Translation Procedures: The technical Component
of the Translation Process
Presentation
by
Dr. ANGELO PIZZUTO
The process of translating
Translation, as perceived in this workshop, is a process
during which the translator:
a) makes a number of decisions on how to interpret the
source text (ST);
b) uses resources and apply technical skills to render the
text in the target language; and
c) re-expresses that meaning in the target text (TT); i.e.
the translation.
Therefore, translation is perceived as a problem-solving
process.
Skills needed in translation
In popular belief, to translate, a person only needs:
• Reasonable knowledge of a foreign language
• And a few good dictionaries
For some, translating is an intuitive process that is based on
the translator’s creative capability.
On the opposite extreme, there are those who believe that
only specialists like lawyers or scientists can translate.
Those who make these assertions fail to make a
distinction between factual knowledge and procedural
knowledge.
Distinguishing Factual Knowledge and Procedural Knowledge
Factual knowledge is the knowledge of special fields
Special terminology
Resources available
Foreign languages
Factual knowledge is essential but not enough. Translators
also need procedural knowledge.
Procedural knowledge relates to some kind of method or
procedure to help the translator in seizing the meaning of the ST
and re-expressing that meaning in the TT.
Procedural Knowledge: Options for translation
Basically, a translator has two options for translating:
1. Direct or literal translation
1. Oblique translation
There are several translation techniques available under each option.
Procedural Knowledge: Options for translation
1. Direct or literal translation
2. Oblique translation
Are these approaches applicable to the translation of
legal texts?
Direct translation
Possible because of parallel categories
1. Structural parallelism → grammatical categories
Are you there? → Voi siete qui ?
2. Meta-linguistic parallelism → parallel concepts
The book → il libro
The judge → il giudice
Oblique translation
There comes a time when direct translation techniques would not
work because:
1. They are structurally impossible
2. The target language does not have a corresponding
expression
And the generated text would have:
1. a different meaning
2. no meaning
3. a foreign structure
Oblique translation
Compare:
He looked at the map. → Lui ha guardato la mappa
He looked the picture of health. → Era l’immagine della salute.
(Back-translation: He was the image of health itself.)
(Back-translation: He was the image of health itself. He seemed in good
shape.)
I have a headache → Mi duole la testa
I → mi
Have → duole (verb)
Headache → mal di testa
Both English and italian have the corresponding elements
But the structure of the statement is different in the two languages. A direct
translation is no longer possible. The translator needs to use oblique
translation techniques.
DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
1. Borrowing
It is used:
To overcome a gap or lacuna (a new technical process, a new concept)
→ Dumping (trade law). There is no equivalent in Italian
Create stylistic effect
→ chic, déjà vu
To recreate the flavor of the source language (SL)
→ Margaritas, tortillas, Pisco sour, sushi, sauerkraut, spaghetti,
In the legal field, Latin expressions* are an excellent example of borrowing that have
been made through time. Prima facie, nolo contendere, pro se.
Generally, borrowings enter a language through translation, and just as with false friends
(false cognates) the translator should strive to look for the equivalents in the SL that
convey the meaning of the SL more advantageously.
*A great number of Latin expressions have evolved differently in the various
languages. Beware of spelling, among other things.
DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
2. Calque
(From the French verb "calquer") Calques are special kind of borrowing
where a language borrows a word or an expression from another
language and translates literally each of its elements.
Lexical calque
Football → Fútbol → Balompié
4 X 4 → cuatro por cuatro (4 X 4)
Structural calque
Your are intelligent enough to realize that… →
(Back-translation → Your are intelligent and can realize that…)
DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Both borrowing and calque may become lexicalized (fixed) in the
TL over time.
Science fiction → ciencia ficción; Carburator → r
Menu → menú
In the legal field, structural calque oftentimes arises from
oversight of the morpho-syntactic structure of both SL and TL.
As used in this section, "serious violent felon" means a
person who has been convicted of: attempting to commit
or conspiring to commit a serious violent felony
(Back translation → Attempting to commit a serious
violent felony or conspiring to do do.)
DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
3. Literal translation
Literal translation refers to a translation technique that can be used
when the languages involved share parallel structures and concepts;
NOT to a translation made word for word: Literal translation carries
the imprint of the original.
This technique is used when it is possible to transpose the source
language (SL) message element by element into the target language
(TL) and obtain a text that is idiomatic.
The girl is sick → la bambina sta male
How are you? → come stai?
Good morning → buon giorno?
Spanish syntax requires that we add ¨s¨ to both words, but this
continues to be literal translation. It is just a case of syntax
normalization.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
4. Transposition
Transposition is the first technique or step towards oblique translation.
• Operates at the grammatical level
• Consists of the replacement of a word class by another word class
without changing the meaning
Within the same language:
Reconstruction of the city is very important
Reconstructing the city is very important
To reconstruct the city is very important
(Back-translation: I don’t care about your anger. I don’t care
about your getting angry.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Public servants should be held accountable for their
management of public goods. →
The use of the pronominal passive allows a rendition that does not
indicate the subject of the sentence, like in the ST.
From a stylistic view point the transposed expression does not
have the same value, but the meaning is the same.
Transposed expressions are generally more literary in character.
It is important to choose the form that best fits the context.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Transposition can be:
Free: When the transposition used depends mostly on context and
desired effect.
The course is of interest to all of us. (Back-translation: The
course interests all of us)
Compulsory: When only a transposition is acceptable.
I will never forget the time when I got lost in the market.
(Back-translation: I will never forget the time that I got lost in the
market.)
When (adverb) → quando (relative pronoun)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Types of transposition
Adverb→ verb
I only defended myself.
(Back-translation → I did nothing but defend myself.)
Adverb→ noun
I wrote to you early this year.
(Back-translation → I wrote to you at the beginning of the
year)
Adverb→ adjective
He lives precariously
(Back-translation → He leads a precarious life)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Types of transposition
Adjective→ noun
He found it difficult to arrange for the trip
(Back-translation → I had difficulty to make the arrangemets for
the trip)
Possessive adjective → definite article
Your hair is too long→ (Back-translation → Your have the hair too
long)
Verb or past participle → noun
I intended to tell you the whole truth. (Back-translation → My
intention was to tell you the whole truth.)
Adverb → noun
I wrote to you early this year. →
(Back-translation → wrote to you at the beginnig of the year.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
5.
Modulation
A variation of the form of the message obtained by a change in the
point of view.
Although the main characteristic of modulation is a change of point
of view, it may involve also a change of grammatical categories.
It is used when the other techniques would generate a text that is
grammatically correct, but unsuitable, not idiomatic, or awkward.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Modulation can be:
Free
It is not difficult to show
(Back-translation → it is easy to show)
Remember → (if it fits the context better)
(Back-translation → Remember; do not forget)
Lexicalized (fixed by use, listed in dictionaries) or Compulsory
Dress rehearsal
(Back-translation → General rehearsal)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Modulation is a technique that experienced translators use to produce an
accurate and idiomatic text. It requires an excellent knowledge of both
languages involved in the translation. This includes knowing the mechanics
of the language. For example:
1. The manner in which negative and positive formulations are used in
the two languages. Do not enter. →Vietato entrare
2. The general register of the language. For example italians tend to
use more “intellectual” terms than English. Eye doctor → oculista;
bird watching → ornitología; dog show → esposizione canina
3. Use of the passive voice.
4. The greater the structural difference between the two languages the
greater the challenges for the translator
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Types of modulation
Most of the types are based on metonymy: e.g. referring to a
concept by an attribute of it. For example; “the crown” referring to
a monarch or “Washington” to refer to the United States
government.
1. Abstract → Concrete or General → Particular
I haven’t heard a word from him → Non ho avuto sue notizie
(Back-translation: I have not had news from him.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
2. Explanatory modulation:
cause → effect
Like a deer in the headlights. →fermarsi paralizzato
(Back-translation: remain paralyzed)
Blind flying → volare senza visibilità
(Back-translation: flight without visibility)
means → result, or viceversa
I’ll drive you home → Ti accompagno a casa in auto
(Back-translation: I’ll take you to your house in [my] car)
substance → object
Brain drain → Fuga di cervelli (double modulation)
(Back-translation: the exodus of experts)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
2. Explanatory modulation (continued):
A part → the whole
The cathedral’s ceiling draws the eye as soon as one
enters.
(Back-translation: The cathedral’s ceiling draws the view.)
A part → another part
I know the city like the back of my hand. Conosco la città
come le mie tasche (Back-translation: I know the city like
the palm of my hand.)
Hand to hand combat→ Combattere corpo a corpo;
(Back-translation: body to body combat.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
2. Explanatory modulation (continued):
Term reversal
This cage cannot hold an animal this size. → Questa gabbia
non mantiene animali did questa grandezza (Backtranslation: An animal this size will not fit in this cage.)
Negative contrast
Make sure you call us every week. → Non dimenticatre did
chiamare ogni settimana (Back-translation: Don’t forget to
call us all of the weeks.)
Active voice → passive voice (and vice-versa)
The votes (in an election) were counted. → I voti sono stati
conteggiati (impersonal form)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
2. Explanatory modulation (continued):
Space → Time
In grammar school I was very shy. → (Back-translation: When I was
attending elementary school.)
Intervals and boundaries (in time and space)
A. In time: See you in a week → (Back-translation: We’ll see each
other in eight days from today.)
B. In space: No parking between signs →
(Back-translation: Limit of parking.)
Change of symbol
He earns an honest dollar. (Back-translation: He earns an honest
living.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Sensory modulation
A heavy coat → una giacca pesante
(Back-translation: A thick coat)
A goldfish → un pesce rosso
(Back translation: a little red fish)
In short, modulation is the technique that leads to a solution
that makes the reader - or the translator – exclaim, “Yes,
that’s exactly what you would say.”
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
6. Equivalence
Used to render expressions using different stylistic and
structural methods.
Most equivalences are fixed, and include idioms, clichés,
proverbs, nominal or adjectival phrases, onomatopoeia, etc.
Stop splitting hairs → Non guardare il pelo nell’uovo (Backtranslation: Stop looking for five legs in a cat)
Challenge: To recognize that the expression to be
translated is an idiom / proverb; to know the equivalent
expression in the T.L.
Equivalence also refers to fixed (lexicalized) terms, such as
terminology of a field of knowledge.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
7. Adaptation
Used when the limit to translation is been reached, i.e. when a
simple translation would not work or it would produce a result
that is shocking in the target language and culture.
Titles of books, movies, and characters often fit into this
category
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid → (Back-translation:
Two men and a destiny)
The Sound of Music
(Back-translation: Smiles and tears)
Other taxonomies (categorizations) of translation
techniques
1. Concretization or differentiation→ generalization
(Fawcett)
Abstract → Concrete or General → Particular modulation
Fratelli e sorelle → brothers and sister, siblings
(depending on context and desired effect)
2. Paraphrasing
Used when there is no equivalent in the target language
Paraphrasing is a type of explanatory modulation
To perform hazing [a crime] → efectuar o someter a
actos iniciáticos ilícitos (hazing) (Back-translation:
to subject to unlawful initiation acts)
Other taxonomies (categorizations) of translation techniques
2. Paraphrasing
Translation does not mean explaining or commenting on a text,
or writing it in our own way. “Paraphrasing, according to
Vásquez-Ayora, ´cannot be a translation method because using
it the text loses its characteristics. Too many explanations
destroys the conciseness of the work and makes it subject to
the same distortions of its counterpart – literal translation.´”
Other taxonomies (categorizations) of translation techniques
3. Logical derivation
Cause → effect modulation (logical modulation, according
to Fawcett)
Shorter [fewer] working hours (hours have become
fewer as a result of some action taken)
(Back-translation: reduction in working time / working
week)
Direct or literal translation techniques:

Borrowings: borrowing from the source language a term or concept
to overcome a lacuna in the target language or to create a stylistic
effect. SUSHI, SAUERKRAUT, PIZZA

Calque: a special type of borrowing, consisting of borrowing an
expression from the source language and translating literally each
element. Calque can be either lexical. CARBURATOR → or structural
MAYO 5, INSTEAD OF 5 DE MAYO

Literal translation: the direct transfer of the source text into the
target language in a grammatically and idiomatically proper way.
GOOD MORNING
Oblique translation techniques:




Transposition: replacing words from one grammatical word class
with another without changing the meaning of the message.
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT
RECONSTRUCTING THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT, TO
RECONSTRUCT THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT
Modulation: changing the point of view without changing the
meaning of the message. (Vinay and Darbelnet identified 10 different
types of modulation. IT IS NOT DIFFICULT → IT IS EASY
Equivalence: generally refers to the commonly accepted and used
equivalents of idioms, proverbs, idiomatic expression and lexicalized
terms, i.e. terms commonly accepted as equivalents of a source
language term. STOP SPLITTING HAIRS → DEJA DE BUSCARLE
CINCO PATAS AL GATO. BACK TRANSLATION: STOP LOOKING
FOR FIVE LEGS IN A CAT.
Adaptation: adapting a source language situation when it does not
exist in the target language or would be considered inappropriate in
the target culture. THE SOUND OF MUSIC → SONRISAS Y
LÁGRIMAS BACK-TRANSLATION: SMILES AND TEARS
REFERENCES

FAWCETT, Peter (1997). Translation and Language,
Manchester, UK: St Jerome.

Sager, Juan C and M.-J. Hamel (tranls) (2000). Jean-Paul
Vinay and Jean Darbelnet. A Method for Translation, in
Lawrence Venuti (ed.) The Translation Studies Reader,
London: Routledge: 85-93.

Vazquez-Ayora Gerardo (1977). Introducción a la
traductología, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University.

VINAY, J. P. et J. Darbelnet (1958). Stylistique comparée
du français et de l’anglais, Montréal: Beauchemin