Discussion of paper requirements
Social Cognition
Egocentrism
Theory of mind
Preschool Social World
Erikson’s Autonomy versus Guilt
Frustration Tolerance
Delay of gratification
Self constancy
Sex-typed behavior
Gender-role concept
Gender constancy
Peer relations. Friendship
Emotional regulation
Aggression and prosocial behavior
Play and role playing
Parent’s roles
Coherence and Behavioral
Development
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Final paper will address the following:
A summary of the claim(s) of the popular article
An evaluation of the popular articles claims based on the
research you reviewed. This should be a critical review. If
the articles have contradictory results or differing conclusions,
present hypotheses about why this might be so
A proposal for the kind of additional research that should be
done to increase our understanding of the topic
References for all works cited in your paper
When you turn in your final paper you will attach as
appendices:
Your analysis of the popular article or web site posting
A grading sheet that is the second page of this document
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Part 1 of paper

Introduction



Introduce the major topic or area about
which you are going to write
Describe the claims and conclusion from
your popular article
Describe the plan of your paper
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.



II. Review the methods and results of
the research articles you read.
Evaluate the claims in the popular article
based on the results from the research
articles.
Propose the kind of research that you
believe should be done in the future to
advance our knowledge in this area.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.







1. Description of the area of developmental psychology that
your paper addresses (10%)
2.
2. Description of popular article claims that you will be
evaluating (10%) 3. 3. Summaries of at least 2 research
articles (40%)
(, results, and conclusions, and connection to popular claims)
4. . Conclusions about the claims in the popular article (15%)
5. Proposal for future research (10%.)
6. Required addendum: First part of the paprer that
summarizes the popular article, this grading sheet
(5%)
7. Quality of writing (10%)
Social cognition:
Understanding of the social world.
•
•
Deals with the impact of children's cognitive
skills on their social relationships and the role
of social interaction in supporting cognitive
development.
Children start to learn how other people think
and feel, what their motives and intentions
are, and what they are likely to do.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Egocentrism in Preschoolers
Egocentrism Inability to understand others’
perspectives.
Perceptual
Not differentiating one’s own
egocentrism perceptual experience from
someone else’s.
Cognitive
Failing to take into account
egocentrism someone else’s cognitive
perspective.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Egocentrism in Preschoolers
Overcoming egocentrism
 Knowledge of existence: Realizing other
people have thoughts, viewpoints, &
desires that differ from the child’s.
 Awareness of need: Realizing it can be
useful to consider another’s perspective.
 Social inference: Reading another
person’s actions and imagining that
person’s point of view.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Child’s Theory of Mind
Theory of mind:
An understanding of the mind & mental operations.
In developing a theory of mind, children come to
understand 5 principles:
1.
Minds exist.
2.
Minds have connections to the physical world.
3.
Minds are separate and different from the
physical world.
4.
Minds can represent objects & events accurately
or inaccurately.
5.
Minds actively interpret reality & emotional
experiences.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Communication and the Decline
of Egocentrism



Egocentric speech is seen both when children
talk to themselves while playing and in
collective monologues.
Preschoolers often have difficulty
communicating information to a listener in a
nonegocentric way, especially abstract
thoughts.
Preschoolers do show some evidence of
adjusting their speech to the needs of their
listeners under certain circumstances.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Preschool Social & Emotional Development
Children between ages 21/2-5 experience:



Dramatically expanding world.
Notable developments in self-reliance,
self-control, & self-regulation.
Exploration of adult roles.
A major theme of this chapter is the
organization and coherence of
preschoolers’ behavior.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Some Hallmarks of Early Childhood
Social & Emotional Development
The Child’s Expanding World




Through day-care, nursery school, and
kindergarten experiences, children come into
contact with peers.
Peer relationships formed in these settings play
an important role in children's social and
emotional development.
Sibling relationships become increasingly
important during this period.
All of these new developments influence each
other.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Erikson

Autonomy versus Guilt


Child learning to be independent, on his or
her own
Guilt, a response to growing internal
standards
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Moving Toward Greater Self-Reliance
Initiative:
A child’s sense of
independent purposefulness
(Erikson).
Self-efficacy:
The sense of being able to do things
effectively on one’s own (Bandura).
Greater self-reliance is supported by several capacities of
3- & 4-year-olds:
 motor skills such as climbing & manipulating objects
 language & other cognitive abilities that enable them
to think, plan, solve problems
 growing ability to tolerate delays & frustrations
 emerging capacity for imagination & fantasy play
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Self-Control & Self-Regulation
Effortful control:
Ability to suppress some strong behavior, such as:
 slowing down when running
 talking more quietly
Self-regulation includes:
 effortful control
 ability to direct their own activities
 adjusting behavior & emotional expression to
fit the situation
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Luria studies



Press one bulb if green light, a second if red
light.
Press/don’t press
Mother may I game
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Delay of Gratification



One candy now, more if the child waits
Individual differences
Stevenson study of reflective/impulsive kids as a
function of SES/ethnicity
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Developing Self
Changes in Self-Understanding
 more comprehensive sense of self
 observe their own behavior
 have trouble understanding they’re the same
person when they feel different
Self-constancy:
A sense that the self endures despite
temporary disruptions in relationships.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Gender and the Self
Sex-typed behavior:
Actions that conform to
cultural expectations
about what is
appropriate for boys
and for girls.
Gender-role concept:
Knowledge of cultural
stereotypes
regarding males and
females.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Changes in Sex-Typed Behavior





Sex-typed behavior develops gradually.
By age 2, children show gender-related
preferences in toys.
By age 3 to 4, sex-typed behavior increases.
Parents and peers generally support gender”appropriate” play and show disapproval of
gender-”inappropriate” play during this time.
Mothers are often more accepting of “crossgender” play.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Developing Gender-Role Concepts



By 4-5, children start learning more
abstract cultural beliefs about gender -gender-role concepts.
The male role is more instrumental and
the female role is more expressive.
Gender segregation appears in the
preschool classroom and among friends.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Gender constancy:
Understanding that gender is permanent
despite superficial changes.
 related to concepts of conservation
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Examining Sex-Typed Behavior
and Gender-Role Development



Social learning theorists explain these developments partly
in terms of rewards and punishments for appropriate and
inappropriate behavior.
Cognitive theorists see gender-role learning as one
example of children’s emerging understanding of
categories, scripts, and schemas.
Gender schema theory:



combines elements of cognitive and social learning theory
holds that children form concept or schema or male and
female characteristics, with content based on the child’s
social and learning history.
Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes developmental changes
in relationships with parents.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Social Development:
The New World of Peers
Competence with Peers
During the preschool period children begin
to interact:



sustained
coordinated
highly complex
Social competence = good peer relations.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Early Friendships


By about age 4, children have the capacity to
maintain friendships through their own efforts.
Children who are friends behave differently
with each other than they do with non-friends.




More frequent positive exchanges
More cooperative in problem-solving tasks
Disagree more often
Conflicts are less heated, result in fairer solutions,
and do not lead to separation
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Importance of Peer
Relationships




The peer group helps children learn about
concepts of fairness, reciprocity, and
cooperation.
Learn to manage interpersonal aggression
Cultural norms and values
Greatly affects self-concept and future
interactions.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Emotional Development
Young Children’s Understanding of
Emotion
By age 6, children understand:
 good
 sad
 jealous
 proud
 embarrassed
 miserable
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Growth of Emotional Regulation
Emotional
regulation
Capacities to:
 control & direct emotional
expression
 maintain organized behavior
 be guided by emotional
experiences
Delay of
Ability to forego an immediate
gratification reward in favor of a better reward
at a later time.
Ego
Ability to modify self-restraint to
resiliency
adapt to changing circumstances.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Internalizing Standards


Once the child internalizes standards, he or she
will comply with parents’ prohibitions even when
parents aren’t present.
By age 4, children view moral transgressions
(e.g., hitting or not sharing) as more serious
than conventional transgressions (e.g., eating ice
cream with your fingers).
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Self-Evaluative Emotions
Guilt and pride involve evaluating the self
against internalized standards.
 Guilt no longer arises only from fear of
punishment.
 True pride is distinguished from
toddlers’ joy in mastery because it is
based on self-evaluation.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Emotional Development, Aggression,
and Prosocial Behavior
Aggression:
Negative acts intended to harm others or
their possessions.
Prosocial Behavior:
Positive feelings & acts toward others,
with intention of benefiting them.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Developmental Changes in Aggression
During late preschool and early elementary school
years, overall level of physical aggressiveness
declines because of a drop in instrumental
aggression.
Instrumental Aggression used as a means to get
aggression
something.
Hostile
aggression
Aggression aimed solely at hurting
someone else.
Clip art copyright © 2003 www.arttoday.com. Used with permission.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Development of Empathy & Altruism


Empathy underlies altruism.
When empathy is aroused, children are
more willing to be helpful to others.
Empathy
Altruism
Ability to experience the emotions
of another person.
Acting unselfishly to aid someone
else.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Development of Empathy & Altruism
Phases in empathy & altruism
1.
2.
3.
Primitive capacity for empathy (infancy)
More purposeful helping behaviors (toddlerhood)
Capacity to take others’ perspectives and respond to
others’ needs (early childhood)
Preschool children's prosocial behavior is greatly
influenced by their parents' style of caregiving.
Considerations include:
– Consequences for the victim
– Principles and expectations regarding kindness
– Conveying the entire message with intensity of feeling
about the issues involved
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Role of Play in
Preschool Development
Play serves a variety of cognitive,
emotional, & social functions, providing
opportunities for:
 dealing with conflict and fear
 working through developmental issues
 trying out social roles
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Play and Mastery of Conflict
Play becomes the child’s tool for:
 dealing with conflict
 mastering what is frightening or painful
 working through ongoing developmental
issues
 confronting problems actively
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Stages in the Development of Play





Solitary play
Onlooker behavior
Parallel play
Cooperative play
(dramatic play)
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Role Playing
Role playing provides opportunities to:
 try out social roles
 try out cultural values
 play as mommies, daddies, doctors,
police officers, or robbers
 act out aspirations as well as fears
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Parents’ Role in
Early Childhood Development
Important Aspects of Parenting in the Preschool
Period:





Consistency in the parents' approach to discipline
Agreement between the parents concerning childrearing practices
Gradually giving the child more responsibility, while
still being available to help if needed
Displaying clear roles and values in their own action
Showing the flexible self-control they hope to
promote in their child
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Authoritative A parenting style in which the
parenting
parents are nurturant, responsive,
and supportive, yet set firm limits
for their children.
Permissive
A parenting style in which parents
parenting
fail to set firm limits or to require
appropriately mature behavior of
their children.
Authoritarian A parenting style in which parents
parenting
are unresponsive, inflexible, and
harsh in controlling behavior.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Identification with Parents
Identification:
The process by which children strive to be like
their parents in thoughts and feelings as well
as in actions.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Identification with Parents





Psychoanalytic theory holds that children strive to be
like their parents in actions, thoughts, and feelings.
Allows children to internalize control previously
provided by parents, along with parental values and
other characteristics.
Cannot take place until the child has the cognitive
ability to understand parents' feelings and attitudes.
Security of attachment during infancy and
toddlerhood is important.
Coercive techniques may get child to comply, but
more positive approaches bring more enthusiastic
cooperation.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Coherence of
Behavior & Development
The Coherence of the Self
 Children's behavior reflects a coherent
underlying self.
 Clusters of characteristics tend to go together
in a logical, consistent way.



Self-esteem
Self-control
Empathy
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Coherence of Behavior Over Time



Preschoolers with a history of secure
attachment in infancy tend to have certain
positive patterns of behavior.
Very different, negative behavioral profiles are
associated with preschoolers with a history of
anxious/resistant attachment.
Those with anxious/avoidant attachment are
often hostile and aggressive toward others or
emotionally isolated.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Explaining Developmental Coherence



Children are becoming consistent forces in
their own development.
They tend to elicit certain reactions from
others.
Those reactions reinforce how the child tends
to think and act.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Explaining Developmental Coherence
Preschool teachers tend to:


Respond in ways that reinforce the emerging personalities of
young children.
Be warm and accepting with well-managed, self-reliant, and
sociable children.


They directly promote the acceptance of these children by peers.
Be quite controlling of children who are timid or impulsive, and
are more likely to make allowances.
In other words, they tend to reinforce the behavior
pattern a child already showed.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Stability & Change in Individual Behavior
Secure attachment promotes self-worth and
abiding sense of relatedness or connectedness
to others, which Erikson calls basic trust.
Subsequently, parents of securely attached
children develop a control system for exerting
control over their children without stifling
exploration and autonomy.
Fundamental change in children is always
possible.
However, it becomes more difficult as personality
increasingly stabilizes.
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.