Crime Victims: An Introduction to
Victimology
Sixth Edition
By Andrew Karmen
Chapter Eleven:
Additional Groups of Victims
with Special Problems
Date Rapes on Campuses
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Maximalist Position vs. Minimalist Position
Epidemic occurrences
Least reported of all crimes
Not counting accurately
Difference between sexual assault and
consensual sex
 Need for more workshops for incoming
freshmen on dating and intimacy
Campus Rape Surveys
 3,000 female students—32 colleges, 1987
– 17% attempted or completed acquaintance rape
per year
– Less than 5% reported to police
– 5% sought assistance from rape crisis center
– 50% of cases told no one
– 84% knew the victim
– 57% were on a date
– Most incidents occurred off-campus
Drug-Facilitated Date Rape
 Males surreptitiously administer “club
drugs”—popular during early 90s
– Rohypnol—Roofies
– GHB—Liquid ecstasy
– MDMA—Ecstasy
– Ketamine—Special K
 Large doses induce sedation and temporary
amnesia—more so when used with alcohol
 Can result in loss of consciousness
Drug-Facilitated Date Rape
 Maximalists define “date rape drug” as any
substance that renders the user incapable of
saying “no” or asserting herself
 Drug-Induced Rape Prevention Act of 1996
imposed stiff penalties for sale or
possession
 Education programs for awareness
Drug-Facilitated Date Rape
 Minimalists question the “scourge”
– Study in Great Britain reflected most date rapes
were about binge drinking alone or combined
with recreational drug use
– Women “playing the victim” to avoid
responsibility
– Even minimalists agree males should not take
advantage of women when under the influence
Campus Violence
 College campuses are relatively safe
– Property crimes far more prevalent than violent
crimes
 See Table 11.1, page 282: Crimes
Committed on Campus
Victims of Crimes Committed at
Schools
 See Table 11.2, page 284
 Non-reporting continues to be a problem
 Murders most accurately counted
– See Figure 11.1, page 285
 Youngsters slain at school=1% of total youth killings
 2002—17 school aged children slain on school
grounds while 2,036 murdered other locations
Victims of Workplace Violence
 “Workplace Violence” terms coined in ’89
– “Going Postal” became common term
– Four Different “threat assessment” strategies
 Reduce odds intruder can come into workplace
 Prevent outside disputes from coming into workplace
 Protect employees who deal with irate customers,
unruly students, disturbed patients and inmates
 Safeguard employees from disgruntled current or
former employees
Victims of Workplace Violence
 Most dangerous jobs—Figure 11.2, page
287
 Being Killed on the Job
– Taxi drivers and chauffeurs
– Police/Detectives
 Being Injured on the Job
– Law enforcement jobs
– Workers in mental health field
– College Professor—safest job
Individuals Menaced by Stalkers
 The term “stalker” was coined in the 80s
 California established first anti-stalking legislation
in 1990
 Two Types of Stalking
– Celebrity stalking—relatively rare
– Prior relationship stalking—more common
Very few stalking charges nationally each year
Most victims are women and offenders are ex-husbands
and ex-boyfriends who are jealous and possessive
Targets of non-sensual stalking likely harassed by
mentally ill person
Individuals Menaced by Stalkers
 Elements of Stalking Crime
– 1. Victim has reasonable fear of death or great
bodily injury
– 2. Credible threat of violence
– By 1994, all states had criminalized stalking
practices.
Individuals Menaced by Stalkers
 Nationwide Survey—Stalking during lifetime
– 1 out of every 12 women
– 1 out of every 45 men
– Most targets were female—78%
– Most perpetrators were male—87%
Individuals Menaced by Stalkers
 Self Protective Measures:
– Report crime
– Keep corroborating evidence
– Get restraining order
– Unlisted phone
– Trap incoming calls
– Change locks
– Vary daily routine
– Move if necessary
Cyberstalking
 Online harassment—online abuse—cyber
harassment
 Use of internet or electronic communications
to pass along threats
 Police often lack resources to investigate
– Multi-jurisdictional task forces work cases
 Prosecutors lack resources to prosecute
– Only 16% of prosecutor offices nationwide
charged someone in 2001
Officers Injured/Killed in Line of Duty
 “As the first line of defense for the social
order, law enforcement agents serve as a
lightning rod, attracting and absorbing the
bolts of discontent emanating from alienated
individuals and hostile groups within
society.”—Author
 Often considered to be the most heinous of
all crimes and usually punishable by death
in most states
Officers Injured/Killed in Line of Duty
 Number of deaths peaked in 1979, dropped
in the 80s, and then became fairly stable
 See Trends Graph, Figure 11.3, page 292
(covers 1973-2004)
 Most Likely to be Killed
– Easy going and good natured
– Less inclined to use force in situations involving
mentally ill or armed person
– Involved in some kind or procedural miscue
Officers Injured/Killed in Line of Duty
 Statistical Portrait of Murdered Officers:
– 95% were males
– 84% were white
– 70% less than 40 years old
– 54% working in Southern U.S.
– 96% killed by gunfire
– 55% were wearing protective body armor
Victims of Bias/Hate Crimes
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Crimes motivated by hate for a particular group
1990 enacted Hate Crimes Statistics Act
FBI to gather data annually on bias crimes
2004 FBI reported 7,650 hate crimes (16% of law
enforcement agencies reported a hate crime)
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53% racial motivation—mainly against blacks
13% ethnic motivation—mainly Jewish
18% religious intolerance
16% sexual preference
75% of law enforcement agencies report
hate/bias crimes nationally
Criminal Justice Reforms:
Hate/Bias Crimes
 Since 80s there are stiffer penalties
 By 2000, most agencies had specially trained units
to investigate hate/bias crimes
 Not all states protect homosexuals
 Recent legislation provides for civil remedies
 States hesitant to protect homosexuals to give
appearance of endorsement of lifestyle
 Hate crimes on college campus virtually nonexistent
Terrorism
 Violence taking form of bombing,
assassination, kidnapping for ransom,
hostage taking, and skyjacking
 FBI reports 1980-1999
– 327 incidents in U.S. suspected
– 239 verified
– 73% by domestic terrorists
– 27% by international terrorists
Terrorism
 1993 Trade Tower attack was the worst until
9/11
 2001 Trade Tower—Al Qaeda killed 2,838 in
Towers, 189 at Pentagon, and 44 in
Pennsylvania plane crash
 See Figure 11.5, page 303: Casualties of
Terrorism Compensation of 9/11 Victims
– Set precedent for future and past terrorist
victims?
Key Terms
Stalking
Cyberstalking
Bias crimes
Vandalism
Bias incidents
Suspected terrorist
attacks
Domestic terrorism
Confirmed terrorist
attacks
International terrorism