Asian Philosophy
AP CHAPTER 17
The Development of Confucianism
• During the Warring States Period (722-221): China experienced a
collapse of social and political order that led to chaos. The ensuing
chaos needed a solution.
• Many solutions were proposed.
• The solutions can be put into three general positions.
The Development of Confucianism
• The Daoists response was to advocate a return to a simpler life.
Civilization is the problem. We need a return to nature.
• The Pessimist response was that there was no hope. We need to
withdraw from the world. Each person needs to attempt to try to
save themselves.
• The Activist were convinced that order could be restored. They
disagreed about how to do it.
The Three Activist Schools
• The Confucian School
• The Mohist School
• The Legalist School
MOZI (479-381 BCE)
Disagreed with the
Confucian Tradition
Mohists argued that
the problem rested in
the Confucian
emphasis on Virtue.
The solution is to
adopt utilitarianism
and universal equality.
Han Fei (280-233 BCE)
Disagreed with the
Confucian Tradition.
Legalists argued that
the Confucian
emphasis on Virtue
would lead to a weak
society.
The solution was strict
laws and harsh
punishments.
Post-Confucius Contributors to Confucianism
• Yan Hui (511-480 BCE)
• Zengzi (505-435 BCE)
• Mengzi (372-289 BCE)
• Xunzi (310-220 BCE)
• Dong Zhongshu (179-104BC)
Mengzi
Defends Confucian moral
humanism.
His attempt to block
Mohist utilitarianism and
harsh legalist principles
failed.
He argued that peace and
harmony are brought
about through moral
cultivation.
His moral pacifism was not
successful.
Mengzi
• Ren is basic.
• Li is required for the development of Ren.
• Xiao is required for moral cultivation.
• Yi is the aspect of original Confucian philosophy that undergoes
change.
• Yi is important because of the distinction between goodness and
rightness.
The Distinction between Goodness and Rightness
• Ren refers to the goodness that is basic to human nature.
• Yi refers to the rightness of human actions.
• The distinction is made because everyone has ren, but not all
people act rightly.
• If everyone has ren, why is there evil in the world?
• The answer: because of a failure of Yi.
The Coordination of Ren and Yi in Mengzi
• If Ren is fully developed, then Yi will follow.
• If all actions are in accord with Yi, Ren will be developed.
Gaozi vs. Mengzi on Human Nature
Gaozi: Human nature is neither Good nor Evil inherently.
Analogy 1: Human nature is like a tree, human goodness like a bowl made from the
tree.
Mengzi: In making a bowl from a tree we have to kill the tree and cut it into pieces.
Analogy 2: Just as water can flow either to the east or to the west without making
any distinction between them, so human nature can turn to either good or evil,
without making any distinction between them, so, human nature can turn to either
good or evil.
Mengzi: Water flows indifferently east and west, but it does not flow indifferently
north and south. Water only flows down. Human goodness, thus is like water in this
way – it is disposed to goodness.
Mengzi Against Context-Dependency about Human Nature
Context-Dependency about Human Nature: In some people human nature is bad,
but in others it is good.
Argument For: Under the rule of a virtuous king, people loved what was good, but
under the rule of a cruel king, without virtue, people loved what was cruel and not
good.
Argument Against: Under a good ruler, people love the good, because the natural
goodness of human nature is protected. Under a bad ruler, however, the people
become bad, because the ruler destroys the goodness in everyone.
Universalism about Human Nature: human nature is universal, not shifting from
person to person.
Arguments for the Goodness of Human Beings
Argument 1:
1.
2.
3.
The sage, according to everyone, is good by nature.
All persons have the same human nature.
Therefore, all persons are good by nature.
Critical Questions:
Does the fact that everyone thinks a sage is good by nature make it true?
What supports the view that all persons have the same human nature?
Does it follow from the fact that everyone has a good nature, that everyone is
always good?
Arguments for the Goodness of Human Beings
Compassion is the beginning of ren.
Shamefulness is the root of yi.
Respect is the beginning of li.
Knowledge of right and wrong is the root of zhi.
---------------------------------------------------------------1. Every person draws his or her ideas about the rightness and wrongness of
actions from reflections in his or her own heart-mind.
2. So, these ideas are innate ideas of right and wrong, and must be found in every
person.
Sources of Evil
Mengzi on Evil –
First, evil is due to external circumstances.
Second, evil is due to the abandonment of self: people abandon their innate
goodness.
Third, evil is due to a failure to nourish the feelings and the senses.
Evil can exist because although one has good intentions, one is incapable of doing
the right things because of a lack of knowledge with which to make the correct
decision.
Mengzi’s Vision
People should live virtuously, according to ren, yi, and li because living
virtuously develops one’s humanity, leading to harmonious social
relationships and an orderly society.
To regulate one’s actions by ren, yi, and li is to live according to the
innate goodness that is basic to human nature.
To practice Confucianism is to practice the way of fulfilling human
nature.
Consequences of Mengzi’s Theory of Human Nature
• Human Nature is essentially Good. It is given by Heaven.
• Heaven is inherently good, for it is the very source of goodness.
• Heaven is the ultimate judge and sanction of human action and
goodness.
• Learning is a process of self-cultivation that preserves and extends
one’s inherent good nature and serves Heaven.
• Self-cultivation is the path to developing the heart-mind, it is the
path to becoming a sage.
Xunzi (310-220 BCE)
Provided the
groundwork for Dong
Zhongshu’s synthesis
that persuaded
Emperor Wu to adopt
Confucianism as the
official Chinese
ideology.
He was well received.
And his views on
Confucius were
opposed to those of
Mengzi
Xunzi
• Human Nature is Bad.
• Heaven is not spiritual.
• There is no personal relationship between Heaven and people.
• Nature is constant and indifferent to human desires and wishes.
• Nature and Morality operate independently of one another.
• Nature cannot guarantee human goodness.
Xunzi
• Humans lack the beginnings of the four virtues.
• They inherently possess vice and self-interestedness.
• People are born selfish, with desires, some of which are ordinarily
unsatisfied.
• When desires are unsatisfied, people strive for their satisfaction.
• When many people are striving, chaos is brought about through
mutually incompatible desires and self-interest.
• Humans are not essentially bad, they are bad only if their desire
goes unchecked.
Sources of Goodness for Xunzi
• Education.
• Participation in social institutions and culture.
• Desire to live better and use one’s intelligence.
• Applying ones intelligence to desire to create social order.
• Cooperation with others.
How Does Social Organization Come About?
Xunzi’s Answer:
• Through rules of conduct.
• Through laws and punishment for misconduct.
• Through human intelligence applied to the task of making social
distinctions.
• The social distinctions involve relationships, such as the roles of
being a teacher, a mother, a citizen. These roles have certain
duties assigned to them. The social distinctions regulate society.
Xunzi’s Difference from Mengzi and Confucius
Confucius: Ren is primary. Goodness of heart.
Mengzi: Yi is primary. Rightness of action.
Xunzi: Li is primary. Propriety of conduct.
But
Xunzi and Mengzi strengthened Confucian philosophy.
Dong Zhongshu (179104 BCE)
Believed that
Confucianism was
broad enough to meet
all the demands of
society and
government.
That it was a complete
philosophy of life and
society using selfcultivation and moral
development
Dong Zhongshu’s Synthesis
• Confucianism can be seen to harmonize both Heaven and Nature.
• Confucianism can explain how imperial politics are grounded in the
workings of the cosmos itself.
• There is a primary emphasis on education. An emperor’s duty is to
ensure the education of the people.
• Human nature is neither innately good nor innately evil.
• Humans have selfish feelings as well as non-selfish feelings.
• Through education human goodness is cultivated.
• Through laws evil desires are controlled.
Dong’s Advice to Emperor Wu
A real ruler sincerely listens to heaven and follows its decree.
A real ruler educates the people to complete their nature and he
upholds the law to maintain the social order and control of desires.