The PC+ Era
Infinite processing, memory,
and bandwidth @ zero cost.
Gordon Bell
Bay Area Research Center
Microsoft Corporation
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
The only thing
that matters at the
end of the day is,
it’s a great
building.
The Highly Probable Future c2025
83 items from J. Coates, Futurist, Vol. 84, 1994


8.4 B, english speaking, personally tagged & identified,
prosthetic assisted and/or mutant, tense people who
have access & control of their medical records
Everything will be smart, responsive to environment.
–
–
–
–
–

A “managed”, physical and man-made world
–
–

Sensing of everything… challenge for science & engineering!
Fast broadband network
Smart appliances & AI
Tele-all: shop, vote, meet, work, etc.
Robots do everything, but there may be conflict with labor…
Reliable weather reports
“Many natural disasters e.g. floods, earthquakes, will be
mitigated, controlled or prevented”
Nobel prize to “economist” for “value of information”
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
PC At An Inflection Point
PCs
Non-PC
devices and Internet
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
TV/AV
Mobile
Companions
Consumer
PCs
The Dawn Of The PC-Plus Era,
Not The Post-PC Era…
Communications
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
Automation
& Security
Household
Management
PC+
PCTV a.k.a. MilliBillg
Using PCs to drive large screens
e.g. tv sets, Plasma Panels
Gordon Bell
Jim Gemmell
Bay Area Research Center
Microsoft Research
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
Copyright 1999 Microsoft Corporation
PC+
Another big bang?
Internet to TV and audio:
The Net, PC meet the TV
“milliBill”
Home
CATV
Video
capture
PC broadcasts
are mixed into
home CATV in
analog and/or
MPEG digital
Settop
box
Analog/digital cable distribution
Ethernet Home network
Basic ideas:
1. PC records or plays
thru video cable
channels.
2. PC “broadcasts” art
images, webcams,
presentations,
videos, DVDs, etc.
3. Ethernet not cable?
PC will prevail for the next decade
as the dominant platform…
to HPCC community its COTS!
Moore’s Law to reduce price
 Lack of last mile bandwidth to move
pictures, data, and interact favors
home mainframes aka PCs
 Very large disks (1TB by 2005)
to “store everything” personal
 Screens to enhance use
 Home entertainment server…
 Office and portable requirements
Copyright
Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
 Etc.

My betting record: No losses
… so far (>5year old bets)







TMC & MPP will not be dominant by 1995
Video On Demand will not exist by 1995
AT&T acquisition of NCR will not be successful
10K desktop-desktop will not exist by 1/2001
1 B internet users by 1/2001 or 1/2002
Cars won’t drive themselves by 2005
PCs continue with 2 digit growth through 2002
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Outline





Future predictions… 2020 and the world
Caveat: How far out can we see? WWW just >5 years old
Background: SNAP at RCI 3/95 conference, Albuquerque
My own history of supercomputing… data/compute
The hardware scene in 5-10 years?
–
–
–

Processing and Moore’s Law
Networking
Disks
Challenges:
–
–
–
–
OSS
Communities with dbases & hs nets
ASP: workbenches
If simulation is third mode after theory, expt, what is 4th?
connection with the experimental world for data; then control…
biologist workbench where work is being done.
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
SNAP
… as given at RCI, 3/95
Scalable Network And Platforms
A View of Computing in 2000+
(I missed the impact of WWW)
Gordon Bell
Jim Gray
Platform
Network
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
How Will Future Computers Be Built?
Thesis: SNAP: Scalable Networks and Platforms
• upsize from desktop to world-scale computer
• based on a few standard components
• similar to NEC’s Computers &
Communications 1983 vision
Platform
Network
Because:
• Moore’s law:
exponential progress
• Standardization & Commoditization
• Stratification and competition
When: Sooner than you think!
• massive standardization gives massive use
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
• economic forces are enormous
000
Performance versus time for various microprocessors
DEC
PC
MIPS
100
10
1
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
PC+
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
Volume drives simple,
cost to standard
price for
Stand-alone
Desk tops
high speed
platforms
interconnect
Distributed
workstations
Clustered
Computers
PCs
1-4 processor mP
MPPs
1-20 processor mP
price
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Section: The economics of
operating systems and databases
(or why NT has the advantage
over proprietary or vanity
chips and UNIX dialects )
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
The UNIX Trap:
creating the myth of “open systems”
“Standard” now means different!
VendorIX platforms have created the “downsizing”
market that provides an apparent, order of magnitude
cost reduction
Hardware platform vendors lock-in users with servers of
proprietary UNIX dialects and unique chips
to maintain margins for chip and UNIX development
Users hostage with client-server, database, and apps
An implicit or unconscious cartel forms that maintains
the industry status quo
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
The UNIX Cartel and Tax:
It’s not competitive and
it introduces higher downstream costs
xx
10,000 programmers @75 companies maintain dialects
R & D costs $1.4 - $2 billion
Implied selling price $10 - 14 billion for $1.4 billion,
or a sales tax of 1 million UNIX units of $10,000
Cost could be reduced to $400 million for ONE UNIX,
sales price for 1 million units would be $2,400 - 4,000
NT sales price is $650; OS2 needs to sell for $1.2b/6m
Furthermore:
The downstream effects on database vendors is
40% R&D efficiency causing
an implied database tax of 2.5x the sales price!
The downstream effects on apps vendors is similar
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Section: SNAP Architecture----------
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Computing
SNAP
built entirely
from PCs
Person
Person
servers
servers
(PCs)
(PCs)
Portables
Wide-area
global
Local & ATM network Mobile
global data
Nets
comm
ATM† & Local
world
Area Networks
for: terminal,
PC, workstation,
& servers
???
Legacy
mainframes &
Legacy
minicomputers
mainframe
& terms
servers &
minicomputer
servers & terminals
scalable computers
built from PCs
Centralized
&Centralized
departmental
uni& mP servers
&
departmental
(UNIX
& NT)
servers
buit
from
PCs
TC=TV+PC
home ...
(CATV or ATM
or satellite)
A space, time
(bandwidth), &
generation scalable
environment
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
GB with NT, Compaq, & HP cluster
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
In a decade we can/will have:

more powerful personal computers
–
–
–
–

adequate networking? PCs now operate at 1 Gbps
–
–



processing 10-100x
4x resolution (2K x 2K) displays to impact paper
Large, wall-sized and watch-sized displays
low cost, storage of one terabyte for personal use
ubiquitous access = today’s fast LANs
Competitive wireless networking
One chip, networked platforms e.g. light bulbs,
cameras everywhere, etc. managed by PCs!
Some well-defined platforms that compete with the
PC for mind (time) and market share
watch, pocket, body implant, home
Inevitable, continued cyberization… the
challenge… interfacing platforms and people.
High Performance Computing
A 60+ year view
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Star Bridge
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Linux super howls
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Dead Supercomputer Society
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Dead Supercomputer Society
ACRI
Alliant
American Supercomputer
 Ametek
 Applied Dynamics
 Astronautics
 BBN
 CDC
 Convex
 Cray Computer
 Cray Research
 Culler-Harris
 Culler Scientific
 Cydrome
 Dana/Ardent/Stellar/Stardent
 Denelcor
 Elexsi
 ETA Systems
 Evans and Sutherland
Computer
 Floating Point Systems
Copyright
Gordon
 Galaxy
YH-1Bell & Jim Gray

























Goodyear Aerospace MPP
Gould NPL
Guiltech
Intel Scientific Computers
International Parallel Machines
Kendall Square Research
Key Computer Laboratories
MasPar
Meiko
Multiflow
Myrias
Numerix
Prisma
Tera
Thinking Machines
Saxpy
Scientific Computer Systems (SCS)
Soviet Supercomputers
Supertek
Supercomputer Systems
Suprenum
Vitesse Electronics
PC+
Steve Squires & Cray
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
1000
100
10
Bell Prize and
Future Peak
Tflops (t)
*IBM
Petaflops
study
target
1
NEC
0.1
CM2
0.01
0.001
XMP
NCube
0.0001
1985
1990
1995
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
2000
2005
2010
PC+
Top 10 tpc-c
Top two Compaq systems are:
1.1 & 1.5X faster than IBM SPs;
1/3 price of IBM
1/5 price of SUN
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
High Performance Computing






Supers we knew are Japanese…
scalability & COTS in… but you have to roll
your own else pay the Unix & proprietary taxes
Beowulf is $14K/TB ( 6 x 4 x 40 GB)
IBM 4000R 1 rack: 2x42 500Mhz processors, 84
GB, 84 disks (3TB @36GB/disk)
$420K … still cheaper than the “big buys”
$10-20K/node for special purpose vs
$2K for a MAC
EMC, IBM at $1 million/TB; vs $14K
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
High performance
architectures timeline
1950 .
1960 .
1970 .
Vtubes
Trans.
MSI(mini)
Processor overlap, lookahead
1980 .
1990 .
2000
Micro RISC
nMicr
“IBM PC”
“killer micros”
Cray era
6600 7600 Cray1
X Y
C T
Func Pipe Vector-----SMP---------------->
SMP
DSM??
mainframes--->
Clusters
Tandm VAX
MPP if n>1000
Local
“multis”----------->
Mmax. KSR
SGI---->
IBM
Ncube
UNIX->
Intel
IBM->
NOW
and Global Networks n>10,000
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
Grid
PC+
1950 .
Vtubes
High performance
architectures timeline
1960 .
MSI(mini)
1980 .
1990 .
2000
Micro RISC
nMicr
“IBM PC”
Sequential programming---->-----------------------------(single execution stream e.g. Fortran)
Processor overlap, lookahead
“killer micros”
Cray era
Trans.
1970 .
6600 7600 Cray1
X Y
C T
Func Pipe Vector-----SMP---------------->
SMP
mainframes--->
“multis”----------->
DSM??
Mmax. KSR DASHSGI--->
<SIMD Vector--//--------------Parallelization-------------------THE NEW BEGINNING----------------------Parallel programs aka Cluster Computing <--------------multicomputers
<--MPP era-----Clusters
Tandm VAX
IBM
UNIX->
MPP if n>1000
Ncube Intel IBM->
Local
NOW Beowlf
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
and Global Networks n>10,000
Grid
High performance
architecture/program timeline
1950 .
1960 .
1970 .
Vtubes
Trans.
MSI(mini)
1980 .
1990 .
Micro RISC
2000
nMicr
Sequential programming---->-----------------------------(single execution stream)
<SIMD Vector--//--------------Parallelization---
Parallel programs aka Cluster Computing
multicomputers
ultracomputers 10X in size & price!
“in situ” resources 100x in //sm
geographically dispersed
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
<--------------<--MPP era-----10x MPP
NOW
VLSCC
Grid
PC+
Computer types
-------- Connectivity-------WAN/LAN
Netwrked
Supers…
SAN
VPPuni
DSM
SM
NEC super
NEC mP
Cray X…T
(all mPv)
Clusters
GRID
Legion
T3E
SGI DSM
Mainframes
Condor
SP2(mP)
clusters &
Multis
BeowulfNOW
SGI DSM WSs PCs
NT clusters
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Technical computer types:
Pick of: 4 nodes, 2-3 interconnects
SAN
DSM
NEC
Fujitsu
Hitachi
IBM ?PC?
SGI cluster SGI DSM
Beow/NT T3 HP?
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
SMP
NEC super
Cray ???
Fujitsu
Hitachi
HP IBM
Intel SUN
plain old
PCs
PC+
Technical computer types
WAN/LAN
SAN
Netwrked
Supers…
New
DSM
SM
NEC mP NEC super
Old
Cray X…T
T series World
(all mPv)
world:
VPPuni
Clustered
GRID
( one
Computing
Legion
SGI DSM program
Mainframes
(multiple program
SP2(mP)
Condor
clusters &
Multis
NOW
stream)
streams)
Beowulf
SGI DSM WSs PCs
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Technical computer types
WAN/LAN
SAN
DSM
SM
Netwrked
Supers…
NEC mP NEC super
Vectorize
Cray X…T
Linda,
PVM,
VPPuni
Parallellelize
T series (all mPv)
MPI,
GRID
Cactus, ???
distributed function
Legion
SGI DSM Mainframes
SP2(mP)
Condor
clusters Parallellelize
&
Multis
Computing
NOW
Beowulf
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
SGI DSM
WSs PCs
PC+
Gaussian Parallelism
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Beyond Moore’s Law …>10 yrs


Just FCB (faster, cheaper, better)…
COTS will soon mean consumer off the shelf
Moore’s Law and technology progress likely to
continue for another decade for:
processing & memory,
storage, LANs, & WANs are really evolving
System-on-a chip of interesting sizes will
emerge to create 0 cost systems
 No DNA, molecular, or quantum computers, or
new stores
 Any displacement technology is unlikely
… Carver Mead’s Law c1980
A technology takes 11 years to get established
 On the
other
hand,
we are on Internet time! PC+
Copyright
Gordon
Bell & Jim
Gray

We get more of everything
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Computer ops/sec x word length / $
1.E+09
doubles every 1.0
1.E+06
.=1.565^(t-1959.4)
1.E+03
y = 1E-248e0.2918x
1.E+00
1.E-03
doubles every 2.3
doubles every 7.5
1.E-06
Copyright
Gordon Bell
& Jim Gray
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
PC+
2000
Performance in Mflop/s
Growth of microprocessor
performance
10000
1000
100
Cray 2
Cray Y-MP Cray C90
Alpha
RS6000/590
Alpha
RS6000/540
Cray X-MP
Cray 1S
10
Cray T90
Supers
Micros
i860
R2000
1
0.1
0.01
8087
80387
6881
80287
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Albert Yu predictions ‘96
When
Clock (MHz)
MTransistors
Mops
Die (sq. in.)
2000
900
40
2400
1.1
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
2006
4000
350
20,000
1.4
PC+
Processor Limit: DRAM Gap
“Moore’s Law”
100
10
1
µProc
60%/yr.
.
Processor-Memory
Performance Gap:
(grows 50% / year)
DRAM
DRAM
7%/yr..
CPU
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Performance
1000
• Alpha 21264 full cache miss / instructions executed:
180 ns/1.7 ns =108 clks x 4 or 432 instructions
• Caches in Pentium Pro: 64% area, 88% transistors
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
*Taken from Patterson-Keeton Talk to SigMod
PC+
Sony Playstation export
limiits
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
System-on-a-chip alternatives
FPGA
Sea of un-committed
gate arrays
Compile Unique processor for
a system every app
Systolic | Many pipelined or
array
parallel processors
DSP |
Special purpose
VLIW
processors
Pc & Mp. Gen. Purpose cores.
Specialized by I/O, etc.
ASICS
Universal Multiprocessor array,
Micro
programmable I/o
Xylinx,
Altera
Tensillica
TI
Intel,
Lucent, IBM
Cradle
Cradle: Universal Microsystem
trading Verilog & hardware for C/C++
UMS : VLSI = microprocessor : special systems
Software : Hardware
 Single part for all apps
 Programming @ run time via FPGA & ROM
 5 quad mPs at 3 Gflops/quad = 15 Glops
 Single shared memory space, caches
 Programmable periphery including:
1 GB/s; 2.5 Gips
PCI, 100 baseT, firewire
 $4 per flops; 150 mW/Gflops
UMS Architecture
DRAM
CONTROL
CLOCKS,
DEBUG

MEMORY
MEMORY
M M M M
S S S S
P P P P
M M M M
S S S S
P P P P
PROG I/O
PROG I/O
PROG I/O
MEMORY
PROG I/O
MEMORY
PROG I/O
PROG I/O
PROG I/O

PROG I/O
PROG I/O

PROG I/O
M M M M
S S S S
P P P P
NVMEM

PROG I/O
PROG I/O
M M M M
S S S S
P P P P
DRAM
Memory bandwidth scales with processing
Scalable processing, software, I/O
Each app runs on its own pool of processors
Enables durable, portable intellectual property
Free 32 bit processor core
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Linus’s Law:
Linux everywhere







Software is or should be free
All source code is “open”
Everyone is a tester
Everything proceeds a lot faster when
everyone works on one code
Anyone can support and market the
code for any price
Zero cost software attracts users!
All the developers write lots of code
ISTORE Hardware Vision


System-on-a-chip enables computer, memory,
without significantly increasing size of disk
5-7 year target:
MicroDrive:1.7” x 1.4” x 0.2”
2006: ?
1999: 340 MB, 5400 RPM,
5 MB/s, 15 ms seek
2006: 9 GB, 50 MB/s ? (1.6X/yr capacity,
1.4X/yr BW)
Integrated IRAM processor
2x height
Connected via crossbar switch
growing like Moore’s law
16 Mbytes; ; 1.6 Gflops; 6.4 Gops
10,000+ nodes in one rack! 100/board = 1
TB; 0.16 Tf
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
The Disk Farm? or
a System On a Card?
14"
The 500GB disc card
An array of discs
Can be used as
100 discs
1 striped disc
50 FT discs
....etc
LOTS of accesses/second
of bandwidth
A few disks are replaced by 10s of Gbytes
of
RAM
and
a
processor
to
run
Apps!!
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Nanochip.com
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Disk vs Tape
At 10K$/TB disks
are competitive
with nearline tape.

Disk
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

Tape
40 GB
– 40 GB
20 MBps
– 10 MBps
5 ms seek time
– 10 sec pick time
3 ms rotate latency – 30-120 second seek time
7$/GB for drive
– 2$/GB for media
3$/GB for ctlrs/cabinet8$/GB for drive+library
Guestimates
4 TB/rack
– 10 TB/rack
Cern: 200 TB
1 hour scan
–
1 week scan
The price advantage of tape is narrowing, and
the performance advantage of disk is growing
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
3480 tapes
2 col = 50GB
Rack = 1 TB
=20 drives
PC+
1988 Federal Plan for Internet
The virtuous cycle of bandwidth
supply and demand
Increased
Demand
Increase Capacity
(circuits & bw)
Standards
Create new
service
Telnet & FTP
EMAIL
Lower
response time
WWW
Audio
Voice!
Video
744Mbps over 5000 km to transmit 14 GB
~
4e15 bit meters per second
4 Peta Bmps (“peta bumps”)
Single Stream tcp/ip throughput
Information Sciences Institute
Microsoft
QWest
University of Washington
Pacific Northwest Gigapop
HSCC (high speed connectivity
consortium)
DARPA
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Redmond/Seattle,
Map
of GrayWABell Prize results
single-thread single-stream tcp/ip
New York
via 7 hops
desktop-to-desktop …Win 2K
out of the box performance*
Arlington, VA
San Francisco,
CA
5626 km
10 hops
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Ubiquitous 10 GBps SANs
in 5 years

1Gbps Ethernet are reality now.
–

Also FiberChannel ,MyriNet, GigaNet,
ServerNet,, ATM,…
1 GBps
10 Gbps x4 WDM deployed now
(OC192)
–

3 Tbps WDM working in lab
In 5 years, expect 10x,
wow!!
120 MBps
(1Gbps)
80 MBps
40 MBps
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim 20
Gray
MBps
5 MBps
PC+
The Promise of SAN/VIA:10x in 2 years
http://www.ViArch.org/

Yesterday:
–
–
–

250
10 MBps (100 Mbps Ethernet)
~20 MBps tcp/ip saturates
2 cpus
round-trip latency ~250 µs
Now
–
Time µs to
Send 1KB
200
150
Transmit
receivercpu
sender cpu
100
Wires are 10x faster
Myrinet, Gbps Ethernet, ServerNet,…
–
50
Fast user-level
communication
-
tcp/ip ~ 100 MBps 10% cpu
round-trip latency is 15 us
Copyright
1.6 Gbps
demoed
Gordon
Bell & Jim on
Graya
WAN
0
100Mbps
Gbps
SAN
PC+
How much does wire-time cost? $/Mbyte?
Odlyzko, 1998 & Jim Gray
Cost ($)






Gbps Ethernet
100 Mbps Ethernet
OC12 (650 Mbps)
DSL
POTs
Wireless
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
.2µ
.3µ
.003
.0006
.002
.80
Time
10 ms
100 ms
20 ms
25 sec
200 sec
500 sec
PC+
Bandwidt
Seat cost h
$/3y
B/s
$/MB
Time
GBpsE
2000 1.00E+08
2.E-07
0.010
100MbpsE
700 1.00E+07
7.E-07
0.100
OC12
12960000 5.00E+07
3.E-03
0.020
OC3
3132000 3.00E+06
1.E-02
0.333
T1
28800 1.00E+05
3.E-03
10.000
DSL
2300 4.00E+04
6.E-04
25.000
POTS
1180 5.00E+03
2.E-03 200.000
Modern scalable switches …
are also supercomputers
Scale from <1 to 120 Tbps
 1 Gbps ethernet switches scale to
10s of Gbps, scaling upward
 SP2 scales from 1.2

Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
So where are the challenges?


Continued development based on clusters
… Scalar processors need to compete with
vectors. The U.S. has cast its lot with COTS!
WWW is here. Now exploit it in every respect.
–


Exploit OSS!
Grid
Application Service Providers for scientific
and technical apps
–
–
–
Biologist and chemist workbenches are prototypes
Labscape @ Cell laboratory, U. of WA
Sloan sky survey
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
1st, 2nd, 3rd, or New Paradigm for science?
Labscape
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Labscape
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Labscape
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
Labscape sensors
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Location tracking of people/samples
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multiple resolutions
passive and active tags
Manual tasks (e.g., use of reagents,
tools)
Audio/video records, vision and
indexing
Networked instruments (e.g.,
pipettes, refrigerators, etc.)
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
What am I willing to predict?
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Processing can be anywhere…
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Maui… in the winter. BW is the limiter!
Japan… if supers are so super, otherwise use
PCs
In the disks
Application Service Providers: separation of
our data from ourselves and businesses
The GRID e.g. biologist & chemist
workbenches iff the IP doesn’t get in way
Collaboration ala astrophysics (high
energy physics, math, earth sci. and any
pure science if pure science continues!)
OSS is the big bang for supercomputing??
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+
The End
Copyright Gordon Bell & Jim Gray
PC+