Socialization
The process by
which children
acquire the rules,
standards, and
values of a culture.
In addition it also
includes the
acquisition of
appropriate
behaviors
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Socialization from the Outside and Socialization from the Inside
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Traditionally, socialization has been thought of
as a process by which rules & values are
imposed on an unwilling child by parents &
other adults: socialization from the outside.
More recently, many developmentalists have
argued children naturally take on rules &
values: socialization from the inside.
Appropriation:
Process by which children naturally takes on
the rules & values of their culture through
participation in relationships with caregivers.
Socialization from the Outside
Freud believed:
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The infant is a seething mass of
biological drives & impulses.
Society’s job is to curb the innate
impulses and channel them in
acceptable directions.
If parents block expression of
basic drives, the child learns to
redirect this energy toward
acceptable goals.
Sublimation:
Freud’s term for the redirection of
blocked biological drives and impulses
into other behavior.
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The Anal Period
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Issue of conflict over toilet training
Parent must gain compliance from a
resistant child.
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Socialization from the Outside
Social learning theorists have suggested:
1.
Children comply with standards to maintain closeness
with parents, who are associated with reducing
hunger and other basic needs.
2.
Acceptable behavior is directly taught by means of
selective rewards and punishments.
3.
Children learn through imitation and various rewards
and punishments that each child observes.
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Socialization from the Inside
Ainsworth argued:
 Socialization emanates from inside children.
 In the natural course of events, children want
to comply with parents’ requests and
expectations.
 This desire stems from our evolution as a
group-living species.
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Erikson: mix of inside and outside
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Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Some resistance is part of establishing
autonomy.
Balance between constraints and
autonomy
Important Social and Emotional
Developments in Toddlerhood
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Increased independence from parents
and increased self-reliance.
Increased awareness of the self and
other people.
Increased sociability and more mature
forms of social interaction.
A broader range of emotional responses.
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Moving Toward Independence
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Mobile toddlers readily separate from their caregivers
to play and explore.
The infant's need for physical contact with the
caregiver is increasingly replaced by the toddler's
reliance on psychological contact -- exchanges of
words, smiles, and looks.
Infant learns to integrate various capabilities in new
and purposeful ways.
Executive competence:
The child’s feeling he or she is an autonomous force in
the world, able to influence the outcome of events.
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Symbolic Skills and Independence
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Ability to represent caregivers in their
absence and to remember that they have
regularly departed and returned in the
past, provides the basis for tolerating
separation.
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Awareness of Self
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Toddlers become
aware that their
own behaviors and
intentions are
distinct from those
of others.
By 20 months they
show selfrecognition in the
rouge dot/mirror
test).
•
Use of "I" in their
heightened awareness of
their own intentionality and
direction of actions.
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The rouge/spot test
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Technique developed with Chimpanzees
by Gordon Gallup
Appears at about 1 yr.
Why do humans develop more slowly
than chimpanzees?
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Understanding of Others
Toddlers show increased awareness and
understanding of others in many ways:
 Try to get others to attend to an object.
 Show more emotion to others.
 Show some capacity to respond to desires and
intentions of another person.
Social referencing:
Use of cues from another person to interpret situations
and guide behavior.
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The Growth of Sociability
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Toddlers become both more social and
more competent in their interactions with
adults and with other children.
Greater capacity to observe and interpret
other people’s actions, to imitate others,
and to maintain sequences of social
action.
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Sharing Experiences
Toddlers share
experiences through:
 Persistently pointing
at things
 Talking about them
 Bringing things to
others
 Affective sharing
Affective sharing:
The toddler’s sharing of positive emotions with the caregiver.
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Interactions Between Toddlers
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Interactions with other children become
increasingly prevalent during the toddler
period.
Between 15 to 24 months, children develop the
ability to behave in a complementary manner
with a peer.
Social pretend play at age 3:
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object-centered play
imitation
social pretend play (acting out interrelated roles)
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The Beginnings of
Self-Control and Self-Regulation
Internalization:
Incorporating the parent’s standards
of behavior into the self.
Committed compliance:
Children’s enthusiastic compliance with
parents’ directives.
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Emotional Changes
Feelings, Social Sensitivity, and the
Beginnings of Morality
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Guided by primitive, undifferentiated emotional
reactions.
Toddlers become increasingly aware of and
responsive to negative emotional signals from
others, an early sign of empathy.
Toddlers display deviation anxiety when they do
or are about to do something forbidden.
Show spontaneous self-corrections.
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Emotional Changes
Changing Emotions and New Emotions
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"Fundamental" emotions from infancy undergo
important changes and they can withstand higher
levels of emotional arousal.
Become increasingly able to differentiate self from
others, allowing for new ways to express both anger
and joy to caretakers.
"Secondary," self-conscious emotions, requiring
some objective sense of self, emerge:
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Shame: The self feels exposed, vulnerable, and bad.
Positive self-evaluation: The forerunner of pride.
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The Parents’ Tasks
During the toddler period, parents face two
major tasks:
 to support the child’s exploration of the
world
 to set appropriate limits for the child
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Scaffolding:
Parents support the child in new tasks
by offering developmentally appropriate
guidance, hints, and advice.
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Parents’ support of toddlers’
exploration and problem
solving can also be regarded
as a process of guided selfregulation.
Guided self-regulation:
The ability of toddlers to regulate their own
behavior with guidance from caregivers.
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Changes in Caregiving
During the Toddler Period
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In Western industrialized societies,
fathers become increasingly involved
with their children during the toddler
period.
Fathers' behavior during interaction with
toddlers often differs from that of
mothers and may play an important role
in promoting toddlers' growing
independence.
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The self-awareness that emerges in
toddlerhood includes individual
expectations about the self that
influence the child's responses to the
environment.
Patterns of adaptation:
Individual styles of responding to others and to the
environment that form the roots of personality.
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Becoming a Separate Person
Separation-individual process:
Mahler’s term for the child’s psychological
separation from the caregiver and growing
awareness of being an individual.
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In Erikson's theory,
the defining issue for
the toddler period is
autonomy versus
shame and doubt.
Basic trust, the
toddler's confidence
that the parent-child
relationship is secure,
supports the
development of
autonomy and the
separationindividuation process.
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The Influence of Parent-Child Relationships
The Attachment History
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Clear links exist between quality of infantcaregiver attachment and toddlers' later
functioning.
Toddlers with a history of secure attachment
show greater effectiveness at problem-solving.
Toddlers with a history of anxious attachment
have difficulties with problem-solving tasks.
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Ongoing Parental Support
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Parental support and stimulation during
the toddler period promote positive
functioning.
Caregivers of anxious-resistant children
failure to provide clear guidelines.
Caregivers whose toddlers were securely
attached as infants tend to be clear in
the help they give their children.
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The Active Role of the Child
More clearly than in infancy, the toddler’s
own characteristics play a role in
development.
 Inborn differences in temperament are
critical.
 Dimensions like intensity of response
become more stable and consistent.
 Inhibited toddlers may have difficulty
coping with new challenges.
 Oppositional toddlers may not be
responsive to gentle treatment.
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The Active Role of the Child
Situational compliance:
Children’s unwilling compliance with
parents’ directives due to fear or
parents’ control of the situation.
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Individual Adaptations and the
Broader Developmental Context
Factors influencing development:
 parents
 others in the family
 people outside the family
 institutions
 stress
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Problems Related to Child Maltreatment
Physical
neglect
Failure to meet a child’s basic
needs for food, warmth,
cleanliness, and medical
attention.
Physical abuse Deliberately causing a child’s
physical injury.
Emotional
availability
Chronic lack of parental
involvement and emotional
responsiveness.
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Searching for Causes of Maltreatment
Maltreatment is associated with parents who
are:
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poor
young
lacking education
unprepared for raising a child
But it is certainly not confined to people with
these characteristics.
It crosses all ethnic, social class, and
religious lines.
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Characteristics of Child & Parent
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There is scant evidence that inherent
characteristics of children are major
causes of child abuse.
There is no single personality trait that
all abusive parents share.
New mothers who become abusers
differ from nonabusers in two ways:
1.
2.
Less able to cope with ambivalence and
stress.
Had less understanding of what is involved
in caring for a baby.
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Characteristics of Child & Parent
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A study found 3 key factors in women
who overcame their history of abuse:
1.
2.
3.
Many formed a stable, supportive
relationship with some other adult in
childhood.
Many underwent extensive psychotherapy.
All were currently involved in a stable
partnership.
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Factors That Increase Risk of Abuse
Long-term vulnerability factors
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Poverty & ongoing stress
Parental history of abuse
Lack of understanding child as a complex
individual
Current challenges
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Relationship instability
Violence, alcoholism, or drug abuse in the
home
Lack of social support
Job loss or other acute stressors
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Factors That Decrease Risk of Abuse
Long-term protective factors
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Nurturant care by someone in childhood
Good relationship with spouse
Awareness of one’s own inner needs
Short-term buffers
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Reduction in stress
Separation from abusive partner
Child entry into school
Crisis counseling
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The Importance of the Early Years
for Social, Emotional, and
Neurological Development
During the toddler period, these emerge:
 primitive sense of self
 foundations of self-esteem
 patterns of emotional expression
 emotional regulation
 perhaps the roots of morality
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