For the most part, undergraduate enrollment data are not available by field. Students often do not declare majors until their sophomore year; thus,
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2-15
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
data by field would include a large proportion of missing
data. However, because engineering programs generally require students to declare a major in the first year of college,
engineering enrollment data can serve as early indicators of
both future undergraduate engineering degrees and student
interest in engineering careers. The Engineering Workforce
Commission administers an annual fall survey that tracks
enrollment in undergraduate and graduate engineering programs (EWC 2008).
Undergraduate engineering enrollment declined through
most of the 1980s and 1990s, rose from 2000 to 2003, declined slightly through 2006, and rose to 431,900 in 2007
(figure 2-4; appendix table 2-9). The number of undergraduate engineering students in 2007 was the highest it has been
since the early 1980s. Full-time freshman enrollment followed a similar pattern, reaching 110,600 in 2007, the highest since 1982. These trends correspond with declines in the
college-age population through the mid-1990s, particularly
the drop in white 20–24-year-olds, who account for the majority of engineering enrollment (NSF/SRS 2007). Similar
trends in undergraduate engineering enrollment are reported
by the American Society for Engineering Education (Gibbons 2008).
Undergraduate Degree Awards
The number of degrees awarded by U.S. academic institutions has been increasing over the past two decades both
in S&E and non-S&E fields. These trends are expected to
continue at least through 2017 (NCES 2008c).
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S&E Associate’s Degrees
Community colleges often are an important and relatively
inexpensive gateway for students entering higher education.
Associate’s degrees, largely offered by 2-year programs at
community colleges, are the terminal degree for some people,
but others continue their education at 4-year colleges or universities and subsequently earn higher degrees.5 Many who
transfer to baccalaureate granting institutions do not earn associate’s degrees before transferring. Associate’s degrees in
S&E and engineering technology accounted for about 11%
of all associate’s degrees in 2007 (appendix table 2-10).
S&E associate’s degrees from all types of academic institutions rose from 23,400 in 1993 to 62,800 in 2003, before
declining to 47,500 in 2007. Most of the increase through
2003, and the subsequent decrease, are attributable to computer sciences, which peaked in 2003. Associate’s degrees
earned in engineering technology (not included in S&E
degree totals because of their applied focus) declined from
more than 40,000 in the early 1990s to 30,100 in 2007 (appendix table 2-10).
Women earned 62% of all associate’s degrees in 2007,
up from 59% in 1993. They earned a smaller and decreasing
share of associate’s degrees in S&E: 39% in 2007, down
from 48% in 1993. Most of the decline is attributable to a
decrease in women’s share of computer sciences degrees,
from 51% in 1993 to 26% in 2007 (appendix table 2-10).
Students from underrepresented groups (blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians) earn a higher proportion of
associate’s degrees than of bachelor’s or more advanced degrees.6 (See “S&E Bachelor’s Degrees by Race/Ethnicity”
and “Doctoral Degrees by Race/Ethnicity.”) In 2007, they
earned 27% of S&E associate’s degrees, more than onethird of all associate’s degrees in social and behavioral sciences, and more than one-quarter of all associate’s degrees
in biological sciences, computer sciences, and mathematics
(appendix table 2-11). Since 1995, the number of S&E associate’s degrees earned by these students doubled.
S&E Bachelor’s Degrees
The baccalaureate is the most prevalent S&E degree, accounting for more than 70% of all S&E degrees awarded.
S&E bachelor’s degrees have consistently accounted for
roughly one-third of all bachelor’s degrees for the past 15
years. The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees rose steadily from 366,000 in 1993 to 485,800 in 2007 (appendix
table 2-12).
Trends in the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees vary
widely among fields (figure 2-5). The number of bachelor’s
degrees earned in social and behavioral sciences plateaued
for much of the 1990s, before rising again through 2007.
In engineering, mathematics, and physical sciences, the
number of bachelor’s degrees dropped in the late 1990s, but
2-16 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
then rose through 2007. In computer sciences, the number
of bachelor’s degrees increased sharply from 1998 to 2004,
then dropped sharply through 2007. Except for declines
from 2000 to 2002, bachelor’s degrees in biological sciences
have been generally increasing, reaching a new peak in 2007
(appendix table 2-12).
S&E Bachelor’s Degrees by Sex. Since 1982, women
have outnumbered men in undergraduate education and have
earned relatively constant fractions of all bachelor’s and
S&E bachelor’s degrees for several years. Since 2002, women have earned about 58% of all bachelor’s degrees; since
2000, they have earned about half of all S&E bachelor’s degrees. Within S&E, men and women tend to study different
fields. In 2007, men earned a majority of bachelor’s degrees
awarded in engineering, computer sciences, and physics
(81%, 81%, and 79%, respectively). Women earned half or
more of bachelor’s degrees in psychology (77%), agricultural sciences (50%), biological sciences (60%), chemistry
(50%), and social sciences (54%) (appendix table 2-12).
Although gains in recent years have been more modest
or nonexistent, the share of bachelor’s degrees awarded
to women in many major S&E fields has increased (except computer sciences and mathematics) over the past 15
years (figure 2-6). Among fields with notable increases in
the proportion of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women are
earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (from 30% to 41%);
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agricultural sciences (from 37% to 50%); and chemistry
(from 41% to 50%) (appendix table 2-12).
The number of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women in
S&E and in all fields rose from 1993 through 2007. In contrast, the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded to men in
S&E and in all fields remained fairly flat in the 1990s but
increased from 2001 through 2007.7
S&E Bachelor’s Degrees by Race/Ethnicity. The racial/ethnic composition of S&E bachelor’s degree recipients has changed over time, reflecting population changes
and increasing college attendance by members of minority
groups.8 Between 1995 and 2007, the proportion of S&E degrees awarded to white students declined from 73% to 64%
(appendix table 2-13). The proportion awarded to Asians/
Pacific Islanders increased from 8% to 9%; to black students, from 7% to 8%; to Hispanic students, from 6% to 8%;
and to American Indian/Alaska Native students, from 0.5%
to 0.7%, although the shares to black and American Indian/
Alaska Native students have remained fairly flat since 2000
(figure 2-7). The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees earned
by white students decreased in the 1990s as their numbers
in the college-age population dropped but then rose again
through 2007. The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees
earned by students of unknown race/ethnicity also increased
(appendix table 2-13). (See sidebar “Increase in Student
Nonreporting of Race/Ethnicity” in Science and Engineering Indicators 2008 [NSB 2008].)
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2-17
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Despite considerable progress over the past couple of decades for underrepresented minority groups earning bachelor’s degrees in any field, the gap in educational attainment
between young minorities and whites continues to be wide.
The percentage of the population ages 25–29 with bachelor’s or higher degrees was 20% for blacks, 12% for Hispanics, and 36% for whites in 2007, up from 12%, 9%, and 25%,
respectively, in 1987 (NCES 2008a). Differences in completion of bachelor’s degrees in S&E by race/ethnicity reflect
differences in high school completion rates, college enrollment rates, and college persistence and attainment rates. In
general, blacks and Hispanics are less likely than whites and
Asians/Pacific Islanders to graduate from high school, to enroll in college, and to graduate from college. (For information on immediate post-high school college enrollment rates,
see chapter 1, “Transition to Higher Education.”) Among
those who do enroll in or graduate from college, blacks,
Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives are about
as likely as whites to choose S&E fields; Asians/Pacific Islanders are more likely than members of other racial/ethnic
groups to choose these fields. For Asians/Pacific Islanders,
almost half of all bachelor’s degrees received are in S&E,
compared with about one-third of all bachelor’s degrees
earned by each of the other racial/ethnic groups (appendix
table 2-13).
The contrast in field distribution among whites, blacks,
Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives on the one
hand and Asians/Pacific Islanders on the other is apparent
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Bachelor’s Degrees by Citizenship. Since 1995, students on temporary visas in the United States have consistently earned a small share (4%) of S&E degrees at the
bachelor’s level. These students earned 9% of bachelor’s
degrees awarded in economics in 2007 and about 10% of
degrees awarded in electrical and industrial engineering.
The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded to students
on temporary visas increased from about 14,700 in 1995 to
about 18,800 in 2004 before declining to 17,400 in 2007 (appendix table 2-13).
Graduate Education, Enrollment, and
Degrees in the United States
Graduate S&E educational institutions are a major source
of both the highly skilled workers of the future and the research needed for a knowledge-based economy. This section
includes indicators related to graduate enrollment, financial
support for graduate education, recent trends in the number
of earned degrees in S&E fields, and participation by women, minorities, and foreign students in graduate education in
U.S. academic institutions.
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within S&E fields as well. White, black, Hispanic, and
American Indian/Alaska Native S&E baccalaureate recipients share a similar distribution across broad S&E fields. In
2007, between 9% and 11% of all baccalaureate recipients in
each of these racial/ethnic groups earned their degrees in the
natural sciences,9 2% to 4% in engineering, and 15% to 18%
in the social and behavioral sciences. Asian/Pacific Islander
baccalaureate recipients earned 19% of their bachelor’s degrees in natural sciences and 9% in engineering (appendix
table 2-13).
For all racial/ethnic groups (except white), the total number of bachelor’s degrees, the number of S&E bachelor’s
degrees, and the number of bachelor’s degrees in most S&E
fields (except computer sciences) has generally increased
since 1995. For white students, the total number of bachelor’s degrees, the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees,
and the number of bachelor’s degrees in most S&E fields
remained fairly flat from 1995 through 2001 but have increased since then (appendix table 2-13).
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S&E graduate enrollment in the United States reached a
new peak of 597,600 in fall 2006. Following a long period
of growth that began in the 1970s (NSB 2008), graduate
enrollment in S&E declined in the latter half of the 1990s,
then increased steadily through 2006 (appendix table 2-14).
Growth occurred through 2006 in most major science and
engineering fields except agricultural sciences (which remained fairly flat) and computer sciences (which has been
declining for several years). In engineering, enrollment
dropped in recent years but rose in 2006. According to more
recent data from the Engineering Workforce Commission
2-18 
and the American Society for Engineering Education (Gibbons 2008), graduate engineering enrollment continued to
rise in 2007. Moreover, the number of full-time engineering
students reached a new peak in 2007 of 104,900 (figure 2-4;
appendix table 2-15).
The number of full-time students enrolled for the first
time in S&E graduate departments offers a good indicator
of developing trends. The number of first-time full-time
S&E graduate students also reached a new peak (116,500)
in 2006. It declined in the mid-1990s in all major S&E fields
but increased in most fields through 2006 (appendix table
2-16). Growth was greatest in biological sciences, medical/other life sciences, and social and behavioral sciences.
After declines in recent years, first-time full-time graduate
enrollment in engineering and computer sciences increased
in 2005 and 2006.
Enrollment by Sex
The increase in S&E graduate enrollment occurred across
all major U.S. citizen and permanent resident demographic
groups. The number of women enrolled in S&E graduate
programs has increased steadily since 1993. In contrast, the
number of men enrolled in S&E graduate programs declined
from 1993 through the end of that decade before increasing through 2003 and remaining more or less at that level
through 2006 (appendix table 2-14).
Women’s rising percentages in S&E fields also continued. Women made up 42% of S&E graduate students in
1993 and 50% in 2006, although large variations among
fields persist. In 2006, women constituted the majority of
graduate students in psychology (76%), medical/other life
sciences (78%), biological sciences (56%), and social sciences (54%). They constituted close to half of graduate students in earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (47%) and
agricultural sciences (48%) and more than one-third of graduate students in mathematics (37%), chemistry (40%), and
astronomy (34%). Their percentages in computer sciences
(25%), engineering (23%), and physics (20%) were low in
2006, although higher than in 1993 (23%, 15%, and 14%,
respectively) (appendix table 2-14).
Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity
The proportion of underrepresented minority (black,
Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native) students in
graduate S&E programs increased from about 8% in 1993
to about 11% in 2006.10 Increases occurred in all major science fields and in engineering during that period (appendix
table 2-17). In 2006, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives as a group made up 6%–7% of graduate
enrollment in many S&E fields (engineering; mathematics;
physical sciences; earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences;
and computer sciences), 8%–10% of graduate enrollment in
agricultural and biological sciences, 15% in medical/other
life sciences, 17% in social sciences, and 19% in psychology. Asians/Pacific Islanders accounted for about 6% of S&E
graduate enrollment in 2006, up from 5% in 1993.
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
The number of white S&E graduate students decreased
from 1994 to 2001 and then increased through 2006, whereas the numbers of Asian, black, Hispanic, and American
Indian/Alaska Native students increased almost every year
from 1993 through 2006 (figure 2-8). The rise in the numbers of black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native
graduate students occurred in most S&E fields. The number
of Asian students increased in most science fields but decreased in engineering and in computer sciences in the past
3 or 4 years (appendix table 2-17).
Foreign Student Enrollment
Foreign graduate student enrollment in S&E grew from
110,300 in 1993 to 155,000 in 2003, declined for 2 years,
and increased slightly in 2006 to 151,000. Foreign students
increased from 22% to 25% of all S&E graduate students
from 1993 to 2006 (appendix table 2-17). The concentration of foreign enrollment was highest in engineering (45%),
computer sciences (44%), physical sciences (40%), mathematics (36%), and economics (52%).11
First-time full-time enrollment of foreign S&E graduate
students increased in fall 2005 and fall 2006 after declining 18% from 2001 through 2004. The numbers still remain
slightly below those of 2001 (appendix table 2-18). Declines
and subsequent increases were concentrated mainly in engineering and computer sciences, fields heavily favored by
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2-19
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
foreign students. Foreign students’ share of first-time fulltime S&E graduate enrollment dropped from 35% in fall
2000 to 30% in fall 2006, with most of the decrease in computer sciences (from 71% to 62%) and engineering (from
61% to 55%) (appendix table 2-18).
According to data collected by the Institute of International Education (IIE 2009), the overall number of foreign
graduate students in all fields increased 5% from academic
year 2006–07 to 2007–08, with almost all of the increase
occurring among master’s degree students. The number of
foreign doctoral students increased 0.9% to approximately
109,000, and the number of foreign master’s students increased 9% to approximately 133,700. The number of new
foreign graduate students rose 8%. India, China, South Korea, Taiwan, and Canada are the top places of origin for foreign graduate students. More than half of all foreign graduate
students are studying S&E.
More recent data from the Bureau of Citizenship and
Immigration Services show a continuing increase in foreign graduate students from April 2008 to April 2009, with
foreign enrollment in S&E fields growing 8% (appendix
table 2-19). As in the recent past, most of the growth was
in computer sciences (up 13%) and engineering (up 11%).
Two countries—India, with 56,680 foreign S&E graduate
students, and China, with 36,890—accounted for more than
half of the foreign S&E graduates in the United States in
April 2009. South Korea, Taiwan, and Turkey also sent large
numbers of S&E graduate students, although South Korea
and Taiwan sent far larger numbers of graduate students in
non-S&E fields (primarily business and humanities).
Financial Support for S&E Graduate
Education
More than one-third of all S&E graduate students are
self-supporting; that is, they rely primarily on loans, their
own funds, or family funds for financial support. The other
approximately two-thirds receive primary financial support
from a variety of sources, including the federal government,
university sources, employers, nonprofit organizations, and
foreign governments.
Support mechanisms include research assistantships
(RAs), teaching assistantships (TAs), fellowships, and traineeships. Sources of funding include federal agency support,
nonfederal support, and self-support. Nonfederal support includes state funds, particularly in the large public university
systems; these funds are affected by the condition of overall
state budgets. Most graduate students, especially those who
pursue doctoral degrees, are supported by more than one
source or mechanism during their time in graduate school,
and some receive support from several different sources and
mechanisms in any given academic year.
Other than self-support, RAs are the most prevalent primary mechanism of financial support for S&E graduate students. In 2006, a little more than one-fourth of full-time S&E
graduate students were supported primarily by RAs, 18%
were primarily supported through TAs, and 12% relied primarily on fellowships or traineeships (appendix table 2-20).
Primary mechanisms of support differ widely by S&E
field of study (appendix table 2-21). For example, in fall
2006 full-time students in physical sciences were financially
supported mainly through RAs (42%) and TAs (38%) (figure 2-9). RAs also were important in agricultural sciences
(57%); biological sciences (42%); earth, atmospheric, and
ocean sciences (41%); and engineering (40%). In mathematics, more than half (53%) of full-time students were
supported primarily through TAs and another 21% were
self-supported. Full-time students in the social and behavioral sciences were mainly self-supporting (46%) or received
TAs (20%), and students in medical/other life sciences were
mainly self-supporting (60%).
The federal government served as the primary source of
financial support for one-fifth of full-time S&E graduate students in 2006 (appendix table 2-22). The federal government
plays a substantial role in supporting S&E graduate students
through some mechanisms and in some fields, and a smaller
role in others. For example, in 2006 the federal government
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Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
funded 67% of S&E graduate students on traineeships, 50%
of those with RAs, and 23% of those with fellowships. Federal financial support for graduate education reaches relatively more students in the biological sciences; the physical
sciences; the earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences; and engineering. Relatively fewer students in computer sciences,
mathematics, other life sciences, psychology, and social sciences receive federal support (figure 2-10). Appendix table
2-22 provides detailed information by field and mechanism.
(For information on federal academic R&D funding by discipline, see chapter 5, “Expenditures by Field and Funding
Source.”)
Most federal financial support for graduate education is
in the form of RAs funded through grants to universities for
academic research. RAs are the primary mechanism of support for 69% of federally supported full-time S&E graduate
students, up from 66% in 1993. Fellowships and traineeships
are the means of funding for 21% of the federally funded
full-time S&E graduate students. The share of federally
supported S&E graduate students receiving traineeships declined from 15% in 1993 to 12% in 2006, and the share receiving fellowships declined from 11% to 10%. For students
supported through nonfederal sources in 2006, TAs were the
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most prominent mechanism (39%), followed by RAs (30%)
(appendix table 2-20).
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) and NSF support
most of the full-time S&E graduate students whose primary
support comes from the federal government. In 2006, they
supported about 27,600 and 20,300 students, respectively.
Trends in federal agency support of graduate students show
considerable increases from 1993 to 2006 in the proportion
of students funded (NIH, from 27% to 33%; NSF, from 20%
to 24%). Support from the U.S. Department of Defense declined from 14% to 11% of federally supported graduate students (appendix table 2-23).
For doctoral degree students, notable differences exist in
primary support mechanisms by type of doctorate-granting
institution. In 2007, the primary support mechanism for S&E
doctorate recipients from research universities (i.e., doctorategranting institutions with very high research activity, which
receive the most federal funding) was RAs. For those from
medical schools, which are heavily funded by NIH, the primary support mechanism was fellowships or traineeships,
and for those from doctoral/research universities, which receive less federal funding, the primary support mechanism
was personal funds (table 2-3). These differences by type
of institution hold for all S&E fields (NSF/SRS 2000). As
noted earlier in this chapter, about 70% of S&E doctorate
recipients received their doctorate from research universities
with very high research activity.
Notable differences also exist for doctoral degree students in primary support mechanisms by sex, race/ethnicity,
and citizenship. Among U.S. citizens and permanent residents in 2007, men were more likely than women to be supported by RAs (29% compared with 21%) and women were
more likely than men to support themselves from personal
sources (21% compared with 13%). Also, among U.S. citizens and permanent residents, whites and Asians were more
likely than other racial/ethnic groups to receive primary support from RAs (26% and 32%, respectively), whereas underrepresented minorities depended more on fellowships or
traineeships (35%). The primary source of support for doctoral degree students with temporary visas was an RA (54%)
(appendix table 2-24).
White and Asian men, as well as foreign doctoral degree
students, are more likely than white and Asian women and
underrepresented minority doctoral degree students of both
sexes to receive doctorates in engineering and physical sciences, fields largely supported by RAs. Women and underrepresented minorities are more likely than other groups to
receive doctorates in social sciences and psychology, fields
in which self-support is prevalent. Differences in type of
support by sex, race/ethnicity, or citizenship remain, however, even accounting for doctorate field (NSF/SRS 2000).
Although remaining differences in self-support are small
(2–3 percentage points) in some fields, differences between
men and women in self-support remain substantial (13–25
percentage points) in computer and health sciences, and differences between underrepresented minorities and whites in
RA support remain substantial (15–31 percentage points) in
2-21
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
agricultural sciences; computer sciences; earth, atmospheric,
and ocean sciences; physical sciences; and engineering.
At the time of doctoral degree conferral, 44% of S&E
doctorate recipients have debt related to their undergraduate or graduate education. More than one-fourth have some
undergraduate debt and about one-third owe money directly
related to graduate education. In 2007, 27% of S&E doctorate recipients reported having undergraduate debt and 30%
reported having graduate debt. For some, debt levels were
high, especially for graduate debt: 0.3% reported more than
$70,000 of undergraduate debt and 4% reported more than
$70,000 of graduate debt (appendix table 2-25).
Levels of debt vary widely by doctorate fields. In 2007,
high levels of graduate debt were most common among doctorate recipients in psychology, social sciences, and medical/other health sciences. Psychology doctorate recipients
were most likely to report having graduate debt and also
high levels of debt.12 In 2007, 16% of psychology doctoral degree recipients reported graduate debt of more than
$70,000. Doctorate recipients in engineering; biological sciences; computer sciences; earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences; mathematics; and physical sciences were least likely
to report graduate debt. A higher percentage of doctorate recipients in non-S&E fields than those in S&E fields reported
graduate debt.
Interdisciplinary Education
The scientific community increasingly views interdisciplinary research as critical to innovation and scientific
advance and as a means to respond to emerging complex
problems (COSEPUP 1995, 2004; NSF/DGE 2009). Over
the past decade, academic institutions and federal funding
agencies have made efforts to promote interdisciplinary
education and research. Although new programs and efforts have arisen, academic institutions and funding agencies remain for the most part organized around disciplines;
thus, university structures, evaluation and promotion practices, and funding opportunities often do not facilitate interdisciplinary research (NSF/DGE 2009). Measurement
of interdisciplinary enrollment and degree attainment also
remains a challenge, as students often are assigned to only
one department or program to avoid duplication in records,
and schools are asked to report the enrollment or degree
in only one department or program. As interdisciplinary
degree programs become established and award degrees,
measurement becomes easier. For example, the number of
doctoral degrees increased in interdisciplinary fields such
as neuroscience (from 117 in 1982 to 737 in 2006), materials science (from 147 in 1982 to 582 in 2006), and bioengineering (from 59 in 1982 to 525 in 2006) (NSF/SRS 1993,
2009c). For information based on students’ own reports of
their research, see the sidebar “Interdisciplinary Dissertation Research.”
S&E Master’s Degrees
In some fields, such as engineering and geology, a master’s degree is often the terminal degree for students. In other
fields, master’s degrees are a step toward doctoral degrees,
and in certain others, master’s degrees are awarded when
students fail to advance to the doctoral level. Professional
master’s degree programs, which stress interdisciplinary
Table 2-3
Primary support mechanisms for S&E doctorate recipients, by Carnegie classification of doctorate-granting
institution: 2007
(Percent distribution)
All institutions
Research
universities
(very high
research activity)
Doctorate recipients (n) ..................
33,826
24,860
6,045
1,118
1,110
693
All mechanisms ..............................
Fellowship or traineeship ............
Grant ...........................................
Teaching assistantship................
Research assistantship ...............
Other assistantship .....................
Personal ......................................
Other ...........................................
Unknown .....................................
100.0
19.4
6.2
14.5
33.9
0.6
10.4
3.6
11.5
100.0
20.8
6.4
14.6
37.8
0.4
6.6
2.9
10.5
100.0
13.2
3.9
18.6
27.1
1.2
17.9
5.9
12.2
100.0
11.3
3.0
7.8
10.3
0.8
36.2
4.8
25.8
100.0
32.3
16.8
1.7
22.1
0.4
15.6
3.1
8.0
100.0
15.6
5.5
5.9
10.4
0.6
30.7
7.9
23.4
Mechanism
Research
universities
Medical schools
(high research Doctoral/research and medical Other/not
activity)
universities
centers
classified
NOTES: Personal support mechanisms include personal savings, other personal earnings, other family earnings or savings, and loans. Traineeships include
internships and residency. Other support mechanisms include employer reimbursement or assistance, foreign support, and other sources. Percents may not
add to 100% because of rounding.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, special tabulations (2009).
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
2-22 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
training, are a relatively new direction in graduate education.
(See sidebar “Professional Science Master’s Degrees.”)
Master’s degrees in S&E fields increased from 86,400 in
1993 to 121,000 in 2006 before dropping slightly in 2007
(appendix table 2-26). Increases occurred in most major science fields. Master’s degrees in engineering and computer
sciences have dropped since 2004 (figure 2-11).
Master’s Degrees by Sex
The number of S&E master’s degrees earned by women
rose from about 31,000 in 1993 to about 54,900 in 2007
(figure 2-12). The number of master’s degrees earned by
men grew more slowly, from about 55,500 in 1993 to about
65,400 in 2007, with most of the growth between 2002
and 2004. The number of S&E master’s degrees earned
by men declined between 2005 and 2007. As a result, the
Interdisciplinary
Dissertation Research
One indicator of interdisciplinary research is the
number of doctorate recipients reporting two or more
dissertation fields. A recent analysis from the Survey
of Earned Doctorates shows that during the period
2004–07, the share of doctorate recipients reporting
more than one dissertation research field fluctuated
between 28% and 30% (NSF/SRS 2009a).
The report found that interdisciplinary research at
the dissertation research level occurred mostly within
the same knowledge domain, whether science (80.2%),
engineering (58.5%), or non-science and engineering
(non-S&E, 69.3%). Respondents who reported a primary dissertation field in the sciences most frequently
reported a secondary research field within the same
broad field in the sciences. However, this varied considerably by field of primary dissertation research,
from the biological sciences (81.2%) to computer sciences (11.2%). About half of the doctorate recipients
who reported a primary dissertation research field in
the earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences; the physical sciences; psychology; or the social sciences reported a secondary dissertation research field within the
same broad field. The biological sciences were also
the most frequent secondary dissertation research field
across all the other sciences except the social sciences.
About 29% of mathematics and 11% of computer
sciences doctorate holders listed a secondary field
within the same respective major field. Dissertations
in which the primary research field was computer sciences most frequently had engineering (24.9%) or a
non-S&E field (20.1%) as the secondary dissertation
research field. Dissertations with mathematics as the
primary research field most often had biological sciences (24.6%) or engineering (11.7%) as the secondary field.
percentage of women earning master’s degrees rose steadily during that time period. In 1993, women earned 36% of
all S&E master’s degrees; by 2007, they earned 46% (appendix table 2-26).
Professional Science
Master’s Degrees
Partially in response to the call for more realistic
programs to serve the nation’s S&E needs and students’ professional goals, a number of universities
have developed Professional Science Master’s (PSM)
programs (CGS 2008d; Colwell 2009; NAS 2008;
NPSMA 2009). These programs are designed to prepare people to work primarily in nonacademic sectors
as laboratory administrators or project directors in, for
example, large government or industrial laboratories
or in small startup companies. They serve people who
need advanced technical training (beyond the bachelor’s degree) within an S&E field combined with
knowledge of and skills in business fundamentals,
management, team building, and communication. Prospective students include people already working as
S&E professionals and others who feel the “strictly research” approach does not appeal to them. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (Public
Law 111-5) includes funds specifically for support of
such programs.*
Starting from a handful of PSM programs in 1997,
there are now more than 125 such programs in more
than 60 institutions in 25 states and the District of Columbia in disciplines such as mathematics, physics,
biological sciences, computational science, forensics,
chemistry, and geographical information systems.
Most PSM programs are interdisciplinary in nature.
About 2,500 students are enrolled annually, and these
numbers are increasing. Student enrollment is highest
in the biological sciences and biotechnology disciplines. More than 2,100 PSM students have graduated
thus far, and 65% of these graduates have found employment in industry or government (NPSMA 2009).
Many PSM programs were initiated with startup funds
from the Sloan Foundation and the Council of Graduate Schools with the intent that they become self-supporting as their value to industry and their students’
professional aspirations become apparent. Also of
note are the growing number of such programs abroad,
as other nations see the value of preparing an S&Etrained managerial workforce, and the growing interest in them of professional societies and journals (CGS
2008a; Teitelbaum and Cox 2007).
* See the Joint Explanatory Statement–Division A of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, http://www.rules.
house.gov/bills_details.aspx?NewsID=4149, accessed 12 June 2009.
2-23
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Women’s share of S&E master’s degrees varies by field.
In 2007, women earned a majority of master’s degrees
in psychology (79%), biological sciences (60%), social
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sciences (56%), and agricultural sciences (55%). Women
earned a small share of master’s degrees in engineering, although their share in 2007 (23%) was higher than their share
in 1993 (15%) (appendix table 2-26). The number of master’s degrees awarded to women in most major S&E fields increased through 2005 but has flattened or declined since then.
Master’s Degrees by Race/Ethnicity
The number of S&E master’s degrees awarded to U.S.
citizens and permanent residents increased for all racial/
ethnic groups between 1995 and 2007, although degrees to
white students dropped from 1997 to 2002 before increasing
again (figure 2-13; appendix table 2-27).13
The proportion of master’s degrees in S&E fields earned
by U.S. citizen and permanent resident racial and ethnic
minorities increased over the past two decades. Asians/
Pacific Islanders accounted for 8% of S&E master’s
degrees in 2007, up from 6% in 1995. Blacks, Hispanics,
and American Indians/Alaska Natives also registered gains
during this period (from 4% to 7% for blacks, from 3% to 5%
for Hispanics, and from 0.3% to 0.5% for American Indians/
Alaska Natives). The percentage of S&E master’s degrees
earned by white students fell from 58% in 1995 to 49% in
2007 as the percentage of degrees earned by minorities and
temporary residents increased (appendix table 2-27).
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2-24 
Master’s Degrees by Citizenship
Foreign students make up a much higher proportion of
S&E master’s degree recipients than of bachelor’s or associate’s degree recipients. In 2007, foreign students earned
24% of S&E master’s degrees. Their degrees are heavily
concentrated in computer sciences and engineering, where
they earned 39% and 38%, respectively, of all master’s degrees awarded in 2007 (appendix table 2-27). Within engineering, students on temporary visas earned half of the
master’s degrees in electrical engineering.
S&E master’s degrees awarded to students on temporary visas rose from approximately 22,200 in 1995 to about
35,500 in 2004, then declined to 28,700 in 2007. Most of
the decline in recent years is accounted for by declines in
computer sciences and engineering.
S&E Doctoral Degrees
Doctoral education in the United States prepares a new
generation of faculty and researchers in academia, as well as
a high-skilled workforce for other sectors of the economy. It
also generates new knowledge important for the society as a
whole and for U.S. competitiveness in a global knowledgebased economy.
After rising from the mid-1980s through 1998, the number of S&E doctorates conferred annually by U.S. universities declined through 2002 but increased in recent years,
reaching a new peak of almost 41,000 in 2007 (NSB 2008;
appendix table 2-28). The recent growth through 2007 occurred among both U.S. citizens/permanent residents and
temporary residents. The largest increases were in engineering, biological/agricultural sciences, and medical/other life
sciences (figure 2-14).
Time to Doctoral Degree Completion
The time required to earn a doctoral degree and the success rates of those entering doctoral programs are concerns
for those pursuing a degree, the universities awarding the
degree, and the agencies and organizations funding graduate study (NORC 2007). (See sidebar “Doctoral Completion
and Attrition.”) Time to degree (as measured by time from
graduate school entry to doctorate receipt) increased through
the mid-1990s but since then has decreased for S&E fields
as a whole and for each field (appendix table 2-29). The
physical sciences, mathematics, biological sciences, and engineering had the shortest time to degree, while the social
sciences and medical/other life sciences had the longest. In
2007, the median time to doctorate receipt was 6.4 years in
physical sciences, 6.9 years in mathematics and biological
sciences, 7.0 years in engineering, 8.9 years in social sciences, and 9.7 years in medical/other life sciences. From 1995
to 2007, time to degree shortened in each of these fields. In
science and engineering as a whole, median time to degree
decreased from 8.0 to 7.2 years during this period.
Time to degree for doctorate recipients decreased in each
of the Carnegie types of academic institutions awarding
doctoral degrees from 1993 to 2007. (See sidebar “Carnegie
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
Classification of Academic Institutions.”) The majority of
S&E doctorates are earned at research universities (i.e., doctorate-granting institutions with very high research activity).
Time to degree is shortest at these universities: 7.0 years for
2007, down from 7.8 in 1993. Doctorate recipients at medical schools also finish quickly (7.1 years in 2007). Time to
degree is longer at research universities with high research
activity (7.9 years) and longest at doctoral/research universities (9.0 years) (table 2-4).
Doctoral Degrees by Sex
Among U.S. citizens and permanent residents, the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees earned by women has risen
considerably since 1993, reaching a record high of 55%
in 2007 (appendix table 2-28). During this period, women
made gains in most major fields, but considerable differences by field continue. In 2007, women earned half or more of
doctorates in non-S&E fields, in social/behavioral sciences,
and in medical/other life sciences, but they earned considerably less than half of doctorates in physical sciences (31%),
mathematics/computer sciences (26%), and engineering
(23%) (appendix table 2-28). Although the percentages of
degrees earned by women in physical sciences and engineer-
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Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
ing are low, they are substantially higher than in 1993 (23%
and 13%, respectively).
The increase in the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees
earned by women resulted from both an increase in the number of women and a decrease in the number of men earning
these degrees. The number of U.S. citizen and permanent
resident women earning doctorates in S&E increased from
6,800 in 1993 to 15,000 in 2007 (appendix table 2-28).
Meanwhile, the number of S&E doctorates earned by U.S.
citizen or permanent resident men increased from 10,900
Doctoral Completion
and Attrition
An ongoing study by the Council of Graduate Schools (CGS 2008c) collected data on doctoral
completion and attrition of doctoral students from the
1992–93 academic year to the 2003–04 academic year
from about 30 academic institutions for 5 broad fields:
engineering, mathematics and physical sciences, the
life sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities.
The study, which focused on 10-year completion and
attrition rates, revealed that 57% of doctoral students
complete their degrees within 10 years (and some are
likely to complete after that). Completion rates varied
by field, with higher percentages of students in engineering and the life sciences and lower percentages
of students in mathematics and the physical sciences,
social sciences, and humanities completing within 10
years. Ten-year completion rates varied by subdisciplines within the broader disciplines (e.g., within engineering, 10-year completion rates were higher for
civil engineering and lower for electrical engineering)
and also differed between men and women and among
racial and ethnic groups. Ten-year completion rates
were higher for men than for women in most fields
(except the social sciences and humanities) and were
higher for whites than for all other racial/ethnic groups
(CGS 2008b).
Exit surveys of doctorate completers conducted as
part of the study found that financial support, mentoring/advising, and family (nonfinancial) support
headed the factors reported as influencing doctorate
completion, with more than half of the respondents reporting each of these as factors in their ability to complete their doctoral programs. The relative prevalence
of these factors varied by field, although differences
by broad field of study may reflect differences in the
demographics of students in the fields (CGS 2009).
The study found that most students who leave doctoral programs leave within the first 4 years. Attrition
rates have improved over time, with rates of attrition
lower for later cohorts than for earlier cohorts of students. Attrition was highest in mathematics and the
physical sciences (CGS 2008a).
2-25
in 1993 to 12,300 in 2007. The increase in the number of
S&E doctorates earned by women occurred in most major
S&E fields. For example, the number of engineering doctorates earned by U.S. citizen and permanent resident women
increased from approximately 300 in 1993 to 700 in 2007;
biological sciences doctorates, from 1,300 to 2,300; physical
sciences doctorates, from 600 to 700; and social/behavioral
sciences doctorates, from 3,300 to 4,700. A decrease in the
number of doctorates earned by men after the mid-1990s
and through about 2002 to 2004 occurred in non-S&E fields
as well as in engineering and in most science fields (except
for biological sciences and medical/other life sciences). In
recent years, the number of doctorates earned by U.S. citizen and permanent resident men increased in biological sciences; earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences; computer
sciences; physical sciences; mathematics; and engineering.
Doctoral Degrees by Race/Ethnicity
The number and proportion of doctoral degrees in
S&E fields earned by U.S. citizen and permanent resident
underrepresented minorities has also increased since 1995.
Blacks earned 1,287, Hispanics earned 1,301, and American
Indians/Alaska Natives earned 128 S&E doctorates in 2007,
together accounting for 7% of all S&E doctoral degrees
earned that year, up from 4% in 1995 (appendix table 2-30).
Their share of S&E doctoral degrees earned by U.S. citizens
and permanent residents rose from 6% to 10% in the same
period. Gains by all groups contributed to this rise, although
the number of S&E degrees earned by blacks and Hispanics
rose considerably more than the number earned by American
Indians/Alaska Natives (figure 2-15). Asian/Pacific Islander
U.S. citizens and permanent residents earned 6% of all S&E
doctorates in 2007, down from 7% in 1995. The number
of S&E doctorates earned by white U.S. citizens and
permanent residents declined from the mid-1990s to 2002,
with most of the decrease among white men. The number
of S&E doctoral degrees earned by white U.S. citizen and
permanent resident men declined in the late 1990s through
2003, then gradually increased (figure 2-16). The number
of degrees earned by white U.S. citizen and permanent
resident women dropped briefly in 1996 and has increased
since then. As the number of S&E doctorates awarded to
minorities and temporary residents increased, the proportion
of S&E doctoral degrees earned by white U.S. citizens and
permanent residents decreased from 54% in 1995 to 49% in
2007 (appendix table 2-30).
Foreign S&E Doctorate Recipients
Temporary residents earned approximately 13,700 S&E
doctorates in 2007, up from 8,700 in 1995. Foreign students
on temporary visas earn a larger proportion of doctoral degrees than master’s, bachelor’s, or associate’s degrees (appendix tables 2-11, 2-13, 2-27, and 2-30). The temporary
resident share of S&E doctorates rose from 31% in 1995 to
33% in 2007. Foreign students earn considerable shares of
doctoral degrees in some fields. In 2007, foreign students
2-26 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
Table 2-4
Median number of years from S&E doctorate recipients’ entry to graduate school to receipt of doctorate, by
Carnegie classification of doctorate-granting institution: 1993–2007
Year of
doctorate
All
institutions
1993..........
1994..........
1995..........
1996..........
1997..........
1998..........
1999..........
2000..........
2001..........
2002..........
2003..........
2004..........
2005..........
2006..........
2007..........
Research universities Research universities
(very high research
(high research
activity)
activity)
7.9
8.0
8.0
7.9
7.7
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.6
7.7
7.7
7.3
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.4
7.5
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.1
7.3
7.1
7.0
8.4
8.6
8.6
8.7
8.6
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.3
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.9
Doctoral/
research
universities
Medical schools
and medical
centers
10.0
9.9
10.2
9.7
10.0
9.8
9.2
9.2
9.9
10.0
10.0
9.3
9.6
8.7
9.0
7.9
8.0
7.9
8.0
7.9
7.2
7.0
7.2
7.3
7.1
7.1
7.0
7.1
7.0
7.1
Other/
not classified
8.5
8.6
8.9
8.8
8.4
8.3
7.8
8.3
8.0
8.4
9.0
7.8
8.4
8.0
8.0
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, special tabulations (2009).
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
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2-27
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
on temporary visas earned half or more of doctoral degrees
awarded in engineering, physics, mathematics, computer
sciences, and economics. They earned considerably lower
proportions of doctoral degrees in other S&E fields, for example, 30% in biological sciences, 8% in medical/other life
sciences, and 5% in psychology (appendix table 2-30).
Countries/Economies of Origin
The top 10 foreign countries/economies of origin of foreign S&E doctorate recipients together accounted for 66%
of all foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees from
1987 to 2007 (table 2-5). All but 3 of those top 10 countries
Table 2-5
Foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates, by
country/economy of origin: 1987–2007
Country/economy
Number
Percent
All foreign recipients ........
Top 10 total ..................
China ........................
India..........................
South Korea .............
Taiwan ......................
Canada .....................
Turkey .......................
Thailand ....................
Germany ...................
Japan .......................
Mexico......................
All others ......................
206,256
136,120
50,220
21,354
20,549
18,523
6,676
4,575
3,707
3,567
3,536
3,413
70,136
100.0
66.0
24.3
10.4
10.0
9.0
3.2
2.2
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
34.0
NOTE: Foreign doctorate recipients include permanent and
temporary residents.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Division of Science
Resources Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, special
tabulations (2009).
are located in Asia. The major Asian countries/economies
sending doctoral degree students to the United States have
been, in descending order, China, India, South Korea, and
Taiwan.
Asia. From 1987 to 2007, students from four Asian
countries/economies (China, India, South Korea, and Taiwan) earned more than half of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees
awarded to foreign students (110,600 of 206,300), almost
four times more than students from Europe (27,900). Most
of these degrees were awarded in engineering, biological
sciences, and physical sciences (table 2-6).
Students from China earned the largest number of U.S.
S&E doctorates awarded to foreign students during the
1987–2007 period (50,200), followed by those from India
(21,400), South Korea (20,500), and Taiwan (18,500) (table
2-6). The numbers of S&E doctorates earned by students
from China and India dropped in the late 1990s but have
been increasing since then (figure 2-17). Over the 20-year
period, the number of S&E doctorates earned by Chinese nationals increased more than tenfold14 and the number of S&E
doctorates earned by students from India more than trebled.
The number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by South Korean students also dipped in the late 1990s and then rose, but
the number of students did not rise as dramatically as those
from China and India. In 1987, students from Taiwan earned
more U.S. S&E doctoral degrees than students from China,
India, or South Korea. However, as universities in Taiwan
increased their capacity for advanced S&E education in the
1990s, the number of students from Taiwan earning S&E
doctorates from U.S. universities declined.
Europe. European students earned far fewer U.S. S&E
doctorates than Asian students between 1987 and 2007, and
they tended to focus less on engineering than did their Asian
counterparts (table 2-7). Western European countries whose
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Table 2-6
Asian recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates, by field and country/economy of origin: 1987–2007
Field
All fields ....................................................................
S&E .......................................................................
Engineering .......................................................
Science .............................................................
Agricultural sciences .....................................
Biological sciences ........................................
Computer sciences........................................
Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences ......
Mathematics ..................................................
Medical/other life sciences ............................
Physical sciences ..........................................
Psychology ....................................................
Social sciences ..............................................
Non-S&E ...............................................................
Asia
China
India
South Korea
Taiwan
168,627
143,927
53,621
90,306
5,746
23,637
7,186
2,947
6,888
4,621
21,162
2,198
15,921
24,700
53,665
50,220
16,183
34,037
1,562
11,532
2,166
1,461
3,184
992
10,181
350
2,609
3,445
24,386
21,354
9,419
11,935
534
3,240
1,791
230
641
888
2,606
265
1,740
3,032
26,402
20,549
7,965
12,584
807
2,386
849
367
921
492
2,561
369
3,832
5,853
22,577
18,523
8,332
10,191
727
2,701
959
319
700
819
2,038
308
1,620
4,054
NOTE: Foreign doctorate recipients include permanent and temporary residents.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, special tabulations (2009).
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
2-28 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
students earned the largest number of U.S. S&E doctorates from 1987 to 2007 were Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Italy, and France, in that order. From 1987 to
1993, Greece was the primary European country of origin;
thereafter, its numbers of doctoral degree recipients declined. The numbers of U.S. S&E doctorate recipients from
Italy and France generally increased over the past two decades. The number of U.S. S&E doctorate recipients from
the United Kingdom fluctuated mainly between 100 and 150
over the period, and the number of doctorate recipients from
Germany declined since 2000 (figure 2-18).
The number of Central and Eastern European students
earning S&E doctorates at U.S. universities increased from
55 in 1987 to more than 800 in 2007 (about the same number as those from Western Europe) (figure 2-19). A higher
proportion of Central and Eastern European U.S. doctorate
recipients (88%) than of Western European doctorate recipients (73%) earned their doctorates in S&E fields, particularly in mathematics and physical sciences (table 2-7).
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North America. The Canadian and Mexican shares of
U.S. S&E doctoral degrees were small compared with those
from Asia and Europe. The number of U.S. S&E degrees
earned by students from Canada increased from about 200
in 1987 to more than 400 in 2007. The number of doctoral
degree recipients from Mexico increased from 99 in 1987
to 187 in 2007 (figure 2-20). A higher proportion of Mexican than of Canadian U.S. doctoral degree recipients earned
doctorates in science and engineering fields: 85% of Mexican and 64% of Canadian doctoral degree students in U.S.
universities earned S&E doctorates (table 2-7). In particular,
higher percentages of Mexican than of Canadian U.S. doctoral degrees were in engineering and agricultural sciences.
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Table 2-7
European and North American recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates, by field and region/country of origin:
1987–2007
Europea
Field
All fields .................................................................
S&E ....................................................................
Engineering ....................................................
Science ..........................................................
Agricultural sciences ..................................
Biological sciences .....................................
Computer sciences.....................................
Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences ...
Mathematics ...............................................
Medical/other life sciences .........................
Physical sciences .......................................
Psychology .................................................
Social sciences ...........................................
Non-S&E ............................................................
All
countries
Western
Scandinavia
Central/
Eastern
36,073
27,937
5,563
22,374
802
4,121
1,423
1,053
2,820
630
5,708
1,047
4,770
8,136
23,527
17,168
3,588
13,580
590
2,580
815
720
1,284
488
2,902
803
3,398
6,359
2,083
1,586
286
1,300
61
237
74
83
107
71
221
103
343
497
10,463
9,183
1,689
7,494
151
1,304
534
250
1,429
71
2,585
141
1,029
1,280
North America
All
countries
Canada Mexico
14,443
10,111
1,725
8,386
832
1,951
299
369
498
603
1,106
912
1,816
4,332
10,363
6,676
933
5,743
264
1,378
211
229
313
508
823
822
1,195
3,687
4,028
3,413
792
2,621
568
565
87
138
184
93
281
85
620
615
a
See figure 2-19 notes for countries included in Western Europe, Scandinavia, and Central/Eastern Europe.
NOTE: Foreign doctorate recipients include permanent and temporary residents.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, special tabulations (2009).
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
2-29
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Stay Rates
Most foreign U.S. doctorate recipients plan to stay in the
United States after graduation, and although the percentage
of recipients staying is dropping, the number of recipients
staying is increasing (figure 2-21). This section examines
data on foreign S&E doctorate recipients’ plans for staying
in the United States at the time of doctorate receipt. Chapter
3 provides data based on examination of Social Security records on the percentage of foreign students with U.S. S&E
doctorates who remain in the U.S. labor force up to 5 years
after graduation.
At the time of doctorate receipt, more than three-quarters
of foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates plan to stay
in the United States and about half have either accepted an
offer of postdoctoral study or employment or are continuing employment in the United States (appendix table 2-31).
Until the early 1990s, about half of foreign students who
earned S&E degrees at U.S. universities reported that they
planned to stay in the United States after graduation, and
about one-third said they had firm offers for postdoctoral
study or employment (NSB 1998). In the 1990s, however,
these percentages increased substantially. For example, in
the period 1996–99, 71% of foreign S&E doctoral degree
recipients reported plans to remain in the United States after
receiving their degree and 45% already had firm offers for
postdoctoral study or employment. In the 2004–07 period,
77% of foreign doctoral recipients in S&E fields with known
plans intended to stay in the United States and 51% had firm
offers to do so (appendix table 2-31). Higher percentages
of foreign doctorate recipients in physical sciences, biological and agricultural sciences, and mathematics/computer
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2-30 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
sciences, and lower percentages of foreign doctorate recipients in social/behavioral and health sciences reported definite plans to stay.
Stay rates vary by place of origin. In the period 2004–07,
more than 90% of U.S. S&E doctoral recipients from China
and 89% of those from India reported plans to stay in the
United States, and more than half reported accepting firm
offers for employment or postdoctoral research in the United
States (appendix table 2-31). Doctorate recipients from Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan were less likely than those
from China and India to stay in the United States (figure
2-22). Among U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Europe, a relatively high percentage from the United Kingdom
planned to stay, whereas smaller percentages from Greece
and Spain (compared with other Western European countries) planned to stay after graduation. In North America,
the percentage of 2004–07 doctoral degree students who
had definite plans to stay in the United States was higher for
Canada than for Mexico (appendix table 2-31).
Between 2000–03 and 2004–07, the percentage of U.S.
S&E doctoral degree recipients from all of the top five
countries/economies of origin (China, India, South Korea,
Taiwan, and Canada) reporting definite plans to stay in the
United States declined. However, for all but Taiwan, increases in the numbers of doctorate recipients more than
offset declines in the percentage staying. Thus, the numbers
of U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Canada, China,
India, and South Korea who had definite plans to stay in the
United States were larger in the 2004–07 period than in the
2000–03 period (appendix table 2-31).
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Postdoctoral Education
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Typically, postdoctoral fellows (“postdocs”) have temporary appointments involving full-time research or scholarship, the purpose of which is to further their education and
training. The titles associated with these positions and the
conditions of employment vary widely. The status of postdoctoral fellows within the academic hierarchy is not well
defined and varies among institutions, although it is generally accepted that the postdoctoral experience represents
the last step of a person’s training for becoming an independent investigator and faculty member (COSEPUP 2000).
Postdoctoral fellows also are important contributors to academic research. They bring a new set of techniques and
perspectives to the laboratory that broadens research teams’
2-31
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
experience and can make them more competitive for additional research funding. Chapter 3 provides more detail on
postdoctoral employment, including reasons for and length
of postdoc appointments, salaries and subsequent employment. Chapter 5 provides more detail on postdocs in the academic R&D setting.
Since 1993, the number of S&E postdocs at U.S. universities increased from 34,300 to 49,300 in fall 2006 (appendix
table 2-32). Most of the growth was in biological and medical/other life sciences, accounting for more than two-thirds
of S&E postdocs (figure 2-23).15
Noncitizens account for much of the increase in the
number of S&E postdocs, especially in biological sciences
and medical sciences (figure 2-24). The number of S&E
postdocs with temporary visas at U.S. universities increased
from approximately 17,600 in 1993 to 28,200 in 2006.
The number of U.S. citizen and permanent resident S&E
postdocs at these institutions increased more modestly, from
approximately 16,700 in 1993 to 21,100 in 2006 (appendix
table 2-32). Temporary visa holders accounted for 57% of
S&E postdocs in 2006.
An increasing share of academic S&E postdocs are
funded through federal research grants. In fall 2006, 56%
of S&E postdocs at U.S. universities were funded through
this mechanism, up from 52% in 1993. Federal fellowships
and traineeships funded a declining share of S&E postdocs:
13% in 2006, down from 17% in 1993. In 2006, 31% of
S&E postdocs were funded through nonfederal sources
(table 2-8).
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¶
International S&E Higher Education
In the 1990s, many countries expanded their higher education systems and access to higher education. At the same
time, flows of students worldwide increased. More recently,
a number of countries adopted policies to encourage the
return of students who studied abroad, to attract foreign
students, or both. (For information on worldwide trends affecting doctoral education, see sidebar “Globalization and
Doctoral Education.”)
Higher Education Expenditures
Increasingly, governments around the world have come
to regard movement toward a knowledge-based economy
as key to economic progress. Realizing that this requires
a well-trained workforce, they have invested in upgrading
and expanding their higher education systems and broadening participation. In most instances, government spending
underwrites these developments. One indicator of the importance of higher education is the percentage of resources
devoted to higher education, as measured by expenditures
on tertiary education (education beyond high school) as a
percentage of gross domestic product (GDP). The United
States, Canada, and Korea spend the highest percentage of
GDP on higher education (appendix table 2-33).
An indicator of the growing importance of higher education is the change in expenditures for higher education
over time. Expenditures for tertiary education rose more in
the United States than in other Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries between
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:[H[PZ[PJZ:\Y]L`VM.YHK\H[L:[\KLU[ZHUK7VZ[KVJ[VYH[LZPU:JPLUJL
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2-32 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
1995 and 2000, but less in the United States than in other OECD countries between 2000 and 2005. From 1995
to 2000, educational expenditures in the United States increased faster than the OECD average and faster than almost
all of the other OECD countries (except Greece, Ireland, and
Poland). From 2000 to 2005, educational expenditures in the
United States increased more slowly than the OECD average but at a similar or faster rate than many countries. (In
2006, expenditures per student in the U.S. were double the
OECD average [OECD 2008].) Several countries, the Czech
Republic, Greece, Iceland, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, and the United Kingdom, far exceeded the OECD
average increase in expenditures from 2000 to 2005 (appendix table 2-33). Examination of higher education funding
over time is complicated by many things, including changes
in measurement, prevalence of public versus private institutions (private institutions are much more prevalent in the
United States than in other countries), types and levels of
government funding included, and types and levels of education included.
Table 2-8
Source of funding of S&E postdoctoral students: 1993–2006
(Percent distribution)
Source
1993
All sources ............................
Federal fellowships ...........
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
8.5
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.0 10.2
9.4
9.1
8.3
8.7
7.8
7.9
7.8
7.5
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Federal traineeships..........
8.5
8.1
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.3
6.6
6.0
5.7
5.9
5.7
5.4
5.8
5.5
Federal research grants ....
Nonfederal sources...........
52.1
30.9
51.3
31.9
51.9
31.6
52.0
31.6
51.7
32.1
51.2
31.3
53.2
30.7
54.5
30.3
54.7
31.3
55.9
29.4
56.1
30.4
57.9
28.8
56.6
29.8
55.6
31.4
NOTE: Percents may not add to 100% because of rounding.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and
Engineering, Integrated Science and Engineering Resources Data System (WebCASPAR) database, http://webcaspar.nsf.gov.
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Globalization and Doctoral Education
With increasing student flows and increasing transnational university partnerships and agreements, doctoral
education is becoming more global in nature. In addition,
doctoral education in many countries around the world is
being shaped by common forces in common ways. Globalization of the economy, shifts to a knowledge-based
economy, and various policy efforts are transforming
doctoral education around the world. Nerad and Heggelund (2008) identified several key interrelated dimensions of these global trends in doctoral education:



Across countries, doctoral education is increasingly
seen as a commodity with a measurable economic
value.
The market economy is demanding skills in addition to technical skills, that is, skills such as communication, leadership, and team work, which are
increasingly being incorporated into graduate curricula. Private institutions and for-profit institutions
are arising where only public institutions used to
prevail, and tuition is being charged in countries in
which education used to be free.
Research has shifted from individual curiositydriven research to team research on marketable proj-





ects, and research has become more collaborative
and interdisciplinary.
Developing countries are losing their doctoral students to more developed countries through “brain
drain.”
Doctoral education around the world is increasingly
conducted in English, and scholarly papers are written in English.
Doctoral education is becoming more standardized
in terms of common definitions of degrees, common
curricular elements, interdisciplinary training, ethics training, relationship between bachelor’s degrees
and doctorates, and length of time.
Universities are developing and applying quality
assurance standards and assessment techniques to
compete more effectively in the global marketplace,
and new accreditation agencies are being developed.
The Bologna Accords in Europe are moving toward
harmonization of doctoral education in terms of supervision, length of study, mobility across borders,
and collaboration.
The nature of the individual university’s responses to
these changes and the extent to which universities and
countries embrace or resist them vary.
2-33
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Educational Attainment
Higher education in the United States expanded greatly
after World War II, and for several decades the United States
led the world in its population’s educational attainment. In
the 1990s, many countries in Europe and Asia also began to
expand their higher education systems. The United States
continues to be among those countries with the highest percentage of the population ages 25–64 with a bachelor’s degree or higher, but several other countries have surpassed the
United States in the percentage of the younger (ages 25–34)
population with a bachelor’s degree or higher (figure 2-25;
appendix table 2-34).16
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First University Degrees in S&E Fields
More than 12 million students worldwide earned first
university degrees17 in 2006, with more than 4 million of
these in S&E fields (appendix table 2-35). These worldwide
totals include only countries for which relatively recent
data are available (primarily countries in Asia, Europe, and
the Americas) and therefore are likely an underestimation.
Asian universities accounted for 1.8 million of the world’s
S&E first university degrees in 2006, almost 900,000 of
these in engineering. Students across Europe (including
Eastern Europe and Russia) earned more than 1 million S&E
degrees and students in North and Central America more
than 600,000 in 2006.
In the United States, S&E degrees are about one-third
of U.S. bachelor’s degrees and have been for a long time.
In several countries/economies around the world, the proportion of first university degrees in S&E fields, especially
engineering, is higher. More than half of first university degrees were in S&E fields in Japan (63%), China (53%), and
Singapore (51%). China has traditionally awarded a large
proportion of its first university degrees in engineering, although the percentage has declined in recent years (appendix
table 2-36). In the United States, about 5% of all bachelor’s
degrees are in engineering. However, in Asia, about 20%
are in engineering, and in China about one-third are in engineering (appendix table 2-35). About 12% of all bachelor’s
degrees in the United States and worldwide are in natural
sciences (physical, biological, computer, and agricultural
sciences, and mathematics). See the sidebar “International
Changes in the Ratio of Natural Science and Engineering
Degrees to the College-Age Population.”
The number of S&E first university degrees awarded
in China, Poland, and Taiwan more than doubled between
1998 and 2006, and those in the United States and many
other countries generally increased. Those awarded in Japan decreased in recent years (appendix table 2-36). Natural
sciences and engineering (NS&E) degrees account for most
of the increase in S&E first university degrees in China.
The number of NS&E first university degrees in China rose
sharply from 2002 to 2006 and more than trebled between
1998 and 2006 (figure 2-26). In comparison, those awarded
in Germany, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and
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2-34 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
the United States remained relatively flat. (For information
on reforms affecting degree awards in Europe, see sidebar
“Changes in European Higher Education Since the Bologna
Process.”)
International Changes in the
Ratio of Natural Science and
Engineering Degrees to the
College-Age Population
The ratio of natural sciences and engineering
(NS&E) degrees to the college-age population is one
measure of the technical skill level of those entering
the workforce. Over time, the United States has fallen
from one of the top countries in terms of its ratio of
NS&E degrees to the college-age population to near
the bottom of the 23 countries for which data are available. The ratios of first university degrees in NS&E to
the college-age population increased substantially in
recent decades in these 23 countries. In 1975, only Japan had a higher ratio than the United States of NS&E
degrees per hundred 20–24-year-olds (the college-age
population). By 1990, a few other countries/economies
had surpassed the U.S. ratio, and by 2005 nearly all
had done so. A recent NSF report (NSF/SRS 2009b)
examined the relative influence on this ratio of increased university degree completion relative to the
college-age population and NS&E degrees as an increasing share of all degrees. This study examined increases in the ratio of NS&E first university degrees to
the college-age population in the United States and 22
other countries/economies for two periods: 1975–90
and 1990–2005.
The study found that the rising ratio of NS&E degrees to the college-age population in the locations
compared with the United States can primarily be attributed to increased university degree completion,
not to an increased emphasis on NS&E education;
however, the relative importance of these components
varies substantially by location. In both the 1975–90
and the 1990–2005 periods, the university degree
completion component was either the only component
or the larger component for the majority of countries/
economies for which such data were available. That
is not to say that increased emphasis on NS&E was
not an important factor in some countries. The NS&E
share component was either the only component or the
larger component for five countries in the 1975–90 period but for no countries in the 1990–2005 period. In
another eight countries in which the university degree
completion component was larger, the NS&E share
component and/or the interaction component was substantial in one or the other period.
S&E First University Degrees by Sex
Women earned half or more of first university degrees in
S&E in many countries around the world in 2006, including
Algeria, Argentina, Canada, Greece, Portugal, Saudi Arabia,
the United States, and a number of smaller countries. Several
countries in Europe are not far behind, with more than 40%
of first university S&E degrees earned by women. In many
Asian and African countries, women generally earn about
one-third or less of the first university degrees awarded in
S&E fields (appendix table 2-37). In Canada, Japan, the
United States, and many smaller countries, more than half
of the S&E first university degrees earned by women are
in the social and behavioral sciences. In South Korea, 45%
of the S&E first university degrees earned by women are in
engineering; in Europe, more than 20% are in engineering.
In the United Kingdom and the United States, 6% of S&E
first university degrees earned by women are in engineering.
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2-35
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Global Comparison of S&E Doctoral Degrees
Almost 174,000 S&E doctoral degrees were earned
worldwide in 2006. The United States awarded the largest number of S&E doctoral degrees of any country (about
30,000),18 followed by China (about 23,000), Russia (almost 20,000), and Germany and the United Kingdom (about
10,000 each) (appendix table 2-38). More than 52,000 S&E
doctoral degrees were earned in the European Union.
Changes in European
Higher Education Since the
Bologna Process
In 1999, 29 European countries, through the Bologna Declaration, initiated a system of reforms in higher
education in Europe. The goal of the Bologna Process
is to harmonize certain aspects of higher education
within participating countries by the year 2010 so that
degrees are comparable, credits are transferable, and
students, teachers, and researchers can move freely
from institution to institution across national borders.
Its aim is to replace the varied degree programs in existence, which typically have taken 5 or more years
to complete, with a standard 3-year bachelor’s degree
and a 2-year master’s degree and with a standardized
credit system. Implementation of these reforms has
implications for graduate admissions to U.S. academic
institutions: Will U.S. academic institutions see these
3-year bachelor’s degrees as equivalent to U.S. 4-year
bachelor’s degrees? (IIE 2009). The Bologna Process
is also stimulating discussion about reform of the U.S.
higher education system (Adelman 2008).
By 2008, higher education reform in Europe had
been extended to more than 45 countries, but it is still
in process in many countries and in many fields, and
the impact is still uncertain. Many countries have established regulations for reform, but implementation
of changes is ongoing, particularly in some disciplines. In many European countries, law and medicine
have not moved to the 2-cycle (bachelor’s and master’s) structure. One of the major difficulties countries
are experiencing in the shift to the 2-cycle structure,
particularly in law and medicine, is with the bachelorlevel degree’s relevance to the labor market (Huisman,
Witte, and File 2006). In a few countries, the impact
of the change on degree trends is already apparent. In
2001, Italy introduced a 3-year bachelor’s degree in
accordance with the Bologna guidelines, and the number of students completing an undergraduate degree
has since increased, particularly from 2004 on (appendix table 2-36). In Germany, implementation was
later, but evidence of the change is apparent in the
number of first university degrees in 2006.
Women earned 40% of S&E doctoral degrees awarded in
the United States in 2006, about the same as the percentage
earned by women in Australia, Canada, the European Union,
and Mexico. They earned more than half of S&E doctoral
degrees in Portugal and less than one-quarter of S&E doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, Poland, South Korea, and
Taiwan (appendix table 2-39).
The number of S&E doctoral degrees awarded in China,
Italy, and the United States has risen steeply in recent years
(appendix tables 2-40 and 2-41). The United States awarded
the largest number of natural sciences and engineering doctoral degrees, but China (as of 2006) was rapidly catching
up (figure 2-27) and may have since surpassed the United
States. In the United States, as well as in France, Germany,
Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, the largest numbers of S&E doctoral degrees are in the physical and
biological sciences. The number of doctoral degrees in those
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MVY,K\JH[PVU:[H[PZ[PJZ0U[LNYH[LK7VZ[ZLJVUKHY`,K\JH[PVU+H[H
:`Z[LT*VTWSL[PVUZ:\Y]L`"HUK5H[PVUHS:JPLUJL-V\UKH[PVU
+P]PZPVUVM:JPLUJL9LZV\YJLZ:[H[PZ[PJZ0U[LNYH[LK:JPLUJLHUK
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2-36 
fields stagnated or declined in many of these countries from
the late 1990s through 2006, although the number of these
degrees in Italy, Switzerland, and the United States increased
in recent years. The number of S&E doctoral degrees in Germany has declined slightly since 2000 (appendix table 2-40).
In Asia, China was the largest producer of S&E doctoral
degrees. The number of S&E doctorates awarded in China
rose from about 1,900 in 1993 to almost 23,000 in 2006
(appendix table 2-41). Recently, the Chinese State Council
Academic Degrees Committee announced that China would
begin to limit admissions growth in doctoral programs and
would focus more on quality of graduates (Mooney 2008).
The number of S&E doctorates awarded in India, Japan,
South Korea, and Taiwan also rose from 1993 to 2006, but
at a lower rate. In China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan,
more than half of S&E doctorates were awarded in engineering. In India, most doctorates were awarded in the physical
and biological sciences (appendix table 2-41).
Global Student Mobility
International migration of students and highly skilled
workers expanded in the past two decades, and countries are
increasingly competing for foreign students. In particular,
students migrated from developing countries to the more developed countries, and from Europe and Asia to the United
States. Some migrate temporarily for education, whereas
others remain permanently. Some factors influencing the
decision to migrate are economic opportunities, research
opportunities, research funding, and climate for innovation
in the country of destination (OECD 2004). In recent years,
many countries, particularly Australia, Canada, the United
Kingdom, and the United States, have expanded their provision of transnational education, that is, programs for foreign
students in their home countries (NSB 2008). The rise in
transnational education, however, has not had much impact
on foreign student flows (De Wit 2008). The influence of the
worldwide economic and monetary crises beginning in 2008
on international flows of students in the future is uncertain.
Some countries expanded recruitment of foreign students
as their own populations of college-age students decreased,
both to attract highly skilled workers and increase revenue
for colleges and universities (OECD 2008). The population
of individuals ages 20–24 (a proxy for the college-age population) decreased in China, Europe, Japan, and the United
States in the 1990s and is projected to continue decreasing in China, Europe (mainly Eastern Europe), Japan, and
South Korea (appendix table 2-42). The U.S. population of
20–24-year-olds is projected to increase.
The U.S. share of foreign students worldwide declined in
recent years, although the United States remains the destination of the largest number of foreign students worldwide
(both undergraduate and graduate) of all OECD countries
(figure 2-28). In 2006, the United States received 20%
of foreign students worldwide, down from 25% in 2000
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
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2-37
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
(OECD 2008). Other countries that are among the top destinations for foreign students include the United Kingdom
(11%), Germany (9%), and France (8%).
Although Australia has a higher percentage of higher education students (undergraduate and graduate) who are foreign (18%) than the United States (3%), it has a lower share
(6%) of foreign students worldwide. Other countries with
relatively high percentages of higher education students who
are foreign include New Zealand (16%), Switzerland and the
United Kingdom (14%), and Austria (12%). A number of
countries, including Belgium, Canada, New Zealand, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States, have
relatively high percentages (more than 20%) of doctoral students who are foreign (OECD 2008).
The United Kingdom has been actively expanding its position in international education, both by recruiting foreign
students to study in the country and expanding its provision
of transnational education (British Council 2007). Foreign
student enrollment in the United Kingdom is increasing, especially at the graduate level, with increasing flows of students from China and India (appendix table 2-43). In just 5
years, from 2001 to 2006, foreign students increased from
35% to 45% of all graduate students studying S&E in the
United Kingdom. Foreign students now account for more
than half of graduate students in mathematics/computer sciences and engineering. Students from China and India accounted for most of the increase, but the number of graduate
students from France, Germany, Ireland, Malaysia, Nigeria,
Pakistan, and the United States also increased. The number
of foreign undergraduate students also increased, but not as
dramatically. Foreign undergraduates accounted for 10% of
S&E enrollment in the United Kingdom in 2001 and 11%
in 2006.
Japan has increased its enrollment of foreign students in
recent years and in 2008 announced plans to triple foreign
enrollment in 12 years (McNeil 2008). Almost 60,000 foreign students were enrolled in S&E programs in Japanese
universities in 2008, up from 42,000 in 2001. Foreign S&E
student enrollment in Japan is concentrated at the undergraduate level, accounting for 68% of all foreign S&E students.
Foreign undergraduates account for 3% of undergraduate
and 14% of graduate S&E students in Japan. Most of the
foreign students were from Asian countries. China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, South Korea, Thailand, and
Vietnam were among the top 10 countries of origin for both
undergraduates and graduate students. Chinese students accounted for more than half of foreign undergraduate (68%)
and graduate (54%) S&E students in Japan in 2008 (appendix table 2-44).
Foreign students are an increasing share of enrollment in
Canadian universities. Foreign S&E students accounted for
about 6% of undergraduate and 20% of graduate S&E enrollment in Canada in 2006, up from 3% and 17% in 1996,
although the foreign shares in 2006 were down slightly from
recent years (NSB 2008). In 2005–06, at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, the highest percentages of foreign
S&E students were in mathematics/computer sciences and
engineering. Asian countries/economies were the top places
of origin of foreign S&E graduate and undergraduate students in Canada. China alone accounted for 18% of foreign
S&E graduate and undergraduate students in Canada. The
United States was also among the top countries of origin of
foreign students, accounting for 6% of foreign S&E graduate students and 12% of foreign S&E undergraduate students
in Canada (appendix table 2-45).
Although foreign students are a large share of U.S. higher
education, U.S. students are a relatively small share of foreign students worldwide. About 49,000 U.S. students (in
all fields) were reported as foreign students by OECD and
OECD partner countries in 2006, far fewer than the numbers
of foreign students from China, France, Germany, India,
Japan, or South Korea. The main destinations of U.S. students were the United Kingdom (14,800), Canada (9,500),
Germany (3,300), Australia (2,900), France (2,800), Ireland
(2,100), and New Zealand (2,100)—mainly English speaking countries (OECD 2008).
Approximately 242,000 U.S. students from U.S. universities enrolled in study-abroad programs in the 2006–07
academic year, up 8.5% from 2005–06 (IIE 2008). A little
more than one-third were in programs lasting one semester, and more than half were in short-term programs (2–8
weeks). About 5% were graduate students; the rest were undergraduates, primarily juniors or seniors. About one-third
were studying in S&E fields: 21% in social sciences, 7% in
physical or life sciences, 3% in engineering, 2% in math or
computer sciences, and 1% in agricultural sciences.
Conclusion
S&E higher education in the United States is attracting
growing numbers of students. The number of bachelor’s
and doctoral degrees awarded in all fields and in S&E fields
continues to rise, having reached new peaks in 2007. Graduate enrollment in S&E fields is also increasing. Most of the
growth in undergraduate S&E education occurred in science
fields. In engineering, bachelor’s degrees increased since
2001 but have not yet attained the levels of the 1980s. Computer sciences degrees dropped precipitously in recent years.
In doctoral degrees, growth occurred in both science and engineering fields.
Foreign graduate student enrollment in S&E increased in
2006 after declines in 2004 and 2005. The number of entering foreign students dropped after 11 September 2001 but
partially rebounded in 2005 and 2006. Students on temporary visas earned 33% of S&E doctorates in the United
States in 2007 and half or more of doctoral degrees awarded
in engineering, physics, mathematics, computer sciences,
and economics. A large fraction of these students stay in the
United States: more than three-quarters of foreign doctoral
degree recipients in 2007 planned to stay in the United States
after graduation.
2-38 
Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering
Globalization of higher education continues to expand.
Although the United States continues to attract the largest
number and fraction of foreign students worldwide, its share
of foreign students has decreased in recent years. Universities in several other countries (e.g., Canada, Japan, and the
United Kingdom) have expanded their enrollment of foreign
S&E students.
Notes
1. Based on previous projections, NCES has estimated
that the mean absolute percentage error for bachelor’s degrees projected 9 years out was 8.0 (NCES 2008c).
2. These data are from sample surveys and are subject to sampling error. Information on estimated standard errors can be found in appendix E of the annual
report “The American Freshman: National Norms for
Fall 2008” published by The Cooperative Institutional Research Program of the Higher Education Research Institute, University of California–Los Angeles
(http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/pr-display.php?prQry=28,
accessed 23 June 2009). Data reported here are significant
at the .05 level.
3. The number of S&E degrees awarded to a particular
freshmen cohort is lower than the number of students reporting such intentions and reflects losses of students from S&E,
gains of students from non-S&E fields after their freshman
year, and general attrition from bachelor’s degree programs.
4. The physical sciences include earth, atmospheric, and
ocean sciences.
5. About 17% of 2001 and 2002 S&E bachelor’s degree
recipients had previously earned an associate’s degree (NSF/
SRS 2006).
6. Data for racial/ethnic groups are for U.S. citizens and
permanent residents only.
7. For longer trends in degrees, see the NSF report series
“Science and Engineering Degrees,” http://www.nsf.gov/
statistics/degrees/, accessed 12 June 2009. For more detail
on enrollment and degrees by sex and by race/ethnicity, see
Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science
and Engineering: 2009 (NSF/SRS 2009d).
8. Data for racial/ethnic groups are for U.S. citizens and
permanent residents only.
9. The natural sciences include agricultural; biological;
computer; earth, atmospheric, and ocean; and physical sciences and mathematics.
10. Data for racial/ethnic groups are for U.S. citizens and
permanent residents only.
11. See Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2009 (NSF/SRS 2009d) for
more detail on enrollment of foreign students by sex.
12. Clinical psychology programs and programs that
emphasize professional practice (professional schools and
Psy.D. programs) are associated with higher debt, but even
in the more research-focused subfields of psychology, lower
percentages of doctorate recipients were debt free and higher
percentages had high levels of debt than those in other S&E
fields. For information on debt levels of clinical versus nonclinical psychology doctorates in 1993–96, see “Psychology
Doctorate Recipients: How Much Financial Debt at Graduation?” (NSF 00-321) at http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/issuebrf/
sib00321.htm (accessed 12 June 2009).
13. Data for racial/ethnic groups are for U.S. citizens and
permanent residents only.
14. The number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by students in Chinese universities continued to increase throughout this period, from 1,894 in 1993 to 22,953 in 2006.
15. For more information about the distribution of postdoc positions according to sex, see Women, Minorities, and
Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2009
(NSF/SRS 2009d).
16. These data are based on national labor force surveys
and are subject to sampling error; therefore, small differences between countries may not be meaningful. The standard error for the U.S. percentage of 25–64-year-olds with
a bachelor’s or higher degree is roughly 0.1, and the standard error for the U.S. percentage of 25–34-year-olds with a
bachelor’s or higher degree is roughly 0.4.
17. A first university degree refers to the completion of a
terminal undergraduate degree program. These degrees are
classified as level 5A in the International Standard Classification of Education, although individual countries use different names for the first terminal degree (e.g., laureata in
Italy, diplome in Germany, maîtrise in France, bachelor’s
degree in the United States and Asian countries).
18. In international comparisons, S&E fields do not include medical or health fields.
Glossary
Baccalaureate-origin institution: The college or university from which an S&E doctorate recipient earned a
bachelor’s degree.
Distance education: Formal education process in which
the student and instructor are not in the same place.
First university degree: A terminal undergraduate degree program; these degrees are classified as level 5A in the
International Standard Classification of Education, although
individual countries use different names for the first terminal
degree (e.g., laureata in Italy, diplome in Germany, maîtrise
in France, and bachelor’s degree in the United States and in
Asian countries).
Internationally mobile students: Those individuals
who are not citizens of the country in which they study.
Net price: The published price of an undergraduate college education minus the average grant aid and tax benefits
that students receive.
Online education: A type of distance education where
the medium of instruction is computer technology via the
Internet.
Science and Engineering Indicators 2010
Stay rate: The proportion of students on temporary visas
who have plans to stay in the United States immediately after degree conferral.
Tertiary type A programs: Higher education programs
that are largely theory based and designed to provide sufficient qualifications for entry to advanced research programs and to professions with high skill requirements, such
as medicine, dentistry, or architecture, and have a minimum
duration of 3 years, although they typically last 4 or more
years. These correspond to bachelor’s or master’s degrees in
the United States.
Tertiary type B programs: Higher education programs
that focus on practical, technical, or occupational skills for
direct entry into the labor market and have a minimum duration of 2 years. These correspond to associate’s degrees in
the United States.
Underrepresented minority: Blacks, Hispanics, and
American Indians/Alaska Natives are considered to be underrepresented minorities in S&E.
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