“ALPHANUMERIC PATTERN recognition
A DISSERTATION REPORT
Submitted by
ANAMIKA SHARMA
Roll No.13PCS001
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Under guidance of
Mr.Suman Kumar Jha
Associate Professor
LINGAYA'S UNIVERSITY
Nachauli, Old Faridabad - Jasana Road, Faridabad -121 002, Haryana, India.
(A Deemed University declared under Section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956)
1
LINGAYA'S UNIVERSITY
BONAFIED CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “IDENTIFICATION OF ALPHANUMERIC PATTERN USING ANDROID
is the bonafide work of by “ANAMIKA SHARMA Roll No.13PCS001”, who carried out the project
work under my supervision, towards partial fulfillments of the requirements of the Degree of Master of
Technology in Computer Science & Engineering from Lingaya’s University, Faridabad.
Signature of the Head of the Department
Dr. Tapas Kumar
Signature of the class counselor
Asso.Prof. Latha Banda
Date:
2
Signature of the Guide
Asso.Prof.Suman Kumar Jha
LINGAYA'S UNIVERSITY
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTICATION
I solemnly declare that this project report ““Identification of Alphanumeric pattern using
Android” is the bonafide work done purely by me, carried out under the supervision of Associate Prof.
Suman Kumar Jha, towards partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of Master of Technology
in Computer Science & Engineering from Lingaya’s University, Faridabad during the year 2014-2015.
It is further certified that this work has not been submitted, either in part of in full, to any other
department of the Lingaya’s University, or other University, institution or elsewhere, or for publication in
any form.
Date:
Signature of the Student
Anamika Sharma
13PCS001,
3
LINGAYA'S UNIVERSITY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to express my most sincere appreciation to Mr. Suman Kumar Jha, Associate Prof.
CSE Dept., Lingaya’s University, Faridabad, who acted as my thesis supervisor throughout the research
period. Special thanks dedicated to her for her tremendous assistance in guiding me on how to do my
research from the beginning till the day of submission. Her guidance, encouragement, comments, ideas
and tolerance that led to a better quality of my research.
Secondly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Tapas Kumar, HOD, CSE Dept., Lingaya’s
University, Faridabad, for their enormous support and encouragement in completion of my thesis work
successfuly. Once again I thank him for giving me permission to use the college resources for the project.
Thirdly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Ms. Latha Banda, Asst. Prof. M.Tech
(Dissertation & Project Coordinator, Class Councellor CSE Dept., Lingaya’s University, Faridabad, for
her continuous efforts in encouraging and guiding me tolal complete my thesis work successfully.
Thanks to my friends for providing a creation and challenging atmosphere.
(Anamika Sharma)
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO
TITLE
PAGE NO
ABSTRACT
i
LIST OF TABLES
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
iv
LIST OF PUBLICATION
v
Chapter 1.INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2. LITERATURE SURVEY
7
Chapter 3. METHODOLOGY
Chapter 4. IMPLEMENTATION and result
Chapter 5 . CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
6. REFERENCES
5
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
NAME OF FIGURE
6
PAGE NO.
LIST OF TABLE
TABLE NO.
NAME
7
PAGE NO.
LIST OF PUBLICATION
1. “Identification of Alphanumeric pattern using Android “International
Journal on Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and
Communication ISSN: 2321-8169 Volume: 3 Issue: 4 2466 – 2470
2 “ Managing the Organizational Network Security” International
Journal of Innovations in Computing (ISSN : 2319-8257) Vol. 2 Issue 4
8
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we present “Identification of Alphanumeric barcode character
recognition using Android” character detection.scannar are widely used in a wide
array of applications. In order to facilitate barcodes, users must have a method for
scanning a barcode.
The barcode scanner scans and identifies the characters
present in the barcode. Barcode scanners only work if the barcode image is
recognizable.
In the event of image distortion, it will fail to recognize the
characters. Our method overcomes this problem, by reliably identifying the
characters using multiresolution analysis. This analysis, removes any existing noise
by convoluting various filters. We also, apply morphological operators to fill the
gaps that are caused during the noise filtering process. Once these gaps have been
filled, we extract the characters.
Each character is then compared with a
predefined dictionary of characters by using two measures: correlation, and
multiresolution approximate coefficient energy to find a matching character.
Finally, we display the best matched character. The result suggests that this method
is effectively capable of being applied to a broad range of barcodes.
Security is playing a vital role in the field of communication system and Internet.
Data encryption standard (DES) and the Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA)
algorithms are the two popular encryption algorithms that vouch confidentiality
and authenticity over an insecure communication network and Internet. There has
been paltry cryptanalytic progress against these two algorithms since their advent.
This paper presents the comparison between the DES private key based Algorithm
and RSA public key based algorithm. The main feature that specifies and
differentiate one algorithm from another are the ability to the speed of encryption
and decryption of the input plain text. It also includes several computational issues
9
1. CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of Pattern Recognition
Pattern recognition is the assignment of a physical object or event to one of several
pre-specified categories [1]. It is an active field of research which has enormous
scientific and practical interest. As [2] notes, it includes applications in “feature
extraction, radar signal classification and analysis, speech recognition and
understanding, fingerprint identification, character (letter or number) recognition,
and handwriting analysis (‘notepad’ computers)”. Other applications include point
of sale systems, bank checks, tablet computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs),
handwritten characters in printed forms, face recognition, cloud formations and
satellite imagery.
Character is the basic building block of any language that is used
to build different structure of a language. Characters are the alphabets and the
structures are the words, strings and sentences etc. [3].As in [4] character
recognition techniques as a subset of pattern recognition give a specific symbolic
identity to an offline printed or written image of a character. Character recognition
is better known as optical character recognition because it deals with the
recognition of optically processed characters rather than magnetically processed
ones. The main objective of character recognition is to interpret input as a
sequence of characters from an already existing set of characters. The advantages
of the character recognition process are that it can save both time and effort when
developing a digital replica of the document. It provides a fast and reliable
alternative to typing manually.
10
1.2 Alphanumeric character recognition
The digital image goes through the following stages of a computer
recognition system:
1. The preprocessing stage that enhances the quality of the input image and locates
the data of interest.
2. The feature extraction stage that captures the distinctive characteristics of the
digitized characters for recognition.
3. The classification stage that processes the feature vectors to identify the
characters and words.
1.3 Design of Alphanumeric character recognition system
Various approaches used for the design of OCR systems are discussed below:
 Matrix Matching
Matrix matching converts each character into a pattern within a matrix, and
compares the pattern with an index of known characters.
 Fuzzy Logic
Fuzzy logic is a multi-valued logic that allows intermediate values to be
defined
between
conventional
evaluations
like
yes/no,
true/false,
black/white etc. An attempt is made to attribute a human-like way of logical
thinking in the programming of computers. This is used when answers do
not have distinct value.
 Feature Extraction
This method defines character by the presence or absence of key features,
including height, width density, loops and other character traits. Feature
11
extraction is a perfect approach for OCR of magazines, laser print and high
quality images.
 Structural Analysis
Structural Analysis identifies characters by examining their sub featuresshape of the image, sub-vertical and horizontal histograms. Its character
repair capability is great for low quality text and newsprints.
 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
This strategy simulates the way human neural system works. It samples the pixels
in each image and matches them to a known index of character pixel patterns. A
benefit of using Neural Network in OCR is extensibility of the system’s ability to
recognize more character set that initially defined. Artificial Neural Networks are
collections of mathematical model that represent some of the observed properties
of biological nervous systems and draw on the analogies of adaptive biological
learning. ANN consists of large number of highly interconnected processing
elements (nodes) that are tied together with weighted connections (links).
1.4The scanner scans and identifies the characters present in the barcode. Barcode
scanners only work if the barcode image is recognizable. In the event of image
distortion, it will fail to recognize the characters. Our method overcomes this
problem, by reliably identifying the characters using multiresolution analysis. This
analysis, removes any existing noise by convoluting various filters. We also, apply
morphological operators to fill the gaps that are caused during the noise filtering
process. Once these gaps have been filled, we extract the characters.
Each
character is then compared with a predefined dictionary of characters by using two
measures: correlation, and multiresolution approximate coefficient energy to find a
matching character. Finally, we display the best matched character. The result
12
suggests that this method is effectively capable of being applied to a broad range of
barcodes. Since this method is simple, efficient, and has a real-time response, it can
be implemented in embedded systems.
1.5 ADHOC Network:
The Ad hoc network is a network formed without any central administration
which consists of mobile nodes that use a wireless interface to send packet data.
Since the nodes in a network of this kind can serve as routers and hosts, they can
forward packets on behalf of other nodes and run user applications. The roots of ad
hoc networking can be traced back as far as 1968, when work on the ALOHA
network was initiated (the objective of this network was to connect educational
facilities in Hawaii).1 Although fixed stations were employed, the ALOHA
protocol lent itself to distributed channelaccess management and hence provided a
basis for the subsequent development of distributed channel-access schemes that
were suitable for ad hoc networking.
Adhoc network is
 A network without any base stations “infrastructure-less” or multi-hop

A collection of two or more devices equipped
with wireless
communications and networking capability

Supports anytime and anywhere computing

Two topologies:

Heterogeneous (left) • Differences in capabilities

Homogeneous or fully symmetric (Right)

all nodes have identical capabilities and responsibilities
 Self-organizing and adaptive – Allows spontaneous formation and
deformation of mobile networks
13

Each mobile host acts as a router

Supports peer-to-peer communications

Supports peer-to-remote communications
 Reduced administrative cost

Ease of deployment
The ALOHA protocol itself was a single-hop protocol
— that is, it did not inherently support routing. Instead every node had to be within
reach of all other participating nodes. Inspired by the ALOHA network and the
early development of fixed network packet switching, DARPA began work, in
1973, on the PRnet (packet radio network)
—a multihop network.2 In this context, multihopping means that nodes cooperated
to relay traffic on behalf of one another to reach distant stations that would
otherwise have been out of range. PRnet provided mechanisms for managing
operation centrally as well as on a distributed basis. As an additional benefit, it was
realized that multihopping techniques increased network capacity, since the spatial
domain could be reused for concurrent but physically separate multihop sessions.
Although many experimental packetradio networks were later developed, these
wireless systems did not ever really take off in the consumer segment. When
developing IEEE 802.11
—a standard for wireless local area networks (WLAN)—the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering (IEEE) replaced the term packet-radio network with ad
hoc network. Packet-radio networks had come to be associated with the multihop
networks of large-scale military or rescue operations, and by adopting a new name,
the IEEE hoped to indicate an entirely new deployment scenario. Today, our vision
of ad hoc networking includes scenarios such as those depicted in Figure 1, where
people carry devices that can network on an ad hoc basis. A user’s devices can
14
both interconnect with one another and connect to local information points—for
example, to retrieve updates on flight departures, gate changes, and so on. The ad
hoc devices can also relay traffic between devices that are out of range. The airport
scenario thus contains a mixture of single and multiple radio hops. To put ad hoc
networking in its right perspective, let us make some observations about wireless
communication, beginning with present-day cellular systems, which rely heavily
on infrastructure: coverage is provided by base stations, radio resources are
managed from a central location, and services are integrated into the system
Today, many people carry numerous portable devices, such as
laptops, mobile phones, PDAs and mp3 players, for use in their professional and
private lives. For the most part, these devices are used separately—that is, their
applications do not interact. Imagine, however, if they could interact directly:
participants at a meeting could share documents or presentations; business cards
would automatically find their way into the address register on a laptop and the
number register on a mobile phone; as commuters exit a train, their laptops could
remain online; likewise, incoming email could now be diverted to their PDAs;
finally, as they enter the office, all communication could automatically be routed
through the wireless corporate campus network.
These examples of spontaneous, ad hoc wireless communication between
devices might be loosely defined as a scheme, often referred to as ad hoc
networking, which allows devices to establish communication, anytime and
anywhere without the aid of a central infrastructure. Actually, ad hoc networking
as such is not new, but the setting, usage and players are. In the past, the notion of
ad hoc networks was often associated with communication on combat fields and at
the site of a disaster area; now, as novel technologies such as Bluetooth
materialize, the scenario of ad hoc networking is likely to change, as is its
importance.
15
1.5.1 Adhoc Applications:
Mobile ad hoc networks have been the focus of many recent research and
development efforts. So far, ad hoc packet-radio networks have mainly been
considered for military applications, where a decentralized network configuration
is an operative advantage or even a necessity.
In the commercial sector, equipment for wireless, mobile computing
has not been available at a price attractive to large markets. However, as the
capacity of mobile computers increases steadily, the need for unlimited networking
is also expected to rise. Commercial ad hoc networks could be used in situations
where no infrastructure (fixed or cellular) is available.
Examples include rescue operations in remote areas, or when local
coverage must be deployed quickly at a remote construction site. Ad hoc
networking could also serve as wireless public access in urban areas, providing
quick deployment and extended coverage.
The access points in networks of this kind could serve as stationary
radio relay stations that perform ad hoc routing among themselves and between
user nodes. Some of the access points would also provide gateways via which
users might connect to a fixed backbone network.5 At the local level, ad hoc
networks that link notebook or palmtop computers could be used to spread and
share information among participants at a conference. They might also be
appropriate for application in home networks where devices can communicate
directly to exchange information, such as audio/video, alarms, and configuration
updates. Perhaps the most far-reaching applications in this context are more or less
autonomous networks of interconnected home robots that clean, do dishes, mow
the lawn, perform security surveillance, and so on. Some people have even
proposed ad hoc multihop networks (denoted sensor networks)—
16
for example, for environmental monitoring, where the networks could be used to
forecast water pollution or to provide early warning of an approaching tsunami.6
Short-range ad hoc networks can simplify intercommunication between various
mobile devices (such as a cellular phone and a PDA) by forming a PAN, and
thereby eliminate the tedious need for cables. Also extend the mobility provided by
the fixed network (that is, mobile IP) to nodes further out in an ad hoc network
domain. The Bluetooth system is perhaps the most promising technology in the
context of personal area networking.
1.5.2 Design Principles
Terminal Device Selection In this section, we start by selecting a platform that is
most suitable for mobile users to run ad-hoc applications. We consider the
following criteria: (1) Portability: to make the best use of mobile ad-hoc
applications, the terminal device has to be portable so that the user can run ad-hoc
applications anytime and anywhere. (2) Availability: to establish ad-hoc networks,
there must be enough devices in the vicinity of the user. (3) Security awareness: in
the ad-hoc network, unidentified devices can exist that may be malicious to the
user. Therefore, each device should be able to identify itself when requested to do
so in a secure manner. As for (1), when considering cases where ad-hoc
applications are used on the road or on a train, a laptop PC is not portable enough.
Handheld devices are required; such as a cellular phone or at the most a PDA. As
for (2), to use ad-hoc applications anytime and anywhere, PDAs are not widely
used. Cellular phones, or at least regular PCs including laptops are required. As for
(3), a secure device authentication mechanism is required. To this end, a common
PKI system or a trusted service provider as well as an access method is required.
To meet these criteria, a mobile phone terminal can be considered as one of the
most suitable candidates and it will therefore become a real driving force for ad17
hoc communications. As ad-hoc networks consist of mobile terminals without any
servers, ensuring the functions of security and authentication is not taken for
granted, which is also raising concerns among mobile users. As mobile phone
terminals originally communicate via cellular networks, co-operation with those
cellular networks enables ad-hoc networks to have these functions through the
servers of trusted cellular providers. Co-operation with cellular networks also
enables the use of existing Web applications. Moreover, in regions where cellular
networks are out of service, ad-hoc networks can connect to cellular networks by
multi-hop links. On the other hand, the disadvantages of ad-hoc networks on
mobile phone terminals are (1) limitation of resources and (2) limitation of
implementation platforms. (1) Limitation of resources: Although mobile phone
terminals have become smarter, they have limited resources, memory, CPU speed
and power, as compared to laptop PCs or PDAs. (2) Limitation of implementation
platforms: While many mobile phone terminals provide programming platforms
such as JAVA, only a few platforms can access devices such as wireless interfaces.
It is necessary to take into account these advantages and disadvantages in order to
implement ad-hoc networks on mobile phone terminals
1.5.3 Protocol Efficiency
Ad-hoc networks are constructed only by mobile terminals without any
infrastructure. Mobile terminals can move freely in ad-hoc networks. Thus, it is
necessary to develop quick and efficient procedures to establish routes, find a
communication target and transmit data. From this perspective, on-demand ad-hoc
routing protocols are suitable for implementation on mobile phone terminals. Many
ad-hoc routing protocols use a flooding mechanism in the path discovery process.
However, the flooding mechanism consumes wireless resources and is heavily
18
dependent on link-layer technologies. Thus, a more effective and suitable flooding
mechanism is required for mobile phone terminals and their communication
interfaces. Moreover, in standardized ad-hoc routing protocols, route establishment
and data transmission are separately executed. However, as mobile phone
terminals have limited resources, co-operation between route establishment and
data transmission is desirable.
\
1.6 Cryptography:
Cryptography is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt the data.
Cryptography enables you to store sensitive information or transit it across
insecure network (like the internet ) so that it convert be read by anyone except the
intended recipient.while cryptography is the scince of securing data ,cryptanalysis
is the science of analyzing and braking secure communication.
The process of encoding the plaintext into cipher text is called
Encryption and reverse the process of decoding ciphers text to plaintext is called
Decryption. This can be done by two techniques symmetric-key cryptography and
asymmetric key cryptography. Symmetric key cryptography involves the usage of
the same key for encryption and decryption. But the Asymmetric key cryptography
involves the usage of one key for encryption and another, different key for
decryption. Secret key cryptography includes DES, AES, 3DES, IDEA, Blowfish
algorithms etc. and public key cryptography includes RSA, Digital Signature and
Message Digest algorithms [10],[14]. For each algorithm there are two key aspects
used: Algorithm type (define size of plain text should be encrypted per step) and
algorithm mode (define cryptographic Algorithm mode). Algorithm mode is a
combination of a series of the basic algorithm and some block cipher and some
19
feedback from previous steps. We compare and analyzed algorithms DES and RSA
[6].
Cryptanalyst are also called attackers .Cryptology embrace both Cryptography and
cryptanalysis.
Plain Text
Cipher Text
A
B
Shared Key
Secret Key
Encryption
Network
Decryption
er
cipher text
Figure 1.9: Cryptography.
1.6.1 Encryption Algorithm :
The Encryption algorithms are widely available and used in
information security [8, 9, 10]. They can be categorized into Symmetric (private)
and Asymmetric (public) keys encryption. In Symmetric keys encryption or secret
key encryption, only one key is used to encrypt and decrypt data.
20
In Asymmetric keys, two keys are used; private and public keys.
Public key is used for encryption and private key is used for decryption (e.g. RSA
and ECC). Public key encryption is based on mathematical functions,
computationally intensive and is not very efficient for small mobile devices [4, 6,
14]. There are many examples of strong and weak keys of cryptography algorithms
like RC2, DES, 3DES, RC6, Blowfish, and AES. RC2 uses one 64-bit key. DES
uses one 64-bits key. Triple DES (3DES) uses three 64-bits keys while AES uses
various (128,192,256) bits keys. Blowfish uses various (32-448); default 128bits
while RC6 is used various (128,192,256) bits keys [2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 15, 17].
The process of encoding the plaintext into cipher text is
called Encryption and reverse the process of decoding ciphers text to plaintext is
called Decryption. This can be done by two techniques symmetric-key
cryptography and asymmetric key cryptography. Symmetric key cryptography
involves the usage of the same key for encryption and decryption. But the
Asymmetric key cryptography involves the usage of one key for encryption
and another, different key for decryption. Secret key cryptography includes DES,
AES, 3DES, IDEA, Blowfish algorithms etc. and public key cryptography includes
RSA, Digital Signature and Message Digest algorithms [10],[14]. For each
algorithm there are two key aspects used: Algorithm type (define size of plain text
should be encrypted per step) and algorithm mode (define cryptographic Algorithm
mode). Algorithm mode is a combination of a series of the basic algorithm and
some block cipher and some feedback from previous steps. We compare and
analyzed algorithms DES and RSA [6].
21
1.6.2 DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD
DES is a block cipher. It encrypts the data in a block of 64 bits. It produces 64 bit
cipher text. The key length is 56 bits. Initially the key is consisting of 64 bits. The
bit position 8, 16, 24, 32,40,48,56, 64 discarded from the key
length [16].
Figure 1.6.2 The conceptual working with DES
DES is based on two fundamental attributes of cryptography: Substitution
(confusion) and transposition (Diffusion). DES consists of 16 steps, each of which
called as a Round.
22
Algorithm:[1] In the first step, the initial 64-bit plain text block is handed over to Initial
Permutation (IP) function.
[2] The Initial permutation is performed on plain text.
[3] The initial permutation produces two halves of permuted block: Left Plain text
(LPT) and Right Plain (RPT
[4]
Now, each of LPT and RPT goes through 16 rounds of the encryption process,
each with its own key: a. From the 56-bit key, a different 48-bit Sub-key is
generated using Key Transformation. b. Using the Expansion Permutation, the
RPT is expended from 32 bits to 48 bits.
c. Now, the 48-bit key is XORed with 48-bit RPT and the resulting output is given
in the next step.
d. Using the S-box substitution produce the 32-bit from 48-bit input.
e. These 32 bits are permuted using P-Box Permutation.
f. The P-Box output 32 bits are XORed with the LPT 32 bits.
g. The result of the XORed 32 bits is become the RPT and old RPT become the
LPT.This process is called as swapping.
h. Now the RPT again given to the next round and performed the 15 more rounds.
23
[5] After the completion of 16 rounds the Final
Permutation is performed [10], [17].
Encryption algorithms consume a significant amount of computing
resources such as CPU time, memory, and battery power. Battery power is
subjected to the problem of energy consumption due to encryption algorithms.
Battery technology is increasing at a slower rate than other technologies. This
causes a “battery gap” [1, 12]. We need a way to make decisions about energy
consumption and security to reduce the consumption of battery powered devices.
This study evaluates six different encryption algorithms namely; AES, DES,
3DES, RC6, Blowfish, and RC2. The performance measure of encryption schemes
will be conducted in terms of energy, changing data types - such as text or
document, Audio data and video datapower consumption, changing packet size and
changing key size for the selected cryptographic algorithms.
1.6.3 THE RSA ALGORITHM
This is a public key encryption algorithm developed by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir
and Len Adlemen in 1977.The asymmetric key cryptographic algorithm. The RSA
algorithm is based on the mathematical fact that it is easy to find and multiply large
prime numbers together, but it is extremely difficult to factor their product. The
private and public keys in the RSA are based on very large (made up of 100 or
more digits) prime numbers. The algorithm itself is quite simple (unlike the
symmetric key .
24
Figure1.6.3: Working of RSA
Algorithm:
[1] Choose two large prime numbers P and Q.
[2] Calculate N= P X Q.
[3] Select the public key (i.e. the encryption key) E such that it is not a factor of (P1) and (Q-1).
[4] Select the private key (i.e. the decryption key) D such that the following
equation is true: (D X E) mod (P-1) X (Q-1) =1
[5] For encryption, calculate the cipher text CT from text PT as follows:
CT = PTE mod N [4], [10].cryptographic algorithms).
25
However, the real challenge in
Encryption is the process of translating plain text data (plaintext) into something
that appears to be random and meaningless (ciphertext). Decryption is the process
of converting ciphertext back to plaintext.To encrypt more than a small amount of
data, symmetric encryption is used. A symmetric key is used during both the
encryption and decryption processes. To decrypt a particular piece of ciphertext,
the key that was used to encrypt the data must be used.
Encryption refers to any process used to make sensitive data
more secure and less likely to be intercepted by those unauthorized to view
it.There are several modern types of encryption used to protect sensitive electronic
data, such as emails, files, folders and entire drives. It's very important to
understand what kinds of encryption are most important for a particular need, and
to not be lulled into a false sense of security by fancy-sounding process names.
There are many encryption programs that provide excellent security for very little
money sometimes even for free.
For example, consider the folder-encryption options
available to users of the Microsoft Windows operating system. Microsoft's
encryption is generally strong, meaning that most users won't have to seek out
additional methods of protecting their sensitive financial data, medical records and
other sensitive files.Or, if you're worried about Microsoft's alleged relationship
with the U.S. National Security Agency, try TrueCrypt, an open-source, free-to-use
software solution.
The most dangerous pitfall of folder encryption is that there may be temporary
versions of the sensitive files that are not encrypted.Consider this: Most computer
users regularly save their work to avoid catastrophic data loss due to a power
outage, electrical storm or other unexpected event. Each time the user saves a file
26
in progress, a temporary version of that file is created and stored in the aptly
named "temp" folder, where it remains unencrypted.Simply deleting temp files
isn't enough protection, either. Someone who wants to access your data badly
enough will likely be able to access those files.
Base cryptographic functions are in the following broad groups:

Service Provider Functions

Key Generation and Exchange Functions

Object Encoding and Decoding Functions

Data Encryption and Decryption Functions

Hash and Digital Signature Functions
Encryption time is used to calculate the throughput of an encryption scheme. The
throughput of the encryption scheme is calculated by dividing the total plaintext in
Megabytes encrypted on the total encryption time for each algorithm in. As the
throughput value is increased, the power consumption of this encryption technique
is decreased
1.7 Android framework
Android application on for Identification of Alphanumeric pattern. This
application fully implement in Android operating system. The application we
developed enables the users to get text translate as ease as a button click. The
camera captures the text and returns the translated result in real time. Early
techniques were based mostly on template matching, simple line and geometric
features, stroke detection, and the extraction of their derivatives. Such techniques
were not sophisticated enough for practical recognition of data handwritten on
forms or documents.
27
The Android is a Linux-based operating system whose code was released by
Google under the Apache license, is used primarily in touch screen devices.
Android structure consist the Linux kernel layer which provides memory
management, security settings, power management, hardware abstraction, etc.
1.7.1 Android architecture
Android operating system is a stack of software components which is
roughly divided into five sections and four main layers as shown below in the
architecture diagram.
28
Android makes it easier for consumers to get and use new content and
applications on their Smart phones , presents an extremely on-demand, fast and
user friendly Android Application. the application has built in OCR suite as well
as Image Processing suite both installed in the Android device. It provides fast,
robust and extremely high Quality performance because of having improved Auto
focus behavior, continuous dynamic preview and improved noise tolerance feature
1.7.2 Android application development:
 Microsoft Windows XP or later version.
 Mac OS X 10.5.8 or later version with Intel chip.
 Linux including GNU C Library 2.7 or later.
Second point is that all the required tools to develop Android applications are
freely available and can be downloaded from the Web. Following is the list of
software's you will need before you start your Android application programming.
 Java JDK5 or JDK6.
 Android SDK
 Eclipse IDE for Java Developers (optional)
 Android Development Tools (ADT) Eclipse Plugin (optional)
You will find all the Android application at the top layer. You will write your
application to be installed on this layer only. Examples of such applications are
Contacts Books, Browser, Games etc.
•runs on its own Process
•runs on its own Instance of Dalvik VM
•is assigned its own Linux user ID .
29
1.7.3 Android libraries
On top of Linux kernel there is a set of libraries including open-source Web
browser engine WebKit, well known library libc, SQLite database which is a
useful repository for storage and sharing of application data, libraries to play and
record audio and video, SSL libraries responsible for Internet security etc.
3.9.1 Android’s native libraries.
 Libc: c standard lib.
 SSL: Secure Socket Layer
 SGL: 2D image engine
 OpenGL|ES: 3D image engine
 Media Framework: media codecs
 SQLite: Database engine
 WebKit: Kernel of web browser
 FreeType: Bitmap and Vector
 SufraceManager: Compose window manager with off-screen buffering.
Core Libraries
 Provides the functionality of the JAVA Programming Language
 Dalvik VM -A type of Java Virtual Machine
 Register based (not stack machine like JVM)
Optimization for low memory requirements
30
2. CHAPTER
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Literature survey
2.2 A history of Alphanumeric pattern recognition
To understand the phenomena described in the above section, we have to
look at the history
Alphanumeric pattern recognition , its development,
recognition methods, computer technologies, and the differences between humans
and machines . It is always fascinating to be able to find ways of enabling a
computer to mimic human functions, like the ability to read, to write, to see things,
and so on. Alphanumeric pattern recognition research and development can be
traced back to the early 1950s, when scientists tried to capture the images of
characters and texts, first by mechanical and optical means of rotating disks and
photomultiplier, flying spot scanner with a cathode
ray tube lens, followed by photocells and arrays of them.[3]
At first, the scanning operation was slow and one line of characters could be
digitized at a time by moving the scanner or the paper medium. Subsequently, the
inventions of drum and flatbed scanners arrived, which extended scanning to the
full page. Then, advances in digital-integrated circuits brought photoarrays with
higher density, faster transports for documents, and higher speed in scanning and
digital conversions. These important improvements greatly accelerated the speed
of character recognition and reduced the cost, and opened up the possibilities of
processing a great variety of forms and documents.[5]
31
In parallel with these advances in hardware development, intensive research
on character recognition was taking place in the research laboratories of both
academic and industrial sectors . Although both recognition techniques and
computers were not that powerful in the early days (1960s), Alphanumeric
pattern recognition machines tended to make lots of errors when the print
quality was poor, caused either by wide variations in typefonts and roughness of
the surface of the paper or by the cotton ribbons of the typewriters . To make
Alphanumeric pattern recognition work efficiently and economically, there
was a big push from Alphanumeric pattern recognition manufacturers and
suppliers toward the standardization of print fonts, paper, and ink qualities for
Alphanumeric pattern recognition applications. These special fonts were
quickly adopted by the International Standards Organization (ISO) to facilitate the
recognition process . As a result, very high recognition rates became achievable at
high speed and at reasonable costs. Such accomplishments also brought better
printing qualities of data and paper for practical applications. Actually, they
completely revolutionalized the data input industry [6]
2.3 Development of new techniques
As Alphanumeric pattern recognition research and development advanced,
demands on handwriting recognition also increased because a lot of data (such as
addresses written on envelopes; amounts written on checks; names, addresses,
identity numbers, and dollar values written on invoices and forms) were written by
hand and they had to be entered into the computer for processing. But early
Alphanumeric pattern recognition techniques were based mostly on template
matching, simple line and geometric features, stroke detection, and the extraction
of their derivatives. Such techniques were not sophisticated enough for practical
32
recognition of data handwritten on forms or documents. To cope with this, the
Standards Committees in the United States, Canada, Japan, and some countries in
Europe designed some handprint models in the 1970s and 1980s for people to write
them in boxes . Hence, characters written in such specified shapes did not vary too
much in styles, and they could be recognized more easily by Alphanumeric
pattern recognition machines, especially when the data were entered by
controlled groups of people, for example, employees of the same company were
asked to write their data like the advocated models. Sometimes writers were asked
to follow certain additional instructions to enhance the quality of their samples, for
example, write big, close the loops, use simple shapes, do not link characters, and
so on. With such constraints, Alphanumeric pattern recognition recognition of
handprints was able to flourish for a number of years.[9]
2.4 Recent trends and movements
As the years of intensive research and development went by, and with the
birth of several new conferences and workshops such as IWFHR (International
Workshop on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition)
,1 ICDAR (International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition)
,2 and others , recognition techniques advanced rapidly. Moreover, computers
became much more powerful than before.
People could write theway they normally did, and characters need not have to be
written like specified models, and the subject of unconstrained handwriting
recognition gained considerable momentum and grew quickly. As of now, many
new algorithms and techniques in preprocessing feature extraction, and powerful
classification methods have been developed. [12]
33
2.5
Generic form-processing system
This section will introduce the general concept of an intelligent form-
processing system that can serve as the kernel of all form-processing applications.
The input of a typical form-processing system consists of color or gray level
images in which every several hundred pixels corresponds to a linear inch in the
paper medium. The output, on the contrary, consists of ASCII strings that usually
can be represented by just a few hundred bytes. To achieve such a high level of
data abstraction, a form-processing system depends on the following main
components for information extraction and processing:
(a)Image acquisition: acquire the image of a form in color, gray level, or binary
format.
(b) Binarization: convert the acquired form images to binary format, in which the
foreground contains logo, the form frame lines, the preprinted entities, and the
filled in data.
(c) Form identification: for an input form image, identify the most suitable form
model from a database.
(d) Layout analysis: understand the structure of forms and the semantic meaning of
the information in tables or forms.
(e) Data extraction: extract pertinent data from respective fields and preprocess the
data to remove noise and enhance the data.
(f )Character recognition: convert the gray or binary images that contain textual
information to electronic representation of characters that facilitate postprocessing
including data validation and syntax analysis.
Each of the above steps reduces the amount of the information to be
processed by a later step. Conventional approaches pass information through these
components in a cascade manner and seek the best solution for each step. The rigid
system architecture and constant information flowing direction limit the
34
performance of each component to local maximum. The observation from data in
real-life applications and the way humans read distorted data lead us to construct a
knowledge-based, intelligent form processing system. Instead of simply
concatenating general-purpose modules with
little consideration of the
characteristics of the input document, the performance of each module is improved
by utilizing as much knowledge as possible, and the global performance is
optimized by interacting with the knowledge database at run-time.
To give more prospective about the performance of the compared algorithms, this
section discusses the results obtained from other resources. It was shown in [14]
that energy consumption of different common symmetric key encryptions on hand
held devices. It is found that after only 600 encryptions of a 5 MB file using
Triple-DES the remaining battery power is 45% and subsequent encryptions are
not possible as the battery dies rapidly. It was concluded in [7] that AES is faster
and more effi- cient than other encryption algorithms. When the transmission of
data is considered there is insignificant difference in performance of different
symmetric key schemes (most of the resources are consumed for data transmission
rather than computation). Even under the scenario of data transfer it would be
advisable to use AES scheme in case the encrypted data is stored at the other end
and decrypted multiple times. A study in [19] is conducted for different popular
secret key algorithms such as DES, 3DES, AES, and Blowfish. They were
implemented, and their performance was compared by encrypting input files of
varying contents and sizes. The algorithms were tested on two different hardware
platforms, to compare their performance. They had conducted it on two different
machines: P-II 266 MHz and P-4 2.4 GHz. The results showed that Blowfish had a
very good performance compared to other algorithms. Also it showed that AES
had a better performance than 3DES and DES. It also shows that 3DES has almost
1/3 throughput of DES, or in other words it needs 3 times than DES to process the
35
ame amount of data [20]. In [11] a study of security measure level has been
proposed for a web programming language to analyze four Web browsers. This
study consider of measuring the performances of encryption process at the
programming language’s script with the Web browsers. This is followed by
conducting tests Experimental in order to obtain the best encryption algorithm
versus Web browser.
In information security,they can be categorized into Symmetric (private) and
Asymmetric (public) keys encryption. In Symmetric key sencryption or secret key
encryption, only one key is used to encrypt and decrypt data. In Asymmetric keys,
two keys are used; private and public keys [1]. Publickey is used for encryption
and private key is used for decryption (e.g. RSA). Public key encryption is based
on mathematical functions, computationally intensive.
There are many examples of strong and weak keys of cryptography algorithms like
DES, AES. DES uses one 64-bits key while AES uses various 128,192,256 bits
keys [2]. Asymmetric key encryption or public keyencryption is used to solve the
problem of key distribution. In Asymmetric keys, two keys are used; private and
public keys. Public key is used for encryption and private key is used for
decryption (E.g. RSA and Digital Signatures). Because users tend to use
two keys: public key, which is known to the public and private key which is known
only to the user[2]. There is no need for distributing them prior to transmission.
However, public key encryption is based on
mathematical functions,
computationally intensive and is not very efficient for small mobile devices [3].
Asymmetric encryption techniques are almost 1000
Recent advancements in wireless communication technologies
have attracted ad-hoc networking, which enables mobile users to communicate
36
with each other without any infrastructure. While many ad-hoc routing protocols
have been proposed, ad-hoc communication and its applications are not
widespread. To expedite the widespread use of ad-hoc communications, we turn
our attention to the handiest wireless device, namely, a mobile phone terminal.
More mobile phones have been equipped with short distance wireless interfaces
such as wireless LAN and Bluetooth. When ad-hoc communication is realized on
such mobile phones with these wireless interfaces, ad-hoc communications will be
available almost anytime and anywhere, which we believe will become a driving
force for ad-hoc networking technology. On the other hand, while the performance
of mobile phones has improved greatly over the past several years, their resources
are still limited compared to laptop PCs. Therefore, to realize ad-hoc
communication in mobile phones, this limitation should be considered. In this
paper, we first set the design principles for mobile ad-hoc communications based
on the assumed use cases and implement ad-hoc networking protocols as well as
their applications on mobile phone terminals to verify their effectiveness. Through
the performance evaluations, we discuss performance characteristics and potential
application area
Implementation of ad-hoc routing protocols is reported from some
research groups. AODV, one of the on-demand ad-hoc routing protocols, is
implemented on actual machines [6][7]. Both implementations support the
Linuxbased platform and [6] implements AODV on PDAs that have ARM-based
architecture. OLSR is a proactive type ad-hoc routing protocol and is also
implemented on Linux, Windows and the ARM architecture [8][9]. The
implementations of AODV and OLSR use IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN as the
short-range wireless interface. In the IEEE 802.11 standard, ad-hoc mode is used
for peer-to-peer communication without infrastructure. Bluetooth is another short37
range wireless interface. Bluetooth uses the Industrial Scientific and Medical
(ISM) band, which can be freely used in most countries. Bluetooth specification
defines a Piconet as a network where up to eight terminals connect with each other.
In the Piconet, a master terminal controls multiple simultaneous connections to
slave terminals [10]. Scatternet is defined as a group of independent and nonsynchronized Piconets. Communication of two Piconets is via gateway terminals
that belong to the two Piconets. Paper [10] reports that Piconets and Scatternets
increase the efficiency of channel use by the Frequency Hop spread spectrum as
compared to Wireless LAN that shares frequency in the same radio propagation
area.
The Piconet and the Scatternet are special types of ad-hoc networks.
The cluster-based ad-hoc routing protocol is proposed as the routing protocol in
Piconets and Scatternets [11]. In cluster-based ad-hoc routing protocols, the
terminal called the cluster head controls route establishment and traffic in the
cluster. As Scatternet consists of multiple Piconets and data transmission in
Piconets is controlled by master terminals, cluster-based ad-hoc routing protocols
are suitable for Piconets and Scatternets. However, in clusterbased ad-hoc routing
protocols, data transmission is limited to only some of the terminals, such as the
cluster head or the master terminal in a Piconet. When terminals have limited
wireless resources and power, it is necessary to examine routing protocols in which
all terminals consume available resources equally. In Bluetooth networks, the
Inquery process is defined for each terminal to find adjacent terminals. As the
Inquery process requires several seconds to find adjacent terminals, there is a
problem with applying the Inquery process to adhoc networks. Paper [12] proposes
a simple adjacent terminal discovery process. The proposed method improves the
discovery time by simplifying the Inquery process. Thus, it differs from ad-hoc
networks over Wireless LAN and contains many of the features of Bluetooth ad38
hoc networks. We need this difference and the features to implement Bluetooth adhoc networks. Bluetooth ad-hoc networks are evaluated by computer simulation in
many studies. However, some implementations on actual machines are reported
from some research groups. Paper [13] reports the design and implementation of
indoor positioning over Bluetooth ad-hoc networks. The proposed system
measures the positioning of devices by Bluetooth and transmits positioning results
via Bluetooth ad-hoc networks. The proposed system is implemented on laptop
PCs. While many studies report implementation on PCs or PDAs, the
implementation of ad-hoc networks on mobile phone terminals has not been
reported. As mobile phone terminals have limited memory resources and power
compared to note PCs or PDAs, it is necessary to take into account of limitation for
implementation
39
3.CHAPTER
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The whole recognition process consists of four basic steps:
(a) preprocessing,
(b) normalized character matrix creation,
(c) network establishment
(d) recognition.
.
The operations of the network implementation in this project can be summarized
by the following steps:

Training phase
o
Analyze image for characters
o
Convert symbols to pixel matrices
o
Retrieve corresponding desired output character and convert to Unicode
o
Lineraize matrix and feed to network
o
Compute output
o
Compare output with desired output Unicode value and compute error
o
Adjust weights accordingly and repeat process until preset number of iterations

Testing phase
o
Analyze image for characters
o
Convert symbols to pixel matrices
o
Compute output
o
Display character representation of the Unicode output
(A)Proposed character recognition scheme
The flowchart of our proposed character recognition scheme
40
(B)Proposed System Architecture
Alpha numeric
character
reconization
Dataset
using mlibrary
41
Capture Image
ADHOC
Encryption
Network
Algorithm
Server
The whole recognition process consists of four basic steps:
(e) preprocessing,
(f) normalized character matrix creation,
(g) network establishment
(h) recognition
3.1.1Preprocessing
Preprocessing consists of digitization, noise removal and boundary detection of
the digitized character matrix.
3.1.1.1 Binarization or digitization
In order to able to recognize characters by computer the character image is
first digitized into a matrix i.e. transformed into a binary form for the ease of
handling by the system .The image is first converted to the gray scale image as
follows
Y= (int) (0.33 * R + 0.56 *G +0.11 *B)
Where, R is the red component of a color pixel, G is the green component of a
color pixel, B is the blue component of a color pixel and Y is the value of a pixel in
a gray scale level. The image is then converted to binary. Just replace all the gray
levels of the image into binary value 0(for gray level value 129 to 255) treated as
absence of writing or 1 (for gray level value 0 to 128) treated as presence of
writing
42
Fig :- Digitized binary matrix of the sample character 2 and Z respectively
3.1.1.2 Boundary Detection
After creating the digitized binary matrix from the input character image, the
detection of boundary is very much important to recognize character correctly. The
boundary detection procedure is therefore given by [12]
(i). For top boundary detection, scan the character matrix starts at the top-left
corner and remove all rows from top having only 0’s. To detect top boundary there
must be at least two consecutive 1’s in two consecutive rows. Then the first row of
the two consecutiverows from top will be selected as top boundary.
(ii) For bottom boundary detection, scan the character matrix starts at the bottomleft corner and remove all rows from bottom having only 0’s. To detect bottom
boundary there must be at least two consecutive 1’s in two consecutive rows. Then
the first row of the two consecutive rows from bottom will be selected as bottom
boundary.
43
(iii.) For left boundary detection, scan the character matrix starts at the top-left
corner and remove all columns from left having only 0’s. To detect left boundary
there must be at least two consecutive 1’s in two consecutive columns. Then the
first column of the two consecutive columns from left will be selected as left
boundary.
iv. For right boundary detection, scan the character matrix starts at the top-right
corner and remove all columns from right having only 0’s. To detect right
boundary there must be at least two consecutive 1’s in two consecutive columns.
Then the first column of the two consecutive columns from right will be selected
as right boundary. In figure , we show the binary matrix of the sample character 2
and Z shown in figure after detecting boundary
Figure . Boundary detection of the digitized sample character 2 and Z respectively shown in
figure
3.1.1.3 Normalization
Normalization is the process of equating the size of all extracted character
bitmaps (binary array).For size invariant character recognition, we have converted
the boundary detected input character matrix into 12×8 normalized matrix. The
normalization procedure is as follows:
44
i.
Take top row and left column assuming they contain salient features.
ii.
Then take alternate row and column until desired 12×8 character matrix i
Found.
For example, the size of input character (after boundary detection) is
15×11.Then during normalization,
a. take first row
b. delete row 2,4,6
c. Take the entire remaining row
d. Converted the matrix to 12×11
iii. Similar process for column as in ii (a-d). Finally the matrix is converted to
12×8.
In figure, we show the two different representation of normalized 12×8 matrix of
the each sample character 2 and Z. The position of 1’s in two normalized character
matrix may be different because of different sizes of the same character are
normalized into 12×8 matrix
Figure . Different representation of normalized matrix (a) 12×8 matrix of numeric digit 2 (b) 12×8 matrix
of character Z.
Ad hoc Network Implementation
45
According to the design principles denoted in Section 3, this section shows our
implementation of ad-hoc communication and ad-hoc applications to mobile phone
terminals
As for the link-layer protocol for ad-hoc communications, several access control
methods can be considered such as Wireless LAN, Bluetooth or ZigBee. Among
these technologies, we selected Bluetooth for our implementation. Bluetooth is
relatively widely implemented on mobile phone terminals and stable in an
infrastructureless network. The specifications of the mobile phone terminals that
were used are shown in Table 1. Bluetooth defines profiles that provide the
available functions. In our implementation, applicable profiles of Bluetooth are
SPP, HSP, DUN, BIP, OPPP and OBEX. The implementation platform use was the
Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless (BREW). BREW is a programming
platform for mobile phone terminals, for which C and C++ are available as
programming languages. One of the characteristics of the BREW platform is the
function of accessing devices such as address books and Bluetooth interfaces on
mobile phone terminals. The version of BREW used in our implementation was
2.1.
Implementation Stack
On the BREW platform, we developed a new implementation stack as shown in
Figure 1. The implementation stack consists of three control units; a radio control
unit that handles Bluetooth communication, a network control unit that establishes
routes and forwards data packets and a user application control unit that includes
the user interface and user applications
46
Figure : Implementation stack.
As shown in Figure 2, the control sequence has three phases, the initial phase, the
route establishment phase and the user application execution phase. In the initial
phase, the radio control unit carries out device discovery that finds adjacent
terminals. In the route establishment phase, when acommunication request occurs
in the user application control unit, the network control unit begins the path
discovery process. In the path discovery process, a control message is broadcast or
unicast by the radio control unit. After establishing routes, in the user application
execution phase, user data is forwarded via routes obtained in the route
establishment phase. In the user application execution phase, the radio control unit
transmits user data by unicasting. The details of each of the control units are
shown in the following sections
Fig:Radio Control Unit
47
The radio control unit supports data transmission with adjacent terminals via the
Bluetooth interface. The radio control unit carries out device discovery and
broadcast/unicast of data transmissions.
(1) Device discovery:
The Bluetooth device has a 48-bit address that uniquely specifies each device. The
Bluetooth Inquery process finds device addresses of adjacent terminals. These
device addresses are registered in the device address table, which is managed in
each mobile phone terminal. In the device address table, only the active device
addresses are registered. If link failure or transmission failure occurs,
thecorresponding device address is deleted from the device address table.
(2) Unicast and Broadcast:
Bluetooth can realize ad-hoc networks through Piconets or Scatternets. However,
only the six Bluetooth profiles shown in Table 1 are available in our
implementation. So, our platform does not support Piconets and Scatternets.
Then, we use the Serial Port Profile (SPP) to transmit data to adjacent terminals.
The SPP allows Bluetooth devices to perform serial cable emulation. The SPP has
two transmission modes, a client mode and a server mode. In the SPP connection,
data istransmitted from the client mode terminal to the server mode terminal. In
unicast transmission, mobile phone terminals set the destination device address to
the next hop terminalreferenced from the device address table. On the other hand,
SPP does not support broadcast transmission. Then, the broadcast transmission is
realized in a pseudo manner by unicast SPP transmission. When the broadcast
transmission is required, for example, at the beginning of the path discovery
process, the mobile phone terminal connects to an adjacent terminal selected from
the entries in the device address table. After this unicast transmission, the sending
48
terminal connects to another terminal by SPP until it finishes transmission to all the
terminals listed in the device address table. Thus, SPP connections are repeated for
each of addresses registered in the device address table.
Network Control Unit
The network control unit realizes packet forwarding and route establishment.
(1) Packet forwarding:
To transmit control messages and data messages, we use IP and transport layer
protocol stacks. While IP and transport layer protocol stacks are already prepared
as part of the Application Programming Interface (API) in the BREW platform,
this API is not available for Bluetooth communication. So, we implemented new
stacks customized for Bluetooth communication. Each terminal has a routing table
to determine the next hop terminal. The routing table is constructed by the route
establishment
method.
(2) Route establishment:
To establish routes, we implemented the on-demand adhoc routing protocol,
AODV, according to the considerations in Section 3.3. AODV carries out the
following path discovery process.A source terminal begins flooding a Route
Request(RREQ) when a communication request from a userapplication occurs and
the terminal does not have the route to the destination. The RREQ includes the IP
address of the destination terminal and the source terminal. Terminals that
receive the RREQ register a reverse route to the source terminal in their routing
table. When the destination terminal receives the RREQ, it unicasts a Route Reply
49
(RREP) to the source terminal. The RREP provides the information on the
destination terminal. If the terminal that receives the RREQ is not the destination,
the RREQ is rebroadcast. When terminals receive the RREP, they make
the forward route to the destination. After the source terminal receives the RREP, it
begins data transmission of the user application.
(2) Extension of path discovery:
According to the considerations in Section 3.2 andSection 3.3, we extended the
path discovery process fromthe view of discovery of unspecified communication
targetsand protocol efficiency.
This extension uses an index of content or service, not the IP addresses, as the
identifiers of communication targets. The index identifies content or services
uniquely. Content and services that a terminal can provide are listed in the
terminal’s content information table. For simplicity and efficiency of protocol
implementation, each terminal maintains the information on content that the
terminal holds in our implementation. The path discovery process with the above
extension is as follows. A source terminal broadcasts an extended RREQ
when a communication request occurs from a userapplication. The user application
specifies the desired content index. The extended RREQ has the content index
and the IP address of the source terminal. Note that the extended RREQ does not
include the IP address of the destination terminal. The extended RREQ has an
option format field shown in Figure 3. The option data format is in the TypeLength-Value (TLV) format and loads the desired content index. When the
extended RREQ is received by adjacent terminals, the reverse route to the source
terminal is made in their routing table. Then, if the content index in
50
the RREQ is registered in the content information table of the receiver terminal, it
unicasts an extended RREP to the source terminal. The extended RREP has the
same option format as the extended RREQ. The extended RREP loads the
information of the desired content and the IP address of the terminal that has the
information. If the terminals do not have the entry in the content index in the
RREQ, they rebroadcast the RREQ. When the extended RREP is received, the
terminal makes the forward route to the terminal that sent the RREP. When the
source terminal receives the extended RREP, the routes to the terminal that has the
information on the desired content and the actual information on the content are
obtained. Sample sequences of the extended path discovery process are shown in
Figure
3 (request phase) and Figure 5 (reply phase)
Cryptography
Public-key
RSA& Others
Private-key
Block
Protocols
Stream
51
AES
BlowFish
&Others
RC6
RC4&
Others
Figure 1. classification of encryption techniques
.
Encryption Algorithms Encryption is a well known technology for protecting
sensitive data. Use of the combination of Public and Private Key encryption to hide
the sensitive data of users, and cipher text retrieval [6].
( a) Data Encryption Standard (DES) DES (Data Encryption Standard)
algorithm purpose is to provide a standard method for protecting sensitive
commercial and unclassified data. In this same key used for encryption and
decryption process [7].
DES algorithm consists of the following
steps i. Encryption
1. DES accepts an input of 64-bit long plaintext and 56-bitkey (8 bits of parity) and
produce output of 64 bit block.
2. The plaintext block has to shift the bits around.
3. The 8 parity bits are removed from the key by subjecting the key to its Key
Permutation.
4. The plaintext and key will processed by following
i. The key is split into two 28 halves
ii. Each half of the key is shifted (rotated) by one or two bits, depending on the
round
52
. iii. The halves are recombined and subject to a compression permutation to
reduce the key from 56 bits to 48 bits. This compressed keys used to encrypt this
round’s plaintext block.
iv. The rotated key halves from step 2 are used in next round.
v. The data block is split into two 32-bit halves
. vi. One half is subject to an expansion permutation to increase its size to 48 bits.
vii. Output of step 6 is exclusive-OR’ed with the 48- itcompressed key from step 3.
viii. Output of step 7 is fed into an S-box, which substitutes key bits and reduces
the 48-bit block back down to 32-bits
. ix. Output of step 8 is subject to a P-box to permute the bits
. x. The output from the P-box is exclusive-OR’ed with other half of the data
block. k. The two data halves are swapped and become the next round’s input
In order to address the security vulnerabilities, algorithm based on stream cipher
theory has been proposed. A pseudorandom keystream is used to generate cipher
text by utilising the Substitution box values. This encryption algorithm is based on
XOR operation and the steps for the algorithm are described below:
DES is a block cipher. It encrypts the data in a block of 64 bits. It produces 64 bit
cipher text. The key length is 56 bits. Initially the key is consisting of 64 bits. The
bit position 8, 16, 24, 32,40,48,56, 64 discarded from the key length [16].
53
DES is based on two fundamental attributes of cryptography: Substitution
(confusion) and transposition (Diffusion). DES consists of 16 steps,
each of which called as a Round.
Algorithm:[1] In the first step, the initial 64-bit plain text block is handed over to Initial
Permutation (IP) function.
[2] The Initial permutation is performed on plain text.
[3] The initial permutation produces two halves of permuted block: Left Plain text
(LPT) and Right Plain (RPT).
[4] Now, each of LPT and RPT goes through 16 rounds of the encryption process,
each with its own key:
a. From the 56-bit key, a different 48-bit Sub-key is generated using Key
Transformation.
b. Using the Expansion Permutation, the RPT is expended from 32 bits to 48 bits.
c. Now, the 48-bit key is XORed with 48-bit RPT and the resulting output is given
in the next step.
d. Using the S-box substitution produce the 32-bit from 48-bit input.
e. These 32 bits are permuted using P-Box Permutation.
f. The P-Box output 32 bits are XORed with the LPT 32 bits.
54
g. The result of the XORed 32 bits is become the RPT and old RPT become the
LPT.This process is called as swapping.
h. Now the RPT again given to the next round and performed the 15 more rounds.
[5] After the completion of 16 rounds the Final Permutation is performed [10],
[17].
THE RSA ALGORITHM
This is a public key encryption algorithm developed by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir
and Len Adlemen in 1977.The RSA algorithm is the most popular and proven
asymmetric key cryptographic algorithm. The RSA algorithm is based on the
mathematical fact that it is easy to find and multiply large prime numbers together,
but it is extremely difficult to factor their product. The privateand public keys in
the RSA are based on very large (madeup of 100 or more digits) prime numbers.
The algorithmitself is quite simple (unlike the symmetric keycryptographic
algorithms). However, the real challenge inthe case of RSA is the selection and
generation of thepublic and private keys. The idea of asymmetriccryptographic is
shown in figure 6. In which the A is the sender and B Receiver [4].
55
Algorithm:
[1] Choose two large prime numbers P and Q.
[2] Calculate N= P X Q.
[3] Select the public key (i.e. the encryption key) E such that it is not a factor of
(P-1) and (Q-1).
[4] Select the private key (i.e. the decryption key) D such that the following
equation is true: (D X E) mod (P-1) X (Q-1) =1
[5] For encryption, calculate the cipher text CT from text PT as follows: CT = PTE
mod N [4], [10].
56
AES Encryption and Decryption
57
CHAPTER 4
IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULT
Encryption Process:
Using Hash Algorithm:
Hash algorithms are used as components by other cryptographic
algorithms and processes to provide information security services. Hash functions
are often utilized with digital signature algorithms, keyed-hash message
authentication codes, key derivation functions, and random number generators. A
hash algorithm converts a variable length message into a condensed representation
of the electronic data in the message. This representation, or message digest, can
then be used for digital signatures, message authentication, and other secure
applications. When employed in a digital signature application, the hash value of
the message is signed instead of the message itself; the receiver can use the
signature to verify the signer of the message and to authenticate the integrity of the
signed message. Recently, the Information Technology Laboratory of the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) completed a revision of the federal
government’s standard for secure hash functions. Issued as Federal Information
Processing Standard (FIPS) 180-3, Secure Hash Standard, and approved by the
Secretary of Commerce in October 2008, the revised standard replaces FIPS 180-2
and specifies five secure hash algorithms. Because recent advances in the
cryptanalysis of hash functions could threaten the security of cryptographic
processes, NIST is conducting an open, public competition to develop a new,
robust cryptographic hash algorithm. When the new algorithm is developed,
58
evaluated, and approved, it will augment the hash algorithms currently specified in
FIPS 180-3. Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 180-3, Secure H
Security Strengths of Hash Functions
A secure hash function is a collision-resistant, one-way function.
Collision resistance means that it is extremely difficult to find two different
messages that will produce the same hash value. One way means that it is easy to
compute the hash value from the input, but it is extremely difficult to reproduce the
input from the hash value, or to find another input that will produce the same hash
value. Hash functions are often used to determine whether or not data has changed.
Many algorithms and processes that provide a security service use a hash function
as a component of the algorithm or process, including:
• Keyed-hash message authentication code (HMAC)
• Digital signatures
• Key derivation functions (KDFs)
59
Random number generators (RNGs) Because cryptanalysts have found ways to
attack commonly used hash functions, NIST has advised federal agencies to stop as
soon as practical the use of the SHA-1 algorithm for digital signatures, digital
timestamping, and other applications that require collision resistance, and to use
the SHA-2 family of hash functions for these applications after 2010. SHA-1 may
be used only for hash-based message authentication codes, key derivation
functions, and random number generators after 2010. NIST encourages application
and protocol designers to use the SHA-2 family of hash functions for all new
applications and protocols. To keep users and developers up to date on the
potential threats to the security of hash algorithms, NIST has issued
recommendations about the security strengths of the five approved hash algorithms
in a publication that can be modified and updated in a timely manner to provide
current information. Recommendations for Use of Hash function.
60
i.
Calculate Passkey Numeral for Encryption:

Random number is generated between 1024 and 999999.

Length of number is calculated.

Sum of ASCII value of digits of number are calculated.
Thus, Passkey Numeral= Numeral Length + Sum of ASCII value of digits.
ii.
Calculate a0, a1, a2 and a3 parameters:

a0= Sum of digits at even positions of passkey numeral
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iii.

a1= Sum of digits at odd positions of passkey numeral

a2= Product of digits of passkey numeral

a3= (Passkey numeral) mod (256)
Calculate b0, b1,b2 and b3 parameters:
In order to compute b0, b1, b2 and b3 values, encryption parameters EP1, EP2,
EP3 and EP4 are required which are computed using Table below:
Encryption Parameters
iv.
v.
EP1
EP2
EP3
parameter
parameter
parameter
b0 = EP1[0]+EP2[0]+EP3[0]+EP4[0]
EP4
parameter (1)
0
a0 XOR
a1
EP1 + 15
a2 XOR a3
b1 = EP1[1]+EP2[1]+EP3[1]+EP4[1]
EP3 + 55 (2)
1
a0 XOR
a2
EP1 + 25
a1 XOR a3
b2 = EP1[2]+EP2[2]+EP3[2]+EP4[2]
EP3 + 65 (3)
2
b3 = EP1[3]+EP2[3]+EP3[3]+EP4[3]
a0 XOR
a3
EP1 + 35
a1 XOR a2
EP3 + 75 (4)
3
a2 XOR a3
EP3 + 85
EP1 + 45
a1 XOR a3
Calculate c0,c1,c2 and c3 parameters:
c0 = ((EP1[b2] XOR EP2[b2]) * a0) + b2
(5)
c1 = ((EP1[b1] XOR EP3[b1]) * a1) + b1
(6)
c2 = ((EP1[b0] XOR EP4[b0]) * a2) + b0
(7)
c3 = ((EP2[b3] XOR EP3[b3]) * a3) +b3
(8)
Calculate Substitution box (S-box) values using Table 5.2
Table S-Box values
0
0
1
2
3
(EP1[b0]
XOR c0) *
(EP1[b1] XOR
(EP1[b2] XOR
(EP1[b3] XOR
62
c0
c1) * c0
c2) * c0
c3) * c0
1
(EP2[b0]
XOR c0) *
c1
(EP2[b1] XOR
c1) * c1
(EP2[b2] XOR
c2) * c1
(EP2[b3] XOR
c3) * c1
2
(EP3[b0]
XOR c0) *
c2
(EP3[b1] XOR
c1) * c2
(EP3[b2] XOR
c2) * c2
(EP3[b3] XOR
c3) * c2
3
(EP4[b0]
XOR c0) *
c3
(EP4[b1] XOR
c1) * c3
(EP4[b2] XOR
c2) * c3
(EP4[b3] XOR
c3) * c3
Calculate Message parameter:
Message Parameter = Passkey Numeral (obtained in step i.) + Randomly generated
key between 1024 and 9999 + Average of a0, a1, a2 and a3 parameters (obtained in
step ii.) + Average of b0, b1, b2 and b3 parameters (obtained in step iii.) +
Average of c0, c1, c2 and c3 parameters (obtained in step iv.)
vi.
Message Encryption

Reverse the plaintext to be encrypted to obtain Partial Message
Encryption 1 (PME1).

Perform PME1 XOR S-box [index] (obtained in step E) operation to
obtain Partial Message Encryption 2 (PME2).

Perform PME2 XOR Message parameter (obtained in step F) operation
to compute Partial Message Encryption 3 (PME3).

Reverse hex encoded value of PME3 to compute Partial Message
Encryption 4 (PME4) which is the resultant encrypted text.
Encryption Process:
63
Using RSA Algorithm:
RSA is an algorithm used by modern computers to encrypt and decrypt messages. It is an
asymmetric cryptographic algorithm. Asymmetric means that there are two
different keys. This is also called public key cryptography, because one of them can be
given to everyone. The other key must be kept private. It is based on the fact that finding
the factors of a integer is hard (thefactoring problem). RSA stands for Ron Rivest, Adi
Shamir and Leonard Adleman, who first publicly described it in 1978. A user of RSA
creates and then publishes the product of two large prime numbers, along with an
auxiliary value, as their public key. The prime factors must be kept secret. Anyone can
use the public key to encrypt a message, but with currently published methods, if the
public key is large enough, only someone with knowledge of the prime factors can
feasibly decode the message.
RSA involves a public key and private key. The public key can be known to
everyone, it is used to encrypt messages. Messages encrypted using the public key
can only be decrypted with the private key. The keys for the RSA algorithm are
generated the following way:
Algorithm:
[1] Choose two large prime numbers P and Q.
[2] Calculate N= P X Q.
[3] Select the public key (i.e. the encryption key) E such that it is not a factor of (P1) and (Q-1).
[4] Select the private key (i.e. the decryption key) D such that the following
equation is true: (D X E) mod (P-1) X (Q-1) =1
64
[5] For encryption, calculate the cipher text CT from text PT as follows:
CT = PTE mod N [4], [10].cryptographic algorithms
.
EVALUATION PARAMETERS
Performance measurement criteria are time taken by the algorithms to perform the
encryption and decryption of the input text files. The following are the parameters
which calculate the performance of algorithms.
A. Encryption Computation Time
B. Decryption Computation Time
65
The encryption computation time is the time which taken by the algorithms to
produce the cipher text from the plain text. The encryption time can be used to
calculate the Encryption Throughput of the algorithms. The decryption
computation time is the time taken by the algorithms to produce the plain text from
the cipher text. The decryption time can be used to calculate the Decryption
Throughput of the algorithms
RESULTS DISCUSSIONS
Input
Alpha
Samples
Algorithm
numeric
Character
(Datasets)
66
Performance
Graph
67
68
69
70
71
72
5.CHAPTER
CONCLUSION
73
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