Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 371-380 (2015)
DOI: 10.6180/jase.2015.18.4.08
Power Quality Issues, Solutions and Standards:
A Technology Review
P. M. Balasubramaniam1 and S. U. Prabha2*
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India
2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Coimbatore, India
Abstract
Classically, the aim of the electric power system is to generate electrical energy and to deliver
this energy to the end-user equipment at an acceptable voltage. As nonlinear loads draw harmonic and
reactive power components of current from ac mains, the quality of power deteriorates. This paper
presents a review of the main power quality (PQ) problems with their associated causes and solutions
with codes and standards. This paper concludes with some solutions to mitigate the Power Quality
problems are presented.
Key Words: IEEE 519, Total Harmonic Distortion, Point of Common Coupling, Total Demand
Distortion
1. Introduction
Power quality (PQ) related issues are of most concern nowadays. The widespread use of electronic equipment, such as information technology equipment, power
electronics such as adjustable speed drives (ASD), programmable logic controllers (PLC), energy-efficient lighting, led to a complete change of electric loads nature [13]. These loads are simultaneously the major causers and
the major victims of power quality problems. Due to their
non-linearity, all these loads cause disturbances in the
voltage waveform.
Although many efforts have been taken by utilities,
some consumers require a level of power quality higher
than the level provided by modern electric networks [4].
This implies that some measures must be taken in order
to achieve higher levels of power quality in Figure 1.
This paper provides an overview of major power
quality issues, solutions and related standards based on
an extensive number of publications. The referred publications are mainly extracted from IEEE transactions,
IEEE Magazines, IEEE Proceedings, IEE/IET (Institu*Corresponding author. E-mail: baluanujayen@gmail.com
tion of Electrical Engineers, currently Institution of Engineering and Technology) Proceedings as well as a few,
yet very important Conferences and patent documents on
power quality and power quality improvement modules.
The review will be particularly useful for: 1) power
system designers and researchers engaged in design, optimization, and quality-enhancement activities in today’s
competitive environment; 2) practising engineers who
would like to enrich their educational background about
the system interaction aspects of power system for any
application; and 3) undergraduate and postgraduate
students who wish to integrate power quality issues and
solutions with modern computing practices.
The paper starts with a short introduction to power
quality issues (see section 2). In section 3, the solutions
reviewed from various sources for power quality are given.
A detailed literature review on codes and standards related to power quality are illustrated in sections 4. Finally,
section 5 presents the summary and conclusions.
2. Types of Power Quality Issues
The most common types of power quality problems
are presented in Table 1.
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P. M. Balasubramaniam and S. U. Prabha
3. Solutions for Power Quality Issues
The mitigation of PQ problems may take place at different levels: transmission, distribution and the end-use
equipment. Several measures can be taken at these levels
Figure 1. Sources of the review materials.
are they are described in the following sections.
3.1 Grid Adequacy
Many PQ problems have origin in the transmission
or distribution grid. Thus, a proper transmission and distribution grid, with adequate planning and maintenance,
is essential to minimize the occurrence of PQ problems.
3.2 Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)
UPQC allows the alleviation of voltage and current
disturbances that could affect sensitive electrical loads
while compensating the load reactive power [16-19].
UPQC consists of combined series and shunt active power filters [20]. The main function of UPQC includes
[21-25]:
(i) Reactive power compensation.
(ii) Voltage regulation.
(iii) Compensation for voltage sags and swells.
(iv) Unbalance compensation for current and voltage
(for 3-phase systems).
Table 1. Most common power quality issues [5-15]
Voltage sag
(or dip)
Description: A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 and 90% of the nominal rms voltage at
the power frequency, for durations of 0, 5 cycle to 1 minute.
Causes: Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on parallel feeders).
Faults in consumer’s installation. Connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors.
Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely microprocessor-based
control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and
electromechanical relays. Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines.
Very short
interruptions
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from few milliseconds to one or two
seconds.
Causes: Mainly due to the opening and automatic reclosure of protection devices to decommission a faulty
section of the network. The main fault causes are insulation failure, lightning and insulator flashover.
Consequences: Tripping of protection devices, loss of information and malfunction of data processing
equipment. Stoppage of sensitive equipment, such as ASDs, PCs, PLCs, if they’re not prepared to deal
with this situation.
Long
interruptions
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration greater than 1 to 2 seconds.
Causes: Equipment failure in the power system network, storms and objects (trees, cars, etc) striking
lines or poles, fire, human error, bad coordination or failure of protection devices.
Consequences: Stoppage of all equipment.
Description: Very fast variation of the voltage value for durations from a several microseconds to few
milliseconds. These variations may reach thousands of volts, even in low voltage.
Voltage spike Causes: Lightning, switching of lines or power factor correction capacitors, disconnection of heavy loads.
Consequences: Destruction of components (particularly electronic components) and of insulation
materials, data processing errors or data loss, electromagnetic interference.
Description: Momentary increase of the voltage, at the power frequency, outside the normal tolerances,
with duration of more than one cycle and typically less than a few seconds.
Causes: Start/stop of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power sources, badly regulated transformers
Voltage swell
(mainly during off-peak hours).
Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or damage of sensitive
equipment, if the voltage values are too high.
Power Quality Issues, Solutions and Standards: A Technology Review
373
Table 1. Continued
Harmonic
distortion
Description: Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal shape. The waveform corresponds to
the sum of different sine-waves with different magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are
multiples of power-system frequency.
Causes: Classic sources: electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve
(magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush motors. Modern
sources: all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including ASDs, switched mode
power supplies, data processing equipment, high efficiency lighting.
Consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral overload in 3-phase systems,
overheating of all cables and equipment, loss of efficiency in electric machines, electromagnetic
interference with communication systems, errors in measures when using average reading meters,
nuisance tripping of thermal protections.
Voltage
fluctuation
Description: Oscillation of voltage value, amplitude modulated by a signal with frequency of 0 to 30 Hz.
Causes: Arc furnaces, frequent start/stop of electric motors (for instance elevators), oscillating loads.
Consequences: Most consequences are common to under-voltages. The most perceptible consequence
is the flickering of lighting and screens, giving the impression of unsteadiness of visual perception.
Voltage
unbalance
Description: A voltage variation in a three-phase system in which the three voltage magnitudes or the
phase-angle differences between them are not equal.
Causes: Large single-phase loads (induction furnaces, traction loads), incorrect distribution of all
single-phase loads by the three phases of the system (this may be also due to a fault).
Consequences: Unbalanced systems imply the existence of a negative sequence that is harmful to all
three phase loads. The most affected loads are three-phase induction machines.
(v) Neutral current compensation (for 3-phase 4-wire
systems).
3.3 Distributed Resources - Energy Storage Systems
Interest in the use of distributed energy resources
(DER) has increased substantially over the last few years
because of their potential to provide increased reliability.
These resources include distributed generation and energy
storage systems. Energy storage systems, also known as
restoring technologies, are used to provide the electric
loads with ride-through capability in poor PQ environment. Recent technological advances in power electronics and storage technologies are turning the restoring
technologies one of the premium solutions to mitigate
PQ problems [26].
The first energy storage technology used in the field
of PQ, yet the most used today, is electrochemical battery.
Although new technologies, such as flywheels, Super-capacitors and Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
(SMES) present many advantages, electrochemical batteries still rule due to their low price and mature technology [27].
3.4 Flywheels
A flywheel is an electromechanical device that couples a rotating electric machine (motor/generator) with a
rotating mass to store energy for short durations. The mo-
tor/generator draws power provided by the grid to keep
the rotor of the flywheel spinning. During a power disturbance, the kinetic energy stored in the rotor is transformed to DC electric energy by the generator, and the
energy is delivered at a constant frequency and voltage
through an inverter and a control system.
Traditional flywheel rotors are usually constructed
of steel and are limited to a spin rate of a few thousand
revolutions per minute (RPM). Advanced flywheels constructed from carbon fibre materials and magnetic bearings can spin in vacuum at speeds up to 40,000 to 60,000
RPM. The stored energy is proportional to the moment of
inertia and to the square of the rotational speed. High
speed flywheels can store much more energy than the
conventional flywheels.
The flywheel provides power during a period between the loss of utility supplied power and either the return of utility power or the start of a back-up power system (i.e., diesel generator). Flywheels typically provide
1-100 seconds of ride-through time, and back-up generators are able to get online within 5-20 seconds.
3.5 Super-capacitors
Super-capacitors (also known as ultra-capacitors)
are dc energy sources and must be interfaced to the electric grid with a static power conditioner, providing energy output at the grid frequency. A super-capacitor
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P. M. Balasubramaniam and S. U. Prabha
provides power during short duration interruptions or
voltage sags. Medium size super-capacitors are commercially available to implement ride-through capability in
small electronic equipment, but large super-capacitors
are still in development, but may soon become a viable
component of the energy storage field [28,29].
Capacitance is very large because the distance between the plates is very small (several angstroms), and
because the area of conductor surface (for instance of the
activated carbon) reaches 1500-2000 m2/g (16000-21500
ft2/g). Thus, the energy stored by such capacitors may
reach 50-60 J/g [30-38].
3.6 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
(SMES)
A magnetic field is created by circulating a DC current in a closed coil of superconducting wire. The path of
the coil circulating current can be opened with a solidstate switch, which is modulated on and off. Due to the
high inductance of the coil, when the switch is off (open),
the magnetic coil behaves as a current source and will
force current into the power converter which will charge
to some voltage level. Proper modulation of the solidstate switch can hold the voltage within the proper operating range of the inverter, which converts the DC voltage into AC power. A typical SMES system.
Low temperature SMES cooled by liquid helium is
commercially available [39,40]. High temperature SMES
cooled by liquid nitrogen is still in the development stage
and may become a viable commercial energy storage
source in the future due to its potentially lower costs.
SMES systems are large and generally used for short durations, such as utility switching events.
3.7 Enhanced Interface Devices
Using proper interface devices, one can isolate the
loads from disturbances deriving from the grid. The common interface devices are dynamic voltage restorer (DVR),
transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS), constant
voltage transformers (CVT), Noise Filters, Active Power
Filters, Isolation Transformers, Static VAR Compensators
(SVC), Harmonic Filters and reactor for power quality
improvement.
A dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) acts like a voltage
source connected in series with the load. The output voltage of the DVR is kept approximately constant voltage
at the load terminals by using a step-up transformer and/
or stored energy to inject active and reactive power in
the output supply trough a voltage converter.
Transient voltage surge suppressors are used as interface between the power source and sensitive loads, so
that the transient voltage is clamped by the TVSS before
it reaches the load. TVSSs usually contain a component
with a nonlinear resistance (a metal oxide varistor or a
zener diode) that limits excessive line voltage and conduct any excess impulse energy to ground.
Constant voltage transformers (CVT) were one of the
first PQ solutions used to mitigate the effects of voltage sags and transients. To maintain the voltage constant, they use two principles that are normally avoided:
resonance and core saturation. A typical constant voltage transformer. When the resonance occurs, the current
will increase to a point that causes the saturation of the
magnetic core of the transformer. If the magnetic core
is saturated, then the magnetic flux will remain roughly
constant and the transformer will produce an approximately constant voltage output. If not properly used, a
CVT will originate more PQ problems than the ones mitigated. It can produce transients, harmonics (voltage
wave clipped on the top and sides) and it is inefficient
(about 80% at full load). Its application is becoming uncommon due to technological advances in other areas.
Noise filters are used to avoid unwanted frequency
current or voltage signals (noise) from reaching sensitive
equipment. This can be accomplished by using a combination of capacitors and inductances that creates a low
impedance path to the fundamental frequency and high
impedance to higher frequencies, that is, a low-pass filter. They should be used when noise with frequency in
the kilo Hertz range is considerable.
Static VAR compensators (SVR) use a combination
of capacitors and reactors to regulate the voltage quickly.
Solid-state switches control the insertion of the capacitors
and reactors at the right magnitude to prevent the voltage from fluctuating. The main application of SVR is the
voltage regulation in high voltage and the elimination
of flicker caused by large loads (such as induction furnaces).
Harmonic filters are used to reduce undesirable harmonics. They can be divided in two groups: passive filters and active filters [41-43]. Passive filters consist in a
low impedance path to the frequencies of the harmonics
to be attenuated using passive components (inductors, capacitors and resistors). Several passive filters connected
Power Quality Issues, Solutions and Standards: A Technology Review
in parallel may be necessary to eliminate several harmonic components [44]. If the system varies (change of harmonic components), passive filters may become ineffective and cause resonance.
Active filters analyse the current consumed by the
load and create a current that cancel the harmonic current
generated by the loads. Active filters were expensive in
the past, but they are now becoming cost effective compensating for unknown or changing harmonics [45].
Reactor for power quality improvement is a patented
technology [46-49]. The device is installed on a power
line, for removing noise that flows into the power line,
characterized by: a reactor having a first coil and a second coil wound on a core disposed between the input end
and the output ends of the power line, wherein in the reactor the first end of the first coil is connected to the input end of a first power line, the second end of the first
coil is connected to the output end of the first power line,
and the first end of the second coil is connected to the
output end of the second power line, and the second end
of the second coil is connected to the input end of the
second power line.
3.8 Make End-use Devices Less Sensitive
Designing the equipment to be less sensitive to disturbances is usually the most cost effective measure to
prevent PQ problems. Some manufacturers of end-use
equipment are now recognising this problem, but the competitive market means that manufacturers should reduce
costs and only respond to customers’ requirements. The
exception is the ASD market, where manufacturers are
actively promoting products with enhanced ride-through
capabilities.
Some of the energy meters have the capability for
power quality detection, monitoring, reporting, recording
and communication in a revenue accuracy electrical power meter is disclosed [50]. Transient events are detected
by monitoring the Wave shape of the electrical power and
comparing deviations to a known threshold. Sags and
Swells are detected by computing root mean square value over a rolling Window and comparing the computed
value with a known threshold. Harmonic frequencies and
symmetrical components are quantified by a known algorithm and compared with a known threshold [51]. Adding a capacitor with a larger capacity to power supplies,
using cables with larger neutral conductors, derating transformers and adjusting under voltage relays, are measures
375
that could be taken by manufacturers to reduce the sensitivity of equipment to PQ problems.
4. Codes and Standards
Some measures have been taken to regulate the minimum PQ level that utilities have to provide to consumers and the immunity level that equipment should have
to operate properly when the power supplied is within
the standards. Standardization organizations like IEC,
CENELEC, and IEEE have developed a set of standards with the same purposes. In Europe, the most relevant standards in PQ are the EN 50160 (by CENELEC)
and IEC 61000. IEEE power quality standards do not
have such a structured and comprehensive set as compared to IEC [52]. Nonetheless, the IEEE standards give
more practical and some theoretical background on the
phenomena, which makes it a very useful reference. Some
of the IEEE power quality standards are described in
the ensuing sections.
4.1 IEEE 519
Power system problems that were associated with
harmonics began to be of general concern in the 1970s,
when two independent developments took place. The first
was the oil embargo, which led to price increases in electricity and the move to save energy. Industrial consumers
and utilities began to apply power factor improvement
capacitors. The move to power factor improvement resulted in a significant increase in the number of capacitors connected to power systems. American standards
regarding harmonics have been laid out by the IEEE in
the 519 Standard: IEEE Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power
Systems. There is a combined effect of all nonlinear loads
on utility systems that have a limited capability to absorb
harmonic current. Further, utilities are charged with the
responsibility to provide a high quality supply in terms
of voltage level and waveform. IEEE 519 recognizes not
only the absolute level of harmonics produced by an individual source but also their size relative to the supply
network. It should be noted that IEEE 519 is limited to
being a collection of Recommended Practices that serve
as a guide to both suppliers and consumers of electrical
energy. Where problems exist, because of excessive harmonic current injection or excessive voltage distortion, it
is incumbent upon supplier and consumer to resolve the
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P. M. Balasubramaniam and S. U. Prabha
issues within a mutually acceptable framework [53].
4.2 IEEE 519 Standard for Harmonic Voltage
Limits
According to IEEE 519 Table 2 shows that, harmonic
voltage distortion on power system 69 kV and below is
limited to 5% Total Harmonic Distortion with each individual harmonic limited 3% [54].
4.3 IEEE 519 Standard for Harmonic Current
Limits
General distribution systems [GDS 120 V-69,000 V]:
Current distortion limits are for odd harmonics. Even
harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd Harmonic limits. For all power generation equipment, distortion limits are those with ISC/IL < 20. ISC is the maximum short
circuit current at the point of coupling “PCC”. IL is the
maximum fundamental frequency 15-or 30- minutes load
current at PCC. TDD is the total demand distortion (=
THD normalized by IL are shown in Table 3).
General sub-transmission systems [GSTS 69 kV161 kV]: The current harmonic distortion limits apply to
limits of harmonics that loads should draw from the utility at the PCC. Note that the harmonic limits differ based
on the ISC/IL rating, where ISC is the maximum short
circuit current at the PCC, and I is the maximum demand
Individual
voltage
distortion (%)
Total harmonic
distortion
(THD %)
3
1.5
1
5
2.5
1.5
< 69 kV
69 < 161
161 above
4.4 IEEE Standard 142-1991, Recommended
Practice for Grounding of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems [55]
This standard presents a thorough investigation of
the problems of grounding and the methods for solving
these problems. There is a separate chapter for grounding
sensitive equipment.
4.5 IEEE Standard 446-1987, Recommended
Practice for Emergency and Standby Power
Systems for Industrial and Commercial
Applications
This standard is recommended engineering practices
for the selection and application of emergency and standby power systems. It provides facility designers, operators
and owners with guidelines for assuring uninterrupted
Table 2. Harmonic voltage distortion limits
Bus voltage at point
of common coupling
load current at the PCC.
ISC is the available short circuit current at the point of
common coupling. The ISC is determined by the size, impedance, and voltage of the service feeding the PCC. IL
is the maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) measured at the PCC are shown in
Table 4. It is suggested that existing facilities measure
this over a period of time and average it. Those creating
new designs should calculate the IL using anticipated
peak operation of the facility. The point of common coupling with the consumer/utility interface is the closest
point on the utility side of the customer service where another utility service customer is or could be supplied.
The ownership of any apparatus such as a transformer
that the utility might provide in the customers system is
immaterial to the definition of PCC. This definition has
been approved by IEEE working group.
Table 3. Harmonic current distortion limits
Isc/I1
< 20
20 < 50
50 < 100
100 < 1000
> 1000
< 11th
11 £ h < 17
17 £ h < 23
23 £ h < 35
35 £ h
TDD
04
07
10
12
15
2
3.5
4.5
5.5
7
1.5
2.5
4
5
6
0.6
1
1.5
2
2.5
0.3
0.5
0.7
1
1.4
05
08
12
15
20
Table 4. Maximum harmonic current distortion level
Isc/IL
H < 11
11 < h < 17
17 < h < 23
23 < h < 25
h > 35
TDD
< 50
> 50
2
3
1
1.5
0.75
1.15
.30
.45
.15
.22
2.50
3.75
Power Quality Issues, Solutions and Standards: A Technology Review
power, virtually free of frequency excursions and voltage dips, surges, and transients.
4.6 IEEE Standard 1100-1999, Recommended
Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive
Electronic Equipment
Recommended design is installation, and maintenance practices for electrical power and grounding (including both power-related and signal-related noise control) of sensitive electronic processing equipment used
in commercial and industrial applications.
4.7 IEEE Standard 1346-1998 Recommended
Practice for Evaluating Electric Power System
Compatibility with Electronic Process
Equipment
A standard methodology for the technical and financial analysis of voltage sag compatibility between process
equipment and electric power systems is recommended.
The methodology presented is intended to be used as a
planning tool to quantify the voltage sag environment and
process sensitivity.
4.8 IEEE Standards Related to Voltage Sag and
Reliability
The distribution voltage quality standard i.e. IEEE
Standard P1564 gives the recommended indices and procedures for characterizing voltage sag performance and
comparing performance across different systems. A new
IEC Standard 61000-2-8 titled “Environment - Voltage
Dips and Short Interruptions” has come recently. This
standard warrants considerable discussion within the
IEEE to avoid conflicting methods of characterizing system performance in different parts of the world.
4.9 IEEE Standards Related to Flicker
Developments in voltage flicker standards demonstrate how the industry can successfully coordinate IEEE
and IEC activities. IEC Standard 61000-4-15 defines the
measurement procedure and monitor requirements for
characterizing flicker. The IEEE flicker task force working on Standard P1453 is set to adopt the IEC standard as
its own.
4.10 Standards Related to Custom Power
IEEE Standard P1409 is currently developing an application guide for custom power technologies to pro-
377
vide enhanced power quality on the distribution system.
This is an important area for many utilities that may want
to offer enhanced power quality services.
4.11 Standards Related to Distributed
Generation
The new IEEE Standard P1547 provides guidelines
for interconnecting distributed generation with the power
system.
4.12 420-2013 - IEEE Standard for the Design and
Qualification of Class 1E Control Boards,
Panels and Racks Used in Nuclear Power
Generating Stations
This standard specifies the design requirements for
new and/or modified Class 1E control boards, panels,
and racks and establishes the methods to verify that these
requirements have been satisfied. Methods for meeting
the separation criteria contained in IEEE Std 384 are
addressed. Qualification is also included to address the
overall requirements of IEEE Std 323 and recommendations of IEEE Std 344.
4.13 IEEE Standard 384-2008 - IEEE Standard
Criteria for Independence of Class 1E
Equipment and Circuits
The independence requirements of the circuits and
equipment comprising or associated with Class 1E systems are described. Criteria for the independence that can
be achieved by physical separation and electrical isolation of circuits and equipment that are redundant are set
forth. The determination of what is to be considered redundant is not addressed.
4.14 IEEE Standard C57.18.10-1998 - IEEE
Standard Practices and Requirements for
Semiconductor Power Rectifier Transformers
Practices and requirements for semiconductor power
rectifier transformers for dedicated loads rated singlephase 300 kW and above and three-phase 500 kW and
above are included. Static precipitators, high-voltage
converters for DC power transmission, and other nonlinear loads are excluded. Service conditions, both usual
and unusual, are specified, or other standards are referenced as appropriate. Routine tests are specified. An informative annex provides several examples of load loss
calculations for transformers when subjected to non-si-
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P. M. Balasubramaniam and S. U. Prabha
nusoidal currents, based on calculations provided in the
standard.
4.15 IEEE Standard C57.21-1990 - IEEE Standard
Requirements, Terminology and Test Code
for Shunt Reactors Rated Over 500 kVA
All oil-immersed or dry-type, single-phase or threephase, outdoor or indoor shunt reactors rated over 500
kVA are covered. Terminology and general requirements
are stated, and the basis for rating shunt reactors is set
forth. Routine, design, and other tests are described, and
methods for performing them are given. Losses and impedance, temperature rise, dielectric tests, and insulation
levels are covered. Construction requirements for oil-immersed reactors and construction and installation requirements for dry-type reactors are presented.
5. Summary and Conclusions
This paper gives a comprehensive review by critical
analyzing about power quality problems, issues, related
international standards, and the solutions. The correct solutions are also discussed which can be remedy for power
quality problems generated in different phenomena. Coordination with existing industry practices and international harmonic standards is also considered in this paper.
To overcome the negative impact of poor power quality
on equipment and businesses, suitable power quality equipment can be invested. Identifying the right solution remains the first step. Many power quality problems are
easily identified once a good description of the problems
is obtained. Unfortunately, the tensions caused by power
problems often result in vague or overly dramatic descriptions of the problem.
A power quality audit can help determine the causes
of your problems and provide a well-designed plan to correct them. The power quality audit checks the facility’s
wiring and grounding to ensure that it is adequate for your
applications and up to code. The auditor normally will
check the quality of the ac voltage itself, and consider
the impact of the utility’s power system. Many businesses
and organizations rely on computer systems and other
electrical equipment to carry out the mission critical functions, but they aren’t safeguarding against the dangers of
an unreliable power supply. It is time utilities as well as
businesses engage in more proactive approach to power
quality treats by engaging in power quality analysis.
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Manuscript Received: Sep. 24, 2013
Accepted: Jul. 23, 2015