Qualitative analysis:
Steps, Tips, and Traps to Avoid
Laurie Drabble
Feb, 2012
Overall Approach to Analysis:
Phenomenology
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Looks at the lived experience of the
phenomena of interest
Analysis: Identify descriptions of the
phenomenon; cluster into discrete
categories; taken together, these describe
the “essence” or core commonality and
structure of the experience (p. 1373).
Starks & Trinidad (2007) Choose your method: A comparison of
phenomenology, discourse analysis, and grounded theory.
Process: Inductive
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The “story” of the research comes from
multiple reading & interpretation of data
Purpose of this process:
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Condense and summarize extensive and
varied raw data
Establish link between research questions and
findings
Develop a model (or theory) about the
underlying structure of experience or
processes
(Thomas, 2003)
http://www.fmhs.auckland.ac.nz/soph/centres/hrmas/_docs/Inductive2003.pdf
Overall Steps (Cresswell)
1.
2.
3.
Preparing and organizing the data
(transcripts, field notes, etc.)
Reducing the data into themes
through a process of coding and
condensing the codes
Representing the data in figures,
tables or a narrative
What is a theme?
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A theme is a category of information that
you as the researcher identify and name
and that may include a variety of coded
information. This involves a process of
“coding” the data and then condensing or
classifying the codes into larger families of
themes.
Cresswell, 2002
What’s the overall process?
Qualitative analysis is an iterative process—
meaning that a final analysis of the data is
achieved by repeatedly reading and re-reading
the data and repeatedly developing themes
and refining themes.
Developing themes involves a process of
classifying, describing and interpreting the
data.
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The data are reduced into meaningful “chunks” of
information
During this process, some information will inevitably
not be included in the analysis
Cresswell, 2002
Specific Steps
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Transcribe data (important part of “immersion”)
& prepare for analysis
Preliminary exploration
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Creating categories
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Close reading transcript(s)
Making notes/recording ideas
General categories (using research aims)
Sort into themes & subcategories (via coding)
Continue to revise and refine; select quotes that
capture the core category
Interpret & report findings
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Review and describe themes (usually 3-8)
Use quotes to illustrate
A bit more about coding
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Select a process to “sort” text segments into
categories (e.g. computer)
One segment of data may end up in two
categories; some may be uncategorized (but
keep “uncategorized” data to review
Within categories, looks for sub-topics,
contradictions
Categories can be combined when they have
similar meaning
Expect to code across interview questions.
Overview of process
Initial read Identify
through text specific
data
segments
of
information
Label the
segments
of data to
create
categories
Reduce
overlap/
redundancy
among the
categories
Create a
model
using most
important
categories
Many
pages of
text
30-40
categories
15-20
categories
3-8 categories
Many
segments
of text
(Adapted from Creswell, 2002 as cited in Thomas, 2003)
http://www.fmhs.auckland.ac.nz/soph/centres/hrmas/_docs/Inducti
ve2003.pdf
Share & Tell
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Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
of
of
of
of
organizing data
coding
themes
how themes may be depicted
Ways to assess trustworthiness
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Independent coding (code from raw text)
Coding consistency check (independent
coder given coding scheme and text
segment…can calculate inter-rater
reliability)
Stakeholder checks
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Summarize and correct and end interview
Verify interpretations/date in later interviews
Share preliminary or near-final results
(Thomas, 2003)
http://www.fmhs.auckland.ac.nz/soph/centres/hrmas/_docs/Inductive2003.pdf
Illustrations
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Collaboration between Child Welfare and
Addiction Treatment in Canada (notetaking, coding, themes & using quotes)
NCRP – Funding for Social Change in
California (saturation, allowing, emerging
themes, avoiding bias, member-checking)
Educating Students for Collaborative
Practice – 298 project (summarizing and
reporting).
Project: Collaboration between Child Welfare
and Addiction Treatment: Canadian Context
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Qualitative interviews - purposive sample
of 24 professionals (12 CW, 12 AOD)
Research questions:
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Contextual factors influencing policy
Factors that facilitate/impede collaboration
Perceived opportunities for improvement
What we did
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Initial review of Each looked at the a
sample of 2 AOD and 2 CW interviews,
made separate notes about what we saw
as provisional codes
First major round of coding, that
generated about 40 categories
Used consensus process to sort through
initial categories and modify coding
Organized codes into bigger “themes”
The Analysis Process: Inductive
1.
Initial “sorting” by interview questions
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2.
Initial “open-coding” to
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3.
Context, Help/Hinder, Opportunities
Conceptualize,
Compare,
Categorize data
Iterative process to create then revise
over 40 categories categories, which
eventually became our “themes.”
What Helps?: Cross-cutting
Enabling Factors
 Shared
purpose and mandate
 Respectful
relationships
 Leadership
(individual or
group advocates)
 Knowledge
translation
Knowledge Translation
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“When I came here, people weren’t
talking about outcomes and benchmarks
and things like that. Now, they’re starting
to move in that direction, and [asking]
how do you improve your outcomes and
what are we measuring?...That’s working.”
What Helps: Program and Practice
Innovation
Proactive safety and relapse
prevention support
 Focus on safety & relapse
prevention
 “not closing the door” on families
 Adoption of specific innovative
programs
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Focus on safety &
relapse prevention
“What it’s designed to do is really to
have the kind of three-way agreements
between addictions services, child
protection, and the client in taking a
look at yes, relapse may happen. What
are the kinds of things that I as a parent
need to put in place in order to ensure
the safety of my child?”
Figure 1: Summary of factors that facilitate collaboration between systems
Program & Practice Innovation
Principles and Values
•Working from principles and
values
•Translating principles and
values into practice guidelines
•Animating principles in
collaborative planning
Processes and Protocols
Planning in partnership
Communication protocols
and guidelines
Mechanisms for conflict
resolution
Continuous learning
Cross-cutting enabling
factors
•Shared purpose
•Leadership
•Respectful relationships
•Knowledge translation
mechanisms
Reflective of specific contexts
•Proactive support for safety
and relapse prevention/
reducing harm
•Innovations in practice as
forming a nexus for
collaborations
Shared Outcomes
•For clients: Child safety,
healthy mothers and
families
•For systems: Continued
improvements, attention to
social determinants,
increased community level
supports, new approaches
for Aboriginal mothers
Illustration : NCRP: Funding
for Social Change in California
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PURPOSE: Examine the role of progressive
and mainstream foundation funding in
structuring, influencing, enabling or
constraining the policy and advocacy work
of nonprofits
METHOD: Telephone interviews with
representatives from 73 nonprofit
organizations involved in state level public
policy
“Gaps” in the Public Policy
Nonprofit Landscape
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Need for greater strategic planning
Foundation hesitance to fund policy
Confusion about policy work (what it is
and who does it?)
Conflict between mission and money
Tension between research
organizations/think tanks and
grassroots organizations
Assessing Trustworthiness: Member
Check
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Discussion groups with 20 nonprofit and
foundation representatives (Northern and
Southern CA)
Purpose…
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Validate initial findings
Provide input for interpretation
Added Study Component & Report
Components
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Interviews with 8 foundation
representatives
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How foundation defines policy related
grantmaking
Advantages of funding policy work
Barriers overcome in order to fund the policy
work of nonprofits
Lessons learned for other foundations
Added “success” case stories
Driving forces for
foundation support of policy
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Leveraging larger results for issues areas
and communities
Creating a voice for those most impacted
Increasing community assets and long
term capacity
Building a multifaceted response to
community problems
Tips for writing results
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Organize findings by research questions
Do NOT organize by interview guide
questions.
Name, summarize the theme (and
subcategories), illustrate with quotes.
Consider providing a visual that captures
the “big picture.”
Sample Summary (298 project) Visual–
What students need to learn for
collaboration
Cross Cutting Themes
Knowledge of family violence
 Dynamics of family violence
 Culturally competent
Adaptability
 Creative problem solving
 Open to new systems and
perspectives
 Flexibility
Communication Skills
 Listening skills
 Negotiation skills
 Engaging clients/ colleagues
 Finding your voice at the
collaborative table
Themes related to Values, Systems,
Outcomes & Service Planning
Values
 Demonstrate respect
 Know personal and professional values
Systems
 Understand and know the systems of
each role and partner
 Understand differences between
systems
Outcomes
 Define/ create attainable outcomes
 Reviewed shared outcomes
Service planning
 Knowledge of resources
 Knowledge of safety planning
 Ability to process resources/ prioritize
services
Learning Strategies for Developing
Competence in Collaborative Practice
Socializing
Networking
Community
Projects
Observation
Learning
Strategies
Field
Experience
Mentorship
Classroom
Learning
Reflection