Perceived Autonomy Support, Need Satisfaction and Burnout:
A Study of New Zealand Leaders
New Zealand Applied Business Educators Conference
27& 28 September 2010
Napier
Maree Roche
Principal Academic Staff Member
School of Business
Waikato Institute of Technology
Private Bag 3036
Hamilton
Phone: +64 7 8348800 ext 8914
Email: maree.roche@wintec.ac.nz
Associate Professor Jarrod M. Haar
Department of Strategy & Human Resource Management
University of Waikato
Private Bag 3105
Hamilton
New Zealand
Phone: +64 7 838 4587
Fax: +64 7 838 4356
E-mail: haar@waikato.ac.nz
1
The rise in management research devoted to autonomy issues in organizations, places autonomy in the
forefront of research on leadership. Self Determination Theory (SDT) asserts that autonomy
supportive environments enhance wellbeing as evidenced by the satisfaction of basic psychological
needs of competence, relatedness and autonomy. As such, autonomy supportive environments
enhance wellbeing, and provide other positive outcomes, such as greater work engagement. The
following study explores the outcomes of perceived autonomy support for 387 leaders within New
Zealand. Findings show that there are significant beneficial implications for leader’s wellbeing when
leaders report higher needs satisfaction and higher perceived autonomy support, all of which lead to
lower job burnout (emotional exhaustion and cynicism). Furthermore, interactions showed additional
benefits for those with higher autonomy support towards cynicism. Implications for organisations,
with the current leadership crisis, suggest that when leaders view their work environments as
supportive of autonomy, this leads to enhanced personal outcomes through reduced job burnout.
Keywords: Autonomy Support, Leaders, Job Burnout
Introduction: Self Determination Theory and Leader Wellbeing
Following the recent trend in positive psychology, scholars in the field of work and organizational
psychology have become increasingly interested in employee’s optimal functioning and positive
experiences at work (Luthans, 2002.) Self Determination Theory (SDT) is a positive psychological
motivation theory based on the premise that people actively seek opportunities to satisfy their basic
psychological needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Greguras &
Diefendorff, 2009). As employees have these needs met, this culminates in the psychological
wellbeing of employees (Sheldon, Ryan & Reiss, 2006; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Vansteenkiste, Neyrinck,
Niemic, Soenens, De Witte, & Van den Broeck, 2007). To the extent that employees are successful in
finding such opportunities, they will experience positive psychological outcomes (Deci, Connell &
Ryan, 1989; Gagne & Deci, 2005; Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte & Lens, 2008).
Research has supported the important role of meeting the needs of autonomy, competence and
relatedness within the workplace, in order to enhance wellbeing, including lowered stress, burnout,
anxiety and enhanced workplace engagement (Vansteenkiste, et.al., 2007; Van den Broeck et.al.,
2008).
Gange and Bhave (in press) state that autonomy appears to be at the forefront of research on
job design and leadership, and an “impressive amount of research has been devoted to autonomy
issues in organizations” (p. 2). The shortage of leaders, and those that aspire to leadership positions,
is well noted (Spreitzer, 2006). Schieman and Reid (2009) found that those in leadership positions
(defined as those consisting of greater job authority) were subjected to enhanced levels stress,
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resulting in greater ill being. Alternatively, Mirowsky and Ross, (2003) and Warr, (2005) found that
freedom, and decision making latitude and control over ones’ own (or another’s) work, seemed to be
the most influential attributes in positive workplace wellbeing for these leaders. Moreover, at a senior
management level, autonomy has been found to reduce stress in high level management teams (Burke,
1993). The leadership shortage (Spreitzer, 2006) could mean that, if leaders believe their autonomy is
under threat, these leaders are likely to display ill being (such as stress and burnout), although they are
also more resourced, skill wise, to leave that organisation (Wiersema & Bantel, 1993).
Basic Psychological Needs
Central to the theory of SDT has been the identification of three basic psychological needs—
autonomy, competence, and relatedness—that are considered essential to optimal functioning. In the
SDT view, satisfaction of these needs directly promotes wellbeing, while their neglect or frustration
exerts a negative effect (Deci & Ryan, 2000). These psychological needs form the basis for linking
the social context and individual. Hence, SDT regards the satisfaction of the basic needs to be
essential for humans to actualise their potential and to flourish (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim & Kasser, 2001).
SDT postulates that the enhancement of wellbeing is facilitated by the innate, human potential to seek
opportunities and situations that satisfy the basic psychological needs for competence, relatedness and
autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Greguras & Diefendorff, 2009). Therefore, an employee who has the
ability to meet their needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy, will benefit by enhanced
psychological wellbeing (Sheldon et al., 2001; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Vansteenkiste et al., 2007). SDT
asserts that optimal functioning can only be met when one has their needs for competence, relatedness
and autonomy satisfied (Deci & Ryan, 2001). Hence, the SDT perspective states that people who
work in environments, and have relationships that aid in meeting these needs, will flourish (Deci &
Ryan, 2008).
The need for autonomy satisfaction is defined as a desire to act with a sense of freedom,
choice and volition, that is, to be the creator of one’s actions and to feel psychologically free from
control and others expectations (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Autonomous individuals are able to exercise
choice in activities and be able to participate, based on the expectations of the self rather than others.
Therefore, autonomy can be defined as contributing to ones psychological freedom. Unlike
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conceptualizations of job autonomy, such as discretion in scheduling work (Hackman & Oldman,
1976), it is psychological freedom and choice that characterise SDT’s conceptualization of autonomy.
Hence a manager may be willing to follow instructions at work, because they feel there is a
meaningful reason to do so, and therefore even by following the instructions of others, they would
still be meeting the need for autonomy (Van den Broeck et al., 2009) Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste,
De Witte, Soenens & Lens (2008) found that the satisfaction of the need for autonomy was a strong
mediator of the effects of job control on burnout and engagement. The need for competence
satisfaction represents the desire to feel capable, master the environment and to bring about desired
outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000; White, 1959). It is prominent in the propensity to explore and
manipulate the environment and to engage in challenging tasks to test and extend one’s skill.
Competence satisfaction allows employees to adapt to complex and changing environment, whereas
competence frustration results in helplessness and a lack of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Van den
Broeck, et al., 2009).
Work based activities that require direction, selectivity, difficulty and
persistence in completion would aid in satisfying the need for competence. Finally, the need for
relatedness satisfaction is conceptualised as the inherent predisposition to feel connected to others.
That is, to be a member of a group, and to have significant emotional ties, beyond mere attachment, to
others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, Deci & Ryan, 2000). Therefore, the need for relatedness is
satisfied if people experience a sense of unity and maintain close relationships with others. The
assumption that individuals benefit from being integrated into a social matrix characterised by care
and support, is consistent with organizational research such as loneliness at work (Wright, Burt &
Strongman, 2006). Thus, leaders who feel part of a team and feel free to express their personal
concern and enjoyment are more likely to have their need for relatedness met, compared to those who
are unable to do so, or who feel lonely and lack social support (Vansteenkiste et al., 2007; Baard, Deci
& Ryan, 2004)
Various studies have confirmed the positive versus negative consequences of the satisfaction
versus frustration of the basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Within the organisational
context, need satisfaction has, for instance, been shown to relate positively to employees’ work related
wellbeing in terms of task and job satisfaction, work engagement, affective commitment, job
4
performance, self rated performance, intrinsic motivation, and their general wellbeing. However
thwarted needs have been associated with insomnia, burnout, anxiety and depression, and attitudes in
terms of self-esteem, attitudes towards customers and organisational commitment (Greguras &
Diefendorff, 2009; Baard, et al., 2004; Lynch, Plant, & Ryan, 2005; Vansteenkiste et al., 2007; Van
den Broeck, et al., 2008). These results have been found across professional levels, sectors and
cultures (e.g. Deci, Ryan, Gagne, Leone, Usunov, & Kornazheva 2001). The present study tests the
effects of needs satisfaction towards two dimensions of job burnout, which Maslach and Jackson
(1981) defined as: (1) emotional exhaustion, which “describe feelings of being emotionally
overextended and exhausted by one's work” (p. 101) and (2) cynicism, which relates to indifference or
distant attitude of work. We suggest higher needs satisfaction will be linked with lower job burnout.
Hypothesis 1: Higher needs satisfaction (a) autonomy, (b) competence, and (c) relatedness will be
linked to lower emotional exhaustion.
Hypothesis 2: Higher needs satisfaction (a) autonomy, (b) competence, and (c) relatedness will be
linked to lower cynicism.
Perceived Autonomy Support and Self Determination Theory
Autonomy is a key construct in SDT (Gange & Bhave, in press). Although some definitions of
‘autonomy’ are used to signify ‘independence’ of action (Ryff, 1989), within SDT ‘autonomy’ refers
to a unity of one’s actions and influences. That is, autonomy is not defined by the absence of external
influences, but rather by one’s assent to such influences or inputs (Ryan & Deci, 2006). Hence,
autonomy is not equivalent to independence (Ryan, 1993). Therefore, in retaining unity of action and
influences, within SDT, autonomy refers to self-governance of actions and influences, or reflection of
circumstance, assent to these, hence rule by the self. In contrast, heteronomy, refers to regulation from
outside the self, by forces experienced as pressuring, regardless of whether these are inner demands,
or external contingencies such as punishment. To be autonomous, therefore, reflecting on these inner
and/or external demands, and choosing a course of action that provides unity for the self, is
autonomous functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2006). Hence, autonomy differs from independence, a person
5
can, for example, be autonomously dependent (on their manager or workplace), or choose to be
independent (where they remove themselves from that workplace) (Ryan, 1993).
Autonomy Supportive Environments
SDT is not only concerned with understanding the nature and consequences of autonomy, but also in
detailing how autonomy develops, and how it can be either diminished or facilitated by social
conditions, such as workplaces and leadership influence (Gange & Deci, 2005). As such, a crucial
component in SDT is the social and contextual factors that can influence autonomous functioning and
resultant need satisfaction. Although previously much of the research on peak performance, via
autonomy support, has been undertaken in the sport and education environments, recently
organisation and leadership support has been described as autonomy supportive, as this can involve
providing choice, encouragement for personal initiatives and support for employee’s competence, in a
climate of relatedness (Deci, et al., 2001). Hence, interaction with one’s superiors/leaders, can affect
the degree to which an individual feels autonomous, competent, and related, and this can affect the
degree to which they value and even enjoy work, or find work stressful and thwarting of wellbeing
(Gange & Deci, 2005). An autonomy supportive environment promotes and provides choice, freedom
and rationale (Williams, Gagne, Ryan & Deci, 2002). Research on the effects of an autonomysupportive managerial style has found a variety of positive work outcomes (e.g. Deci et al., 2001).
Baard et al. (2004) and Deci et al. (2001) found support for a model where management
autonomy support was related to the satisfaction of employees’ needs, which was related in turn to
higher performance evaluations, engagement in one’s work, and wellbeing, in both Bulgarian and
American samples. Lynch, Plant, and Ryan (2005) found that when change was introduced staff
members who perceived greater autonomy support from their supervisors, showed greater internalized
motivation for implementing the change, than did those who experienced their supervisors as more
controlling. Finally, Bono and Judge (2003) showed that followers of transformational or visionary
leaders were more likely to adopt autonomous goals than controlled goals in the workplace. These
followers were also more satisfied with their jobs and more affectively committed to the organization.
Because transformational leadership involves motivating through facilitating identification with the
6
group, increasing follower self-efficacy, and linking work values to follower values (Shamir, Zakay,
Breinin & Popper, 1998), it appears that transformational leaders, in this study, supported their
followers’ autonomy and satisfaction of the basic psychological needs.
Other studies have found that managers’ autonomy support led to greater satisfaction of the
needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy and, in turn, to more job satisfaction, higher
performance evaluations, greater persistence, greater acceptance of organizational change, and better
psychological adjustment (Baard et al., 2004; Deci et al., 2001; Gagne´, Koestner & Zuckerman 2000;
Ilardi, Leone, Kasser, & Ryan, 1993; Kasser, Davey, & Ryan, 1992; Gange & Deci, 2005). Taken
together, studies in organizations have provided support for the propositions that autonomy supportive
(rather than controlling) work environments and managerial methods that enhance such, promote
basic need satisfaction (explained above), and a number of positive outcomes for organisations such
as reduced turnover, effort, commitment, engagement and performance. We suggest that perceived
autonomy support (PAS) will have a direct effect and lead to lower job burnout (i.e. less emotional
exhaustion and cynicism) as well as moderate the effects of needs satisfaction through enhancing the
benefits of needs satisfaction towards burnout.
Hypothesis 3: Higher PAS will be linked to lower (a) emotional exhaustion, and (b) cynicism.
Hypothesis 4: PAS will moderate (enhance) the effects of needs satisfaction (a) autonomy, (b)
competence, and (c) relatedness towards emotional exhaustion.
Hypothesis 5: PAS will moderate (enhance) the effects of needs satisfaction (a) autonomy, (b)
competence, and (c) relatedness towards cynicism.
METHOD
Procedure and Samples
Data were collected from over 250 organizations, spread across a wide regional location in New
Zealand. Supervisors and managers were the target of this survey, and a question was included in the
front of the survey to confirm they were in a position of authority (supervisor or manager). A total of
418 surveys (from 600) were returned for a response rate of 69.7%. Survey one included items
relating to the three needs satisfaction, as well as demographic variables. Two weeks later survey two
was administrated to the same participants (containing the burnout items) and this was completed by
7
386 respondents, for an overall response rate of 64.3%. On average, the participants were 37.4 years
old (SD=13), 58% were male, married (59%), parents (54%), and union members (12%). Respondents
worked 39.7 hours per week (SD=13.4), had job tenure of 5.7 years (SD=6.6) and organizational
tenure of 9 years (SD=9.3).
Measures
Emotional Exhaustion and Cynicism were measured using 5-items for each dimension from Maslach
and Jackson (1981). A sample item for emotional exhaustion is “I feel emotionally drained from my
work” (α = .89) and for cynicism is “I have become more cynical about whether my work contributes
anything” (α = .87). Responses were coded 1=never, 5=always. Thus, higher scores indicate greater
emotional exhaustion and greater cynicism respectively.
The three needs satisfaction was measured using 21-items by Deci, Ryan, Gagné, Leone,
Usunov, and Kornazheva (2004), coded 1=not at all true, 5=very true. This measure has been widely
used and validated (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ilardi, Leone, Kasser & Ryan, 1993; Kasser, Davey & Ryan,
1992; Greguras & Diefendorff, 2009). Questions followed the stem “How important is the following
to you…” and items were spread amongst the three needs. Need for Autonomy Satisfaction was
measured using 7-items, a sample item is “I feel like I can make a lot of inputs to deciding how my
job gets done” (α = .65). Need for Competence Satisfaction was measured using 5-items, a sample
item is “People at work tell me I am good at what I do” (α = .63). The item “I have been able to learn
interesting new skills on my job” was dropped because it dragged the reliability down too low
otherwise (if included α = .52). Need for Relatedness Satisfaction was measured using 8-items, a
sample item is “I get along with people at work” (α = .78). Despite the reliability scores for autonomy
and competence being below the established acceptable coefficient alpha mark of 0.70 (Nunnally
1978), these scores are similar to others used in the literature. For example, Greguras and Diefendorff
(2009), in a study of Singapore workers, reported similarly low reliabilities on these two needs:
autonomy (α = .66) and competence (α = .67). Consequently, these poor reliabilities are likely due to
the measure itself, especially relating to these two dimensions. Perceived Autonomous Support
was measured by six items by Baard, et al (2004) coded 1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly
8
agree. A sample item is “My manager listens to how I would like to do things” (α = .92). A
higher score indicates employees perceive greater support for autonomy.
We controlled for Age (years), Gender (1=female, 0=male), Marital Status (1=married/de
facto, 0=single), and Education (1=college, 2=certificate/diploma, 3= degree, 4=postgraduate).
Analysis
To explore the direct effects of three needs satisfaction (Hypotheses 1-2), the direct effects of
perceived autonomous support (Hypothesis 3), and the potential moderating effects of perceived
autonomous support (Hypotheses 5-6), hierarchical regression analyses were computed with
emotional exhaustion and cynicism as the dependent variables. The centering procedure (Aiken &
West, 1991) was followed where interaction effect variables were z-scored.
Results
Direct Effects: Table 1 (below) shows needs satisfaction autonomy is significantly and negatively
related to emotional exhaustion (β= -.16, p< .01), as is needs satisfaction competence (β= -.27, p<
.001). From Step 2, we can see the three needs satisfaction dimensions account for a strong amount of
variance (13%, p< .001). This provides support for Hypotheses 1a and 1b. Table 2 shows needs
satisfaction autonomy is significantly and negatively related to cynicism (β= -.18, p< .01), as is needs
satisfaction competence (β= -.32, p< .001) and needs satisfaction relatedness (β= -.10, p< .05). From
Step 2, we can see the three needs satisfaction dimensions account for a large amount of variance
(24%, p< .001). This provides support for Hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 2c. Step 3 shows the direct effects
of perceived autonomous support and this was found to be significantly and negatively related to
emotional exhaustion (β= -.24, p< .001) and cynicism (β= -.36, p< .001), supporting Hypotheses 3a
and 3b. Perceived autonomous support accounted for larger amounts of variance towards cynicism
(10%, p< .001) than emotional exhaustion (5%, p< .001).
Indirect Effects: While there were no significant interactions towards emotional exhaustion, there
were two significant interaction effects towards cynicism. Perceived autonomous support interacted
significantly with needs satisfaction autonomy (ß= .17, p< .01) and needs satisfaction relatedness (ß=
-.11, p< .05).
9
Table 1. Regression Analysis for Job Burnout
Variables
Age
Gender
Marital Status
Education
NS Autonomy
NS Competence
NS Relatedness
Perceived Autonomous
Support (PAS)
NS Autonomy x PAS
NS Competence x PAS
NS Relatedness x PAS
Step 1
Controls
-.21**
.02
-.03
.14*
Emotional Exhaustion
Step 2
Step 3
Predictors
Moderator
-.09
-.10
.03
.02
-.03
-.03
.09
.10*
-.16**
-.27***
.02
Step 4
Interactions
-.11
.02
-.03
.11*
-.11*
-.23**
.06
-.11
-.23**
.06
-.24***
-.23***
Step 1
Controls
-.25***
-.04
-.08
.05
Cynicism
Step 2
Step 3
Predictors
Moderator
-.10
-.11
.00
-.02
-.08
-.07
-.02
-.00
-.18**
-.32***
-.10*
Step 4
Interactions
-.12*
-.01
-.08
.01
-.11*
-.25***
-.04
-.09
-.26***
-.05
-.36***
-.35***
.06
-.03
.01
R2 Change
.07***
13***
.05***
.00
.09***
24***
.10***
2
Total R
.07
.20
.24
.25
.09
.32
.43
Total Adjusted R2
.06
.18
.22
.22
.08
.31
.41
Total F Statistic
5.442***
10.400***
11.837***
8.640***
7.462***
20.921***
27.941***
NS=Needs Satisfaction *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p< .001. Standardized regression coefficients, all significance tests were one-tailed.
.17**
-.01
-.11*
.02*
.45
.43
21.816***
10
This interaction block accounts for an additional 2% (p< .05) of the variance towards cynicism.
Consequently, there is no support for Hypotheses 4, but support for Hypotheses 5a and 5c. To
facilitate interpretation of the significant moderator effects, plots of the interactions are presented in
the Figures below.
3.4
3.2
CYNICISM
3
2.8
Low PAS
2.6
High PAS
2.4
2.2
2
Low Need for Autonomy
High Need for Autonomy
3.4
3.2
CYNICISM
3
2.8
Low PAS
2.6
High PAS
2.4
2.2
2
Low Need for Relatedness
High Need for Relatedness
Figures 1 and 2 show that at low levels of needs satisfaction (autonomy and relatedness), there is
significantly less cynicism between respondents reporting high levels of perceived autonomous
support than low levels. When needs satisfaction (autonomy and relatedness) levels increase to high,
these effects are maintained, with lower cynicism reported by respondents with high levels of
perceived autonomous support compared to those with low levels of perceived autonomous support.
Overall, perceived autonomous support enhances the positive influence of needs satisfaction, which
supports the hypothesized effects.
11
Overall, the regression models are significant and strong: emotional exhaustion (R2 = .25, F =
8.640, p< .001), and especially so for cynicism (R2 = .45, F = 21.816, p< .001). Finally, the variance
inflation factors (VIF) were examined for evidence of multicollinearity. While VIF scores of 10 or
higher represents problems (Ryan, 1997), the scores from the present study were all below 2.0,
indicating no evidence of multicollinearity unduly influencing the regression estimates.
Discussion, Limitations and Conclusion
Research has studied autonomy by examining how workplace practices that affect experienced
autonomy, such as job design and participative management, influence the performance and
engagement of employees (Evans & Fisher, 1992). SDT argues that autonomy has an additional
function in that it has importance for satisfying needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy, as
essential nutriments to wellbeing.
Although Bellerose and Gagné (2009) found that a motivational
job design can compensate for poor leadership, the opposite was also true. Adding to this literature,
our findings suggest that the less perceived autonomy support a leader has, results in less need
satisfaction, and ultimately on job burnout. The implications for organisations, and senior leaders,
suggests that how employees view their autonomy within an organisation has implications for work
related wellbeing. Hence, if organisations place greater emphasis on control rather than enhancing
autonomy support for their leaders, this will culminate in detrimental outcomes for both the
organisations (in terms of costs of burnout) and individuals on wellbeing.
Despite the positive findings there are some limitations, including the lack of strong reliability
in the needs satisfactions measures, although this seems standard to this particular measure (e.g.
Greguras & Diefendorff, 2009). However, overall we have a large sample and the separation of
variables (predictors and outcomes) at two distinct time periods reduces the chances for common
method variance. Furthermore, our wide sample of organizations and leaders enhances the
generalizability of our findings, although these are limited to leaders only. Future research might seek
to explore these effects on employees at all levels of an organization.
Overall the present study
finds that needs satisfaction reduced job burnout as expected, as does PAS. Furthermore, towards
cynicism, PAS significantly interacts with needs satisfaction dimensions leading to further reductions.
12
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