Agenda for UCO LC Assignment/Rubric Workshop
This workshop invites you to use backward design to create a learning centered assignment
and then determine the skills required of students to complete it successfully. You’ll choose
the skills' training to embed in your course design, determining how much direct instruction
to provide, to which web resources you will link, and how best to use UCOs learning
resources and support programs.
The workshop will end with your having created an assignment and a rubric to introduce and
lay out the assignment’s requirements, enumerating and clarifying the tasks inherent in it.
The rubric will walk students through the process needed to finish the work, serving in
addition as a student self-assessment tool, and finally as an assignment scoring mechanism,
pointing out to students the areas where they need to invest more work, providing them with
precise feedback and recommendations for follow-up.
1. Assignment Making
Bring a significant assignment to use in building a Rubric
Best Practices
1. Michigan Assignment Calculator (Pg 6)
2. Assignment making Guide (Pg 15)
3. Cooper Guided Writing (Pg 23)
2. Rubric Making
1. Holistic
2. Analytic
3. Value Rubrics
4. Hybrid Rubric/Checklist (Pg.11)
5. Looking online for rubrics in your own field
The Learning Centered movement, from which SLOs emerged, evolved out of the effort to find out:
1. How we learn
2. What students should learn
3. How something can be taught so that students in fact learn it
4. How faculty can be sure it was learned
5. Which interventions to use if learning didn’t seem to be taking place
The message shifted from ‘you must learn this’ to ‘what can we do to help make that possible.’ To
help you locate the main characteristics of your approach on this continuum, here’s a broad range
GPS:
1
Please put a check by each answer to which you have an affirmative response:
I. Do you perform an analysis at the beginning of the semester to determine if your students
1. are comfortable in the room
2. can hear you
3. can see the white board
4. can read your writing
5. have the textbook or course pack if you use either
Do you introduce and discuss the Course SLOs during the first week?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
II. Do you use (circle none, any, or all)
1. STLR ePortfolios, D2L, Facebook or Google groups… to establish an online environment
inviting students to share ideas, get information, updates, discuss course material?
2. D2L to post
a. your syllabus, documents, media required for the course
b. supplemental course materials
III. Do you devote any time at the start of the semester to having students get to know one
another?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
IV.
Do you provide opportunities during the semester for and encourage students to connect
with and support each other?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
V. Do you learn your students’ names early in the semester?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
1. Do you use a seating chart?
Yes__ No__
2. Do you use an App such as Attendance2 or D2L to help you keep track of students’
participation?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
VI. Do you tie any of your assignments or instruction to the college’s ISLOs/ILOs? Yes__ No__
1. Do you teach the skills inherent in the ISLOs/ILOs needed to complete your
assignments:
(Please check all the skills you teach, the training to which you provide links, the referrals
to support services you make.)
a. Reading skills (How to read your text book, Primary Sources…)
b. Writing Skills (How to write a lab report, research paper, journal entry)
c. Critical thinking, problem solving skills
d. Listening skills (note taking)
e. Speaking skills ( class participation, discussion, presentation skills)
f. Quantitative analysis skills (interpretation of statistics, of data, using math to solve
problems, to apply the scientific method to test hypotheses…)
g. Metacognitive skills (assess their own knowledge, skills, and abilities; set personal,
educational, and career goals…)
h. Information, Technology, and Media Literacy
i. Team skills (working in groups, group project participation)
j. Social skills (ethical behavior, ability to work effectively and civilly with others,
respecting cultural, gender, and other group and individual differences.
VII. Do you Ask students about their educational and career goals?
2
Yes__ No__ Comment:
VIII. Do you Create opportunities throughout the term for students to provide feedback on their
experience in your course?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
Assignment Making
When and to what extent do you do these things:
1. Determine students’
a. pre knowledge (discipline related, course related)
b. skills levels?
Comment:
2. Do you tell your students the skills you want them to develop and why they are necessary to
their success in the course and workplace?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
3. Do you use scaffolding and/or sequencing of assignments to help students develop the
knowledge and skills they need to perform well in your course?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
4. Do you give students
a. individual feedback on their performance on an important exam or assignment,
explaining areas of weakness
i. Frequently
ii. Once or twice a semester
iii. Never
b. creating a follow-up plan for them based on your assessment of their learning needs
i. Frequently
ii. Once or twice a semester?
iii. Never
5. Do you use assignments, quizzes, exams/tests, projects as learning tools?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
6. Do you provide guides to help students complete assignments?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
7. Do you use rubrics
a. to help prepare students to
i. complete assignments
ii. self assess
b. to help you
i. score assignments
ii. provide feedback
iii. provide follow-up
8. When students do poorly on an assignment, do you use DLAs (Directed Learning
Activities/Contracts, Pg 43) to refer them to tutors?
Yes__ No__ Comment:
3
9. Do you conference with students
a. Once a semester
b. Several times a semester
c. I do not schedule conferences. Students can come during office hours
i. How frequently do students in need of help show up to office hours?
1. Regularly
2. Infrequently
3. Never
ii. How frequently do students in need of help seek assistance from support
services?
1. Regularly
2. Infrequently
3. Never
Lecturing
1. How frequently do you lecture
a. In every class
b. Once a week
c. As needed
2. How long are your lectures
a. 10-15 minutes
b. the entire class
c. generally ___________ long
3. Do you flip your class?
a. Do you focus on delivering content in class?
b. Do you mix delivery of content with discussion?
i. If yes, in what proportion generally? _________________________
c. Do you post your content/lectures online and use class to work through homework
questions and problems?
4. To what extent do you use class to focus on what students are having trouble grasping
a. Do you use clickers, Smartphone polling applications or CATs to determine if your
students are understanding and internalizing what you are asking them to learn?
b. Do you stop class to focus on concept problems as they become evident?
c. Do you use quizzes to accomplish the same?
5. Do you use groups, peer learning, during class to give students to opportunity to help one
another work through difficult problems or concepts?
6. Do you find the SLOs for the course to be of any help as you explain what successful
students will be know and be able to do as a result of taking your class?
7. Do you use the SLOs for your course as you design and develop the way you will teach it?
4
SLO
Students, on successfully
completing the class, can do " X"
Measure
Assignment=proof
(success on the assignment pro ves they can do "X")
Support
designed to help students determine and learn ho w to complete the tasks
required of them in the assignment prior to handing it in.
Rubric
Guide to completing & Scoring the assignment
Checklist
Guided Process
Non-sequential guide to completing the assignment
Sequential guide to completing the assignment
Instructional support materials
Tutorials, handbooks, handouts, course pac ks, workbooks...
Web Resources
Feedback
Conferencing
CATs
Tutor Meetings
Surveys
Follow-up/Referral
CLRC
Counseling
Mini-courses
courses
Library
Web Resources
5
Assignment making (For more, see Pg. 15)
1. Do a Bloom analysis of the assignment you have chosen
2. Develop a rubric to score the assignment
3. Develop a process to prepare students to complete the assignment
a. Pre test for the skills needed
b. Discuss with students their sense of readiness to complete those tasks
c. Determine the most common learning needs of your student with respect to the
assignment
4. Prepare students in class and/or via DLA to complete the tasks required of them in the
assignment
a. Provide DLA contract (http://www.sbcc.edu/pss/dla.php)
b. Links to Web resources
c. Consult the Minnesota Assignment calculator
(https://www.lib.umn.edu/apps/ac/
https://www.lib.umn.edu/apps/ac/templates/59
6
Assignment/Instructions:
Tasks
Focus on the Verbs in the Assignment,
each represents a task. Nouns represent
products/genres: Lab report, Persuasive
Essay… They have Primary Traits that
determine what must be included
Skills Needed
Help Available:





Teacher
Tutor
TA
Peer Advisor
Counselor
Resources Available:





Mini Lecture
Exercise
Handout
Web Resources
DLA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
7
Basic Steps for Developing and Using a Rubric for
Assessment
Rubrics offer significant advantages:
 Developing a rubric helps to precisely define faculty expectations.
 Rubrics are criterion-referenced, rather than norm-referenced. Raters ask, "Did the student meet
the criteria for level 5 of the scoring rubric?" rather than "How well did this student do compared
to other students?"
 Ratings can be done by students to assess their own work*, or they can be done by others, e.g.,
peers, fieldwork supervisions, or faculty.
Rubric Making
Preliminary Steps
1) Identify the outcome(s) [Student Learning Outcome(s)] you want to assess.
2) Determine how you will assess students’ achievement of each outcome:
What kind of assignment do you use? Look at the ways you currently assess students to
determine grades.
 Objective exam? (An objective test receives a score or percentage, so you don’t
need a rubric unless the exam is part of a larger assessment.)
 Project?
 Presentation?
 Skill(s) demonstration?
 Performance?
 Written report, essay, research paper, etc.?
If you don’t have a single assignment or set of assignments that assesses a given
outcome, you probably need to create one.
3) Consider how you already grade this assignment. A rubric can translate the
professional judgment (e.g., paper gets a B- with some comments) into quantifiable
terms, which can be illuminating for both students and instructors.
4) If you want to develop a rubric, look at examples by searching online to determine the
degree of detail, the actual form of scoring (e.g., range of numbers), and format that would
be appropriate for the assessment tool, student feedback, and data collection.
Developing a Rubric
5) List the main traits, criteria, or areas that you consider when assessing a student’s
performance on an assignment, exam, project. An example for a writing assignment:
content, style, mechanics, critical thinking. An example for a skills demonstration:
knowledge/understanding; technique; style; attitude, etc.
6) Describe specifically the actions, products, or behaviors that would represent a fully
successful achievement of the SLO (the highest score). That is, what do you expect of a top
student? Use wording that states what that level of achievement looks like. It’s often helpful
to have an example of outstanding student work to show students what to expect and what
the highest level of success looks like.
8
7) Consider ways of using a grid or list as the scoring mechanism. Examples:
 Simple yes/no checklist that leads to points.
 Numeric scores to represent levels of specific criteria (e.g., score of 0-3 or 1-6)
8) Decide how to score. Consider what fits the purpose of the assignment, what provides
the most effective feedback for students, and what would best lend itself to data analysis
leading to useful conclusions.
 If using a scoring grid, consider writing descriptors of the highest and lowest levels only
(again, referring to examples of student work can be helpful).
 Have students use the strengths and weaknesses they note in high, mid and low scoring
essays… to establish descriptors for best and worst performances.
Using the Rubric
9) Share with students before giving them the assignment.
10) Use for student self-assessment and your grading.
11) Use to collect numeric data for assessment of course SLOs.
Drafting a Basic Rubric
1. State the Student Learning Outcomes for a course you teach.
2. Write the method of assessment you will use to determine the degree to which students
achieve this outcome.
3. In the first column to the left, list the main areas or the set of criteria you will use when
assessing or scoring a student. Add rows as needed.
a. Identify what you are assessing; e.g.; critical thinking.
b. Identify the characteristics of what you are assessing, e.g., appropriate use of
evidence, recognition of logical fallacies.
c. Describe the best work you expect using these characteristics.
4. In the second column on the left, list descriptive words and phrases to represent the highest
level of student work, demonstration, or performance.
5. List a description for the lowest level in the next column, creating a continuum. Add selfassessment, your score and comment columns, and feedback/follow-up. (See Pg. 11)
6. Review, refine, and try it.
* Student Involvement in Rubric Construction: Try negotiating the rubric with students. Give
them sample papers, projects, images, show videos of presentations (excellent, acceptable,
unacceptable) if possible. Give them the opportunity, before the assignment is due, to develop
categories and descriptions of performance levels of their own for the work they are assigned, then
introduce your version and invite comparison.
9
Use the discussion of the rubric to determine where they will need the most help in completing the
assignment/task.
Point them to task-completion-support resources, assign them DLAs well in advance of the due
date. Refer them for assistance as suits their needs when you hand this rubric back to them, using it
not only as an annotated scoring guide but as feedback and follow-up tool. (For more, see Pg. 340
10
Category
Thesis
preparation
and
Statement
Criteria
□ The writer’s awareness of
audience and purpose is evident
and appropriate.
□ Important sides of the topic are
researched.
□ The topic is approached fairly
Student SelfAssessment/Score
Faculty
Score
Faculty Comment
Recommendations and
Resources
For more on developing a
strong thesis and support see:
https://owl.english.purdue.ed
u/engagement/2/2/56/
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/
handouts/thesis-statements/
and without bias
□ The thesis statement is limited
to one main idea that articulates
what the writer wants her/his
readers to know, believe,
understand.
□ The thesis statement previews
your supporting points.
□ The paper has strong thesis
https://www.butte.edu/depar
tments/cas/tipsheets/style_p
urpose_strategy/thesis.html
Go to the Writing Center to
complete the Research Paper
DLA
(http://www.sbcc.edu/clrc/wr
iting_center/writingcenterfor
ms.php)
statement summarizing what the
paper is about, offering a clear
point of view and providing
evidence supporting the writer’s
opinion.
Support
□ The writer’s position on the
topic has been clearly defended.
□ The essay supports the thesis
specifically
□ The thesis is supported with
detail or evidence– facts, statistics,
expert testimony, specific
example– appropriate to the
writer’s purpose and audience.
See:
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/
handouts/evidence/
http://www.indiana.edu/~wts
/pamphlets/using_evidence.s
html
□ Every supporting paragraph
clearly ties back to the thesis.
11
Category
Credibility,
Accuracy,
Reasonablene
ss and
Support of
Internet and
other Sources
(CARS)
Criteria
Credibility
❏ Each source is credible
❏ Each is trustworthy
❏ The author's credentials are
reliable and apt
Student SelfAssessment/Score
Faculty
Score
Faculty Comment
Recommendations and
Resources
For more information about
CARS see:
http://www.virtualsalt.com/ev
alu8it.htm
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/ha
ndouts/evaluating-printsources/
❏ There is sufficient evidence
presented to make the argument
persuasive.
Accuracy
❏ Each source is accurate,
comprehensive, up-to-date
Reasonableness
❏ Each source is fair, balanced,
objective, and reasoned
Support
❏ Each source is valid, its claims
documented
Introduction
❏ States the thesis and previews
the content and structure of the
paper.
Development
and proof of
argument
❏ Facts and details support the
Conclusion/
Findings
❏ The conclusion’s connections
Mechanics
and Usage
❏ The work has no to very few
thesis in an orderly manner such
that the reader can readily follow
the line of reasoning.
to the research and thesis are clear
and relevant.
mechanical or usage errors
See:
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/ha
ndouts/introductions/
See:
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/ha
ndouts/paragraphs/
See:
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/ha
ndouts/conclusions/
See:
https://www.msu.edu/~jdowell
/135/areaVI.html
12
Citation and
Bibliography
See:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/
owl/resource/747/01/
❏ Conforms to MLA or APA
rules for formatting and citation
Category
Criteria
Student SelfAssessment/Score
Faculty
Score
Faculty Comment
Recommendations and
Resources
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
13
□
□
Category
Criteria
Student SelfAssessment/Score
Faculty
Score
Faculty Comment
Recommendations and
Resources
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
14
❏
❏
❏
15
APPENDICES
Understanding Assignments UNC (NB: Forgive the examples, Ed.)
http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/readassign.html
What this handout is about
The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds
like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and
begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical
assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects.
See our online demonstration for more tips (look under "Getting Started").
Basic beginnings
Consider adopting two habits that will serve you well—regardless of the assignment, department, or
instructor:
1. Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the
assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment
can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of
information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even
have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
2. Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your
instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That's
also when you will find their feedback most useful.
Assignment formats
Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic,
include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions,
questions, or prompts to get you started:
1. An overview of some kind
The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment,
introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For
example:
"Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics" or "In the last few weeks of class, we
have focused on the evening wear of the housefly ..."
2. The task of the assignment
Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs
in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a
certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words
specify tasks. (See the section in this handout titled "Key Terms" for more information.)
"Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution," or "Suggest an interpretation of
housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin's."
3. Additional material to think about
Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic.
16
Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel
compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the
order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you
will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.
"You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils," or
"Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry' or is it just a home-based craft?"
4. Style tips
These are the instructor's comments about writing expectations:
"Be concise," "Write effectively," or "Argue furiously."
5. Technical details
These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.
"Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due
on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung's death."
The assignment's parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or
really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your
instructor wants you to do.
Interpreting the assignment
Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet.
1. Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?
2. Who is your audience?
3. What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?
4. What kind of writing style is acceptable?
5. What are the absolute rules of the paper?
Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has
a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester.
In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from
demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the
assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can
handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—
they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the
other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.
1. Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?
Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your
understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than
that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants
you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course
description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the
assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that
your instructor has created for you. If you still aren't sure of the assignment's goals, try asking the
instructor. For help with this, see our handout on asking for feedback.
Given your instructor's efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing
this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent
picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to
prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out.
17
Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.
Key terms: finding those active verbs
Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:
Information words ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what,
when, where, how, and why.
 define—give the subject's meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you
have to give more than one view on the subject's meaning
 explain—give reasons why or examples of how something happened
 illustrate—give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with
the subject
 summarize—briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
 trace—outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current
form
 research—gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication
or requirement that you will analyze what you have found
Relation words ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.
 compare—show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
 contrast—show how two or more things are dissimilar
 apply—use details that you've been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept
works in a particular situation
 cause—show how one event or series of events made something else happen
 relate—show or describe the connections between things
Interpretation words ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these
words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring
opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or
concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.
 assess—summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
 prove, justify—give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
 evaluate, respond—state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of
the two, with examples and reasons
 support—give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it
is that you believe)
 synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in
your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are
similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way
through the paper
 analyze—determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how
something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
 argue—take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side
More clues to your purpose
As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class.
 What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that
provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
 In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove her point of view, or use
keywords that show up again in the assignment?
18


What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect
more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors
spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most
effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you
understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.
2. Who is your audience?
Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True,
your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper,
think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical
argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper.
Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, he or
she still has to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to
your reader.
Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the
level of information you want to convey.
 Tone means the "voice" of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually
you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding
condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you
know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to
use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big
words.
 The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine
your audience as your instructor and she already knows everything you have to say, you may
find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing
and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your
roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say,
"First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight,
walked into the room. Then a purple alien alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes
turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock
ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw." You also do not
say, "This guy found some aliens. The end." Find some balance of useful details that support
your main point.
You'll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience.
The grim truth
With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked
to make an argument. (See Cooper, Pg. 23) You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget
this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you
may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you
have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a
point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a
"thesis" or a "claim."
So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list:
"First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed,
bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon." Instead, you could say, "Of all the oral
cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by
the American Dental Association." Or, "From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite
charming. However, their joys are short-lived."
19
Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn't have to say
"argument" anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think
about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of
information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic
writing, see our handout on argument.
3. What kind of evidence do you need?
There are lots of different types of proof or evidence. Here are several common types:
 Einstein proof—a famous (or not so famous) smart person agrees with you or says
something you can use to back up your point. This kind of evidence can come from course
materials or outside research. Be sure to cite these scholars as sources (see the UNC
Libraries citation tutorial).
 Case proof—a case in which your point works or the other person's point does not work to
demonstrate your idea. These may come from your experience, hypothetical situations, or
from outside sources.
 Fact proof—statistics, "objective" information. You will need lots of documentation here and
probably several trips to the library.
 For example proof—examples from the subject or text you are studying to back up your
focused point. For example (!), you might quote several of Hamlet's lines to try to establish
that he is depressed.
Professors will usually tell you what kind of proof they want. If the assignment tells you to "do
research," head quickly to the library.
Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be
crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to
argue with specific types of materials and ideas.
4. What kind of writing style is acceptable?
You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects.
The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the
instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use
"I" and speak from your own experience.
Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style ("art historians like wacky creativity,"
or "political scientists are boring and just give facts") and look instead to the types of readings you
have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide
for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the
level of formality she or he expects.
No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that
your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main
goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style.
5. Technical details about the assignment
The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This
section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such
as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial) are negotiable. Some
professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the
20
assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.
Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is
appropriate to the assignment's parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many
pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an
assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea
several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an
assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if
you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon
as possible.
top
21
Active Verbs Organized in Accord with Bloom’s Taxonomy:
The Cognitive Domain
KNOWLEDGE
Student recalls or
recognizes information,
ideas, and principles in the
approximate form in which
they were learned.
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/w
huitt/col/cogsys/bloom.html
Cite
Count,
Define,
Describe,
Draw,
Enumerate
Find,
Identify,
Index
Indicate
Label,
List,
Locate
Match,
Name,
Quote,
Read
Recall,
Recite,
Recognize
Record
Relate
Repeat
Review
Reproduce
Select
Sequence,
Show
State
Study
Tabulate
Tell,
View
Write,
Knowledge
Measures
Definition
Fact
Label
List
Quiz
Reproduction
Recall
information
Test
Workbook
Worksheet
___________
Questions:
who, what,
when, where,
how ...?
Describe
COMPREHENSION
Student translates,
comprehends, or interprets
information based on prior
learning.
Comprehension
Measures
Add
Approximate
Articulate
Associate, Cite
Characterize
Clarify
Classify
Compare
Compute
Conclude,
Convert
Demonstrate,
Describe
Detail
Differentiate
Discuss,
Distinguish
Elaborate
Estimate
Explain,
Express
Extend
Extrapolate
Factor
Find More
Information About
Generalize,
Give Examples
Identify,
Illustrate,
Interact
Interpolate
Interpret,
Locate
Make Sense Of
Observe
Outline
Paraphrase,
Picture Graphically
Predict,
Put Into Your Own
Words
Report,
Restate,
Review,
Rewrite
Subtract
Summarize, Tell
Trace
Translate
Visualize
Collection
Debate
Definition
Dramatization
Example
Explanation
Label
List
Predict
consequences
Outline
Quiz
Recitation
Reproduction
Show & Tell
Story Problems
Summary
Test
____________
Questions:
retell...
APPLICATION
Student selects, transfers,
Application
Measures
and uses data and
principles to complete a
problem or task with a
minimum of direction.
Acquire, Act
Adapt, Administer
Allocate
Apply, Articulate
Ascertain, Assess
Assign
Calculate
Capture
Change, Chart
Choose, Classify
Collect, Complete
Compute, Construct
Contribute, Control
Customize
Demonstrate
Derive, Determine
Develop, Discover
Dramatize, Draw
Employ, Establish
Examine
Exercise
Explore
Express
Extend
Figure
Format
Graph
Imitate
Illustrate
Implement
Include
Inform, Instruct
Interpret
Interview,
Investigate
Manipulate
Modify
Operate, Paint
Participate
Plot, Predict
Prepare, Price
Process
Produce, Project
Provide
Put Into Practice
Relate, Report
Role-Play, Select,
Show, Sketch
Solve, Transcribe
Transfer, Use
Utilize
Demonstration
Diagram
Diary
Diorama
Experiment
Illustration
Interview
Journal
Lesson
Map
Model
Performance
Photograph
Poster
Prediction
Presentation
Product
Puzzle
Relate
Report
Scrapbook
Sculpture
Simulation
Solve problems
using required
skills or
knowledge
_____________
Questions:
How is ... an
example of ...?
How is ...
related to ...?
Why is ...
significant?
22
ANALYSIS
Student distinguishes,
classifies, and relates
the assumptions,
hypotheses, evidence,
or structure of a
statement or question.
Advertise
Analyze,
Audit
Blueprint
Break Down
Categorize
Characterize,
Choose
Classify,
Compare,
Confirm
Contrast,
Correlate
Debate,
Deduce, Detect
Diagnose
Diagram,
Differentiate,
Discriminate,
Dissect
Distinguish,
Document
Edit, Examine
Explain
Explore
Figure Out
File, Focus
Group, Identify
Illustrate
Infer
Interpret
Inventory
Investigate
Lay Out, Limit
Manage
Optimize
Order
Organize
Outline,
Point Out
Prioritize
Proofread
Query
Recognize
Relate,
Research,
Select
Separate,
Subdivide
Train
Transform
Analysis
Measures
Abstract
Annotated
Bibliography
Category
Chart
Checklist
Conclusion
Database
Diagram
Graph
Illustration
Inventory
Investigation
List
Mobile
Outline
Plan
Questionnair
e
Report
See patterns
Spreadsheet
Summary
Survey
++++++
Questions:
What are
the parts or
features of
...?
Classify ...
according to
...
___________
Outline
/diagram ...
How does ...
Compare/
contrast with
...?
What
evidence can
you list for
...?
SYNTHESIS
Student originates,
integrates, and
combines ideas into a
product, plan or
proposal that is new
to him or her.
Abstract
Adapt
Anticipate
Arrange
Assemble
Budget
Categorize
Code
Collaborate
Combine
Communicate
Compare
Compile
Compose, Connect
Construct, Contrast
Create, Cultivate
Debug
Depict, Design,
Develop, Devise
Discuss
Express, Facilitate
Format, Formulate
Generalize
Generate
Hypothesize
Imagine, Incorporate
Individualize
Initiate
Integrate, Intervene
Invent, Join
Lecture, Make Up
Make, Model
Modify, Negotiate
Network
Organize, Perform,
Plan, Portray
Predict, Pretend
Produce, Program
Progress
Propose, Rearrange
Reconstruct,
Reinforce
Reorganize, Report
Revise, Rewrite
Schematize, Specify,
Structure, Substitute
Summarize, Support,
Synthesize, Validate,
Write
Synthesis
Measures
EVALUATION
Student appraises,
assesses, or critiques
on a basis of specific
standards and criteria.
Evaluation
Measures
Advertisement
Blueprint
Cartoon
Collage
Design
Event
Film
Formula
Goal Statement
Flash
Animation
Generalize from
given facts/data
Invention
Machine
Media Product
New Game
Newspaper
Piece
Painting
Pantomime
Plan
Play
Poem
Prediction
Product
Project
Radio
Broadcast
Solution
Song
Story
Trend spotting
Video
____________
Questions:
what would you
predict/infer
from ...?
Appraise,
Argue,
Assess,
Choose,
Compare & Contrast
Conclude,
Counsel
Critic,
Criticize
Critique
Decide,
Defend
Determine
Discriminate
Discuss
Estimate
Evaluate,
Grade objectively
Interpret
Judge,
Justify,
Measure
Predict,
Prescribe
Prioritize,
Prove,
Rank,
Rate,
Recommend
Reframe
Resolve
Select,
Support
Test
Validate
Verify
Conclusion
Debate
Editorial
Evaluation
Investigation
Judgment
Published
Opinion
Panel
Recommendation
Report
Scale
Survey
Verdict
_____________
Questions:
Do you agree
that ...?
What do you
think about ...?
What is the most
important ...?
Place the
following in
order of priority
...
How would you
decide about ...?
What criteria
would you use to
assess ...?
What ideas can
you add to ...?
How would you
create/design a
new ...?
What might
happen if you
combined ...?
Cooper’s A GUIDE TO PERSUASIVE WRITING (5 minutes)
23
CLASS 1
People disagree about all kinds of things how good a certain movie is, what makes a good school, how to lose weight,
how good a job the President is doing, the fastest and cheapest way to solve the energy crisis, how valuable a certain
self-improvement program or religious view, is whether America has a promising future.
Our lives and our times and our communities are full of controversial issues about which there are strongly held
differences of opinion. Fortunately, people don't have to agree about everything, and yet there are times when it is
useful and important for people to discuss controversial issues, in order to see whether agreement is possible, or at
least in order to understand opposing views. At these times, writing becomes critically important for stating a position
on a controversial issue and for circulating that position widely. Arguments, especially, need to be written down so
they can be studied, thought about, and argued against effectively.
One way of approaching an argument is to set out to win at any cost by proving that you are right and your opponent
is wrong. No holds are barred in this approach, and you are probably familiar with some of the tricks people use
shrillness, sarcasm, emotional appeals, oversimplifying, evading the issue, etc. Instead of trying to beat your opponent
into submission, there is another approach to argument that is much more likely to achieve a productive result.
This approach to persuasive writing aims to get your readers to agree with you by showing them that you understand
their point of view and that you share enough basic values with them to be able to reach an agreement. It makes
sense. After all, if you attack people, they usually defend themselves, but if you approach them with respect and
understanding, they will be more likely to listen to you. This is the approach to persuasion we will use in this course.
The next piece of writing you do will be a persuasive paper in which you try to persuade your readers that your view of
a controversial issue is the correct one. To do this, you will need to state your opinion and support it with several
reasons. You will also need to be aware of your readers' concerns and find areas in which you can agree.
1. CHOOSING A CONTROVERSIAL ISSUE
(8 min.)
Your teacher may give you an issue to argue about, or ask you to choose one of your own. The issue may be personal,
social or political. Look the following list over for a few minutes and then choose a topic you feel is important enough
to you to be worth arguing about and trying to convince others of your point of view any controversial issue at your
school any controversial issue in your community: your rights as a teenager, religious beliefs, pollution, how to solve
personal problems
Unemployment, your judgments about a book, movie, TV series, celebrity, political figure, teacher, money
spent on defense, the draft, advertising, issues in personal friendships-- loyalty, generosity, fairness, etc.-sexism and equal rights, health foods vs. junk foods, marriage vs. living together, buying foreign or domestic
Lower drinking ages, alternative energy sources, immigration, rock/new wave music, divorce
Now that you have chosen an issue, please do the following things:
(5 min.)
1. The controversial issue I have chosen is:
Write a few sentences describing your view of the issue. State clearly and directly your opinion about the issue
24
2. DESCRIBING YOUR READERS
(Guided identification, 15 minutes)
The object of this paper is to change the opinions of your readers, so it is vital to know as much as you can about them.
Read and respond to the following questions; give yourself time after each question to jot down some quick responses.
You may want to use complete sentences, but you don't have to. You can use phrases or even words. Try to put down
everything that occurs to you as you think about each question. Remember, for this essay it is safe to assume that
your readers do not agree with you about the central point you are trying to make. What are your readers like?
How old are they?
What do they have in common?
What sources of information do they have to back their opinions?
What reasons do they give for their opinions?
Where do they express these opinions?
Are there any factors in their opinion that may need careful attention historical, political, traditional, religious, racial,
moral?
3. LISTING YOUR REASONS
(Guided listing, 10 minutes)
You have now decided on a controversial issue, described your opinion on it, and noted as many details as you can
about your readers and their opinions. With those readers in mind, give yourself ten minutes in which to list as many
reasons as you can to support your opinion. Your argument will be stronger if you can think of different types of
reasons, some personal, some historical, some based on facts and evidence, and so on. Write down any reason which
has even the remotest chance of being included in the first draft of your essay. The purpose of this activity is to help
you produce the LARGEST POSSIBLE LIST OF REASONS you can think of. They should be reasons appropriate for the
readers you have described above. As soon as the ten minutes are up, you will share your list with a partner.
Please list any personal reasons, experiences, beliefs, personal knowledge which have helped you to develop this
opinion
Please list any reasons supported by fact or evidence that have helped you form your opinion. Please list all of the
reasons you can think of which are based on historical considerations or precedents@
4. LEARNING WHETHER YOUR ARGUMENT IS CONVINCING
25
(Peer feedback, 10 minutes)
Your teacher will now pair you with a partner. Switch computers and read by scrolling down through everything that
your partner has written so far in his or her WRITING JOURNAL under the main heading, "Notes for a Persuasive
Essay." Each partner should understand that the other might not have thought of all the possible reasons yet, but each
will try to answer the following questions for the other.
Now that you are sitting at your partner's computer, read from his or her text. It begins on the next screen. At the end
of his or her text a series of questions will appear. Answer them for your partner. You can scroll back through your
partner's file in order to reexamine his or her response to each specific question. The cursor will be present at the
bottom of the page allowing you space to write while you read. Once both of you have completed the list, switch back
to your own machines.
The following list represents your partner's response to what you have written so far (Change computers, use email, or
record for one another…)
Does your partner's description of his or her readers and their views sound realistic?
Do the reasons your partner listed sound suitable for these readers?
Are there any more reasons that you think could be added?
Now wait until your partner has also reached this point and then go back to your original machines. Use down arrow to
go to the next page when you are ready.
Now Scroll up through your partner's response, read his or her suggestions and reactions carefully. Remember that
your partner is not there to oppose your views but only to help strengthen your argument. His or her answers to the
questions cannot be "wrong." Your task is to find out what your notes communicated to your partner. "Listen"
carefully in order to understand what your partner is saying. Once you have read their remarks Scroll back Down to the
position you just left and write further notes to yourself about changes and additions you want to make to the
description of your readers and the reasons you list.
5. BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN YOU AND YOUR READERS
(Guided identification,15 minutes)
You are writing to persuade readers who hold an opposing view that your view of this controversial issue is correct.
This means that getting them to read your paper is absolutely crucial. To change their views, you have to understand
them; and you need to demonstrate that you understand by pointing to areas where you are in agreement with them.
You have already given a general description of an opinion that disagrees with yours, and you have said as much as you
can about the reader who might hold this view.
Now you need to go a little deeper to see what basic links there are between you and these readers. Read the
following, giving yourself time to note down quick responses to this set of questions which asks you to focus on the
assumptions and values you share on this issue with your reader. What are the broad beliefs that you and your readers
both hold about the issue? Do you share any common goals?
26
What kinds of personal experience do you share?
How do you think you might persuade your readers that you
understand and care about their point of view?
Are there any particular parts of their argument that you agree with
shared interests?
and can point out in order to show your
What are their main concerns? What kinds of reasons would be
most likely to persuade them?
6. SELECTING AND STRENGTHENING YOUR REASONS
(Guided selection, 10 minutes)
A. The list of reasons you made in section 3 will appear on the next screen. Go through them again and choose 5 to 8
of the best which you will then enter after going through your list.
Select the best reasons and list them here in their order of importance.
Begin with the strongest reason.
The next and so on down to the weakest reasons
B. For each important reason list possible sources of further information.
Review all of the writing you have done for this project so far and use the following as a check list to help you prepare
for the next phase of this writing process
1) Do you have all the facts you need?
2) Will some of your supporting reasons need more research?
In the library?
In books or magazines you already know?
3) Is there an expert close at hand to whom you would like to talk?
>
How will you arrange to interview this expert?
When you have finished this set of instructions, load "Cooper Persuasive 2" from your storage disk and keep moving
ahead with the assignment @
CLASS TWO
27
For work done in MS Word
What follow are instructions that will guide you through the next phase of this writing process. Read the explanations
and writing prompts presented here below; perform the tasks as they occur and then review them once more before
starting your draft. You will be asked as well to review the work you did in the previous class session and to write
several new and brief statements. All of these anticipate and prepare you to begin writing your first draft. The places
designated for your written response are set off below by arrows ( > ) . Write in each of those slots and then scroll
ahead, reading and preparing for your next response.
After you have proceeded through these preparations, you will have focused and organized, laid the foundation for the
first complete draft of your persuasive essay. You can save your draft and any of the brief responses by deleting the
text we have introduced into this file.
By erasing our instructions you will leave only your responses and your draft. That will enable you to rewrite the draft
and develop it into your finished paper. If your first responses are fully incorporated into the text of your first draft and
you have no qualms about erasing everything above your own writing, you can select it and delete or backspace. All
that is selected will disappear.
If you want to replace the file containing our instructions from which you have just excerpted your actual draft, then
name your new file with the same name as the file we had asked you to load and the original file will be replaced by
your new one. If you want to preserve both files, then give your new one a new name.
You might want to use the Split Screen function as it will be of particular use to you when you want to look back and
continue writing at your present position. To split the screen all you have to do is pull the little bar down from the top
of the scroll bar. The screen will divide where you release it. The half containing the cursor will receive your new prose,
the other will remain static. The screen with the cursor also can be scrolled through. Switch the cursor to the other
half where you want to enter the new text. You can toggle, switch back and forth between upper and lower screens by
placing the cursor in either field. It will automatically switch from one screen to the other as you insert the cursor. The
advantage of the split is that you can respond to what you have already written before, refreshing your mind about a
previous or subsequent point, while still writing in the appropriate place in your text. As you don't always have a print
out in front of you, this feature proves very useful. To turn off the split screen simply push the small bar back to the
top of the scroll bar.
SECOND SESSION WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT
How to FREE WRITE
[Free writing is a special kind of writing that lets you use the act of writing itself to discover what you already know. It
works only if you write without planning and without looking back at what you have already written. Write nonstop,
breathlessly, recklessly. Write as fast as you can. Write so fast your fingers feel tired. Write down anything you think
of. If you reach a point where you can't think of anything, write down your last word over and over. Just don't let your
pencil stop moving. Write down as many words as you possibly can.]
FREEWRITE (10 minutes)
1. Now choose the two best reasons on your list and free write about each for five minutes a piece. Even though you
feel now that you will later want to do further reading and research on these two best reasons, in this FREE WRITE try
to get down in writing everything you presently know about them. The order isn't important here; just tumble out
anything you can think of to say about your reasons. The idea is to close the gap between thinking and writing.
2. LEARNING WHAT YOUR NOTES COMMUNICATE ABOUT YOUR ARGUMENT
28
(10 minutes)
Find a partner who will work with you and read to him or her everything that you have written so far in this class under
the subheadings "Bridging the Gap" and "Refining the Reasons." Your partner will listen carefully and try to answer
these questions for you:






Do you make a fair description of your readers' beliefs?
Do you share enough common aims with your readers to be able to convince them that they could
accept your opinion?
Does your list of reasons sound broad and strong enough?
Will you need to gather more information to support any of them?
Are the two reasons you selected your best?
Have you developed these two reasons sufficiently?
3. WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT OF A PERSUASIVE ESSAY
So far you have accumulated in your JOURNAL quite a bit of information about the argument you will be presenting.
The prewriting you have done yo this point has allowed you to classify the two sides of the controversial issue, by
exploring reasons for your opinion and reasons that your readers are likely to have for theirs. You know which are your
strongest reasons and which areas you and your readers agree upon.
Right now take time to reread these pieces in your journal
"Notes for a Persuasive Essay"
"Describing Your Readers"
"Listing Your Reasons"
"Bridging the Gap"
"Refining the Reasons"
You may be able to use details and facts from these pieces in your DRAFT. However, your DRAFT will be a completely
new piece of writing. It is hard to predict just how much of your JOURNAL prewriting pieces you will be able to use, or
just where you will be able to use them. They are nevertheless very important background for your DRAFT, even if you
don't consciously include elements from them. Now you are ready to begin writing your draft
4. PERSUASIVE ESSAY WRITING TASK
Before you launch into the actual DRAFT, it will be helpful both to you, and to the partner who will help you revise the
DRAFT, if you first describe your "writing situation" what you are writing about, who you are addressing, and why.
The tasks below will help you accomplish this. The Writing Situation
1. Write down \"Readers"\ and then briefly describe your readers.
READERS
2. Your \"Purpose"\ is to write an essay in which you try to persuade your readers that your view on a controversial
issue is the correct one.
Write this down, identifying the controversial issue.
CONTROVERSIAL ISSUE
29
3. Write down \"Thesis Statement\"
and then write out what your proposition is. This should be a sentence or two that states your \opinion\ (the view,
course of action, or solution you are proposing)
your \main reason\ (supporting your opinion, either your strongest reason or a summary of all your reasons, as in the
example below)
your \bridge\ (the common belief or assumption that you share with your readers
Now you might want it to look something like this:
"Thesis statement: More money should be spent (OPINION) on researching alternative energy sources,
because mineral fuels have severe problems and limitations (MAIN REASON). Energy is indispensable to
society (BRIDGE), and our demands for it are increasing all the time.
"Combine your responses above into a thesis statement
(Try the Split Screen here. Scroll up to see your responses. Then switch windows back and forth, moving from response
to response always switching back to the lower window to write your thesis statement in this space)
Then after the thesis statement write down any \reservations\you may have, any cases where your thesis statement
would not apply.
RESERVATIONS:
Having identified at the top of your page your readers, purpose, thesis statement, and reservations, you are now in a
strong position to begin writing the DRAFT itself. Your opening paragraph should include your thesis statement as you
have just written it, but it should also make clear to your readers the direction in which you are going to lead them.
Before you launch into your list of reasons, which will form the bulk of the paper, make sure that your readers know
what the main point of the essay is. It is hard to convince people about anything if they are confused. As with every
other kind of writing, there is no single best way to organize persuasive writing. However, the most obvious and
logical method is to use the list of reasons that you made in your JOURNAL after you described your readers. You may
want to change the order of the list, but it will be a good idea, as you write the DRAFT, to look back at it as a simple
outline for the essay. To remind you, here is a checklist of things you should do in your persuasive essay)






clearly define the controversial issue and engage the reader's interests)
show throughout the paper that you understand and respect the reader's opinion and arguments
build a bridge of shared concerns, values, principle, and assumptions between your reader and
yourself
define the key terms you use and be as specific as you cane make clear transitions between your main
arguments or points so that your reader can easily follow your reasoning
summarize the main points at crucial stages
make an effective conclusion
Without overdoing it, you should win the reader's trust by showing that you are thoughtful and reasonable and that
you know your facts.
The kinds of facts you supply include:
your own observations
those of other trustworthy people
and reliable statistics.
30
(Use this last section of instructions as a checklist as you write your first draft here below. When you have finished this
draft, you can scroll up with the arrow key and using select text/Control X to erase our instructions from this file. You
can save the draft portion of this as a separate file by following the steps laid out above for saving a portion of a file.
You may want to use a new file name for your text so that in case you want to look back over the original instructions,
they will still remain on your disk. Once the paper is finished, rewritten and memorialized, you can delete all files
relating to it from your disk, though you will want to keep the one containing your finished paper.)
CLASS 3.
REVISING YOUR DRAFT
(40 minutes)
At this point you have a chance to find out how effective your assembled argument might be. Your teacher will assign
you to a partner. You and your partner will now exchange print outs of your DRAFTS. To help you revise your papers,
you and your partner need to give a careful, thorough, and honest response to each other's DRAFT. Take about 40
minutes to give your partner's draft a REALLY close reading. As you read, imagine you are one of the readers that the
writer has identified above the draft. Your job now is to tell your partner how persuasive you found the essay. To help
you do this, there is a list of questions below that will remind you of what to look for in the essay. Answer them as
carefully as you can here. You will put your remarks on your partner's disk. Switch machines and follow the procedures
laid out for you below.
1. Read the thesis statement and opening paragraph, and tell the writer if any of these essential features are missing
opinion
reason
bridge
reservations
2. Does the thesis statement seem to set out a clear and compelling view of a significant controversial issue?
Does the writer seem to know what he or she is talking about?
REASONS
Skim the paper quickly and make a numbered list in pencil of the reasons that the writer uses to support the main
opinion. Use a piece of scratch paper for this. Identify each reason with a short phrase.
Now, using the computer, type and fill out the handwritten list.
Tell the writer whether he or she has developed and supported each reason using the following: personal anecdote,
illustration, statistics, testimony (someone else's statement).
Now tell the writer more precisely whether each is developed according to the following standards. If any of the
reasons don't seem to you to be well developed according to these standards, tell the writer how he or she might
make improvements.
PERSONAL ANECDOTE should be relevant, interesting, easy to follow, not too self-referring or sentimental, and should
not undermine the writer's believability.
31
ILLUSTRATION should be reliable, detailed, and representative (rather than unique). Each illustration in the draft has a
different importance, which should be indicated by words like these Typical, convincing, good, better, best, etc.
STATISTICS should be current and from reliable sources.
TESTIMONY should be from reliable sources.
READERS
4. Has the writer successfully "built a bridge of shared concerns" to the readers? Tell the writer how he or she has
shown an understanding of the readers' values and opinions. Indicate places in the draft where this works best.
5. Has the writer anticipated what his or her readers' replies and counter arguments might be?
6. Try to write down a list of counter arguments the readers might use, counter arguments the writer hasn't
anticipated. This list can be very helpful to the writer in revising.
WRITER'S AUTHORITY
This is vital in persuasive writing. To change a reader's mind, the writer must seem reasonable and believable.
7. As one of the readers that the writer is addressing, say in a sentence how the writer sounds to you.
You might use terms like these:
authoritative sympathetic well informed
rational
reasonable.
trustworthy
thoughtful
modest
confused
8. Reread the paper quickly and tell the writer briefly where his or her authority and believability are established. Has
this been stressed enough? Overdone? Make specific suggestions if you think changes are needed.
ORGANIZATION
9. Read the introductory paragraph(s) again. Has the writer made a clear forecast of the direction and reasoning? Can
you suggest specific improvements?
10.Check the introduction for any of these flaws
shrillness
too long the wind up or background
context provided
inflation of the issue
generalization
apologies.
excessive aggression
no
readers ignored
excessive
32
11. Is the introduction readable and engaging or flat and dull?
Does it need more background or human interest? Suggest specific ways to improve the introduction.
12. Skim the paper to identify the transition sentences that link the reasons into a coherent argument. Usually these
will be the first sentences in paragraphs. Mark them with a large "T" in the margin. Tell the writer if any did not tell
you clearly what was coming next. If you find any places that need transitions, mark these with a big "NEED T."
13. Read the concluding paragraph(s). The conclusion should RESTATE THE OPINION that the body of the paper has
proved. Tell the writer if the conclusion does this clearly.
14. Like the introduction, the conclusion must be readable and engaging. If it seems flat or hurried, tell the writer how
it could be improved.
GENERAL RESPONSE
Before you give the paper back, read it through once more, quickly, as if you had encountered it in a newspaper or
magazine. SAY WHAT YOU THINK ABOUT IT. Even if you have to be quite critical about the paper, don't hold back. The
writer needs honest feedback before revising this first DRAFT. First tell the writer whether you found the paper
INTERESTING and READABLE.
Give your first impression. It can be quite personal. Just make a few quick comments. For instance, is the paper
ambitious?
Has the writer tackled something difficult or just played it safe?
Does the paper reflect creative, independent thinking?
Does it strike you as new and surprising or predictable and ordinary?
You have done your best for one another, now switch back to your own machines and transfer these remarks onto
your disks so that you can write your revisions and produce a polished and finished paper.
FURTHER INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITING YOUR REVISION
Now you are ready to begin your REVISION, a completely new draft of your persuasive essay. It may look quite a bit
different from your DRAFT. It may be organized differently and it may contain new information about the controversial
issue. What you learned from your partner's response to your DRAFT should guide you in the writing of your REVISION.
33
REWRITE YOUR ESSAY FOLLOWING THE ADVICE OF YOUR PEER EDITOR
Use your notes and those made by your peer editor to guide your revision.
Pay close attention to the CHECKLIST and to the remarks made about: Thesis Statement
Readers
Writer's Authority
Organization
General Response
Reasons
YOUR REVISION WILL BE GRADED AND DISCUSSED. THE MATERIAL YOU DEVELOPED THROUGH THIS PROCESS MUST
ALSO BE HANDED IN AS IT TOO WILL BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN DETERMINING YOUR FINAL GRADE
CLASS 4.
EDITING YOUR REVISION
(Peer feedback, 20 minutes)
Exchange revisions with a partner so that you can proofread and edit each other's papers. For this purpose, you will
use the Proofreading and Editing Guide below.
EDITING AND PROOFREADING GUIDE
Read your partner's paper and do the following editorial tasks:
Use a \PENCIL\ so that other readers or your teacher can change your editorial decisions, if they seem questionable.
1. Circle any \SPELLING\ mistakes.
2. Circle any \USAGE\ mistakes. Usage includes agreement of subjects with verbs, agreement of pronouns with their
antecedents, correct verb forms and consistency of verb tense, and correct word choice. There are many different
kinds of usage mistakes; you will learn more about them in this course and in later classes. For now just do the best
you can, circling any usage mistakes that look like mistakes to you. If you suspect there may be a mistake, be safe and
circle it.
3. \Cross out\ with an X any \UNNECESSARY PUNCTUATION.\
4. \Insert\ any \NEEDED PUNCTUATION.\ Add and \Circle\ any new punctuation.
5. Put a \line\ through any \UNNECESSARY WORDS\.
6. Put \parentheses\ ( ) around \AWKWARD PHRASES OR SENTENCES\ that are difficult for you to understand ON FIRST
READING. The phrase or sentence may be awkward, stilted, unbalanced, or puzzling for any reason at all.
12. EVALUATING CHANGES FROM FIRST DRAFT TO REVISION. Before you give your DRAFT and REVISION to your
teacher for evaluation, you will want to evaluate your own REVISION. You will need to describe the changes you made
in your DRAFT, evaluate the quality of your REVISION, and say what you will be trying to improve in your next paper.
On a separate piece of paper, write out a thoughtful SELF EVALUATION, following the instructions below:
INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELF EVALUATION OF CHANGES FROM DRAFT TO REVISION
a. First, reread your DRAFT.
b. Then reread your REVISION.
c. Begin your written self-evaluation by stating your main purpose in writing this essay.
d. Then talk about specific changes you made from DRAFT to REVISION, and
e. explain how these changes improved your REVISION.
f. Next, say what you like best about your REVISION and
g. also identify any problems you still see in it.
h. Finally, state what you will be working to improve in your next essay.
© Copyright c 1981 by Charles Cooper
34
Student-directed Assessment in ESL/EFL:
Designing Scoring Rubrics with Students
David Litz UAE University (Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates)
davidralitz@yahoo.com
Introduction
This paper will discuss and provide a useful example of "negotiable contracting" (Stix, 1997), an innovative assessment approach in
ESL whereby students are actively involved in the construction or creation of rubrics prior to undertaking more complex language
learning tasks. It will be demonstrated that the art of negotiable contracting not only empowers students by giving them shared
ownership of their own learning and assessment but it also provides them with additional opportunities to use the target language as
they analyze and discuss the rubric construction process, examine the rubrics and their different levels, generate descriptive language
from the rubric's criteria, and suggest revisions for improvement based on criteria in the rubric.
What Are Rubrics?
Scoring rubrics are becoming one of the most popular forms of authentic assessment and they are used by ESL/EFL practitioners in
a variety of educational contexts. Essentially, a rubric consists of a fixed measurement scale and a set of criteria that are used to
discriminate among different degrees of quality or levels of proficiency. They are intended as communication devices that precisely
convey to students what their learning target is and what they need to do to reach that target (Maryland Assessment Consortium,
1995, p.1).
Rubrics can be either holistic or analytic. Holistic rubrics provide an overall impression of the elements of quality in a student's
work. They are utilized when minor errors in part of the process can be tolerated and in instances when tasks require students to
create some sort of response but there is really no definitive, correct answer (Mertler, 2001; Nitko, 2001). Moreover, the score
reported using a holistic rubric is on the overall quality, proficiency, or understanding of the content as this type of rubric involves
assessment on a uni-dimensional level (Mertler, 2001).
Analytic rubrics indicate the level of performance of a student's work on two or more separate elements of quality. Nitko (2001)
suggests they are preferred when a focused response is required and individualistic creativity is not expected to be a major feature of
the students' responses. They also result initially in several scores, followed by a summed total score. Their use represents
assessment on a multi-dimensional level (Mertler, 2001).
Designing Scoring Rubrics with Students
For many years now, ESL/EFL teachers have been designing rubrics and providing them to their students and their widespread use
is certainly a testament to their importance, relevance and effectiveness in modern ESL/EFL assessment. Nevertheless, authors such
as Wiggins (1993), Seeley (1994), and Stix (1997) argue that constructing or drawing up rubrics jointly with students prior to them
undertaking the related lesson or task provides an even richer, more authentic, learner-centered and empowering authentic
assessment experience than merely providing them with a teacher-designed rubric. Stix (1997) refers to this rubric co-construction
process as negotiable contracting and his research shows that students who are given a role in the assessment process and provided
with the appropriate direction by their teachers are able to accurately evaluate their strengths and weaknesses and better pinpoint
areas where they need to focus their efforts for improvement. As a result, students typically perform at higher levels and gradually
come to view assessment not as an arbitrary form of reward or humiliation, but rather as a positive tool for educational enrichment
and growth.
Additional research by Litz & Smith (2004) with adult ESL/EFL learners at a military training institution has shown that students
who engaged in negotiable contracting also typically reported that they enjoyed having the opportunity to use and generate the target
language in order to analyze and discuss the rubric construction process, examine the rubrics and their different levels, and suggest
revisions for improvement based on criteria in the rubrics. Moreover, students were able to develop a clearer picture of the task and
their teacher's expectations while the teachers reported that they had clearer instructional goals.
35
Empowering Students
The art of negotiable contracting or rubric co-construction in ESL/EFL requires the teacher to be responsible for grading but he/she
must also act as a facilitator of a whole-class discussion on the assessment process. In this way the teacher presents his or her own
expectations for the assigned work but also asks the students their opinion of what they think would constitute quality work.
Essentially, the teacher and class negotiate with one another in an attempt to arrive at an acceptable mutual consensus. The end
result is that the teacher has created an atmosphere of openness and accomplishment where students have had increased
opportunities to use the target language in a communicative setting. In addition, students have been made to feel empowered for they
are now valued participants in the assessment process and they can take pride in having created their own assessment tool.
Steps Involved in Negotiable Contracting
The act of rubric construction with ESL/EFL students is probably better suited to teachers and students that are familiar with the use
of scoring rubrics in general. It can be done with both lower level and higher level students but the degree of teacher facilitation and
student involvement and the complexity of descriptive language that is produced for the descriptive criteria will obviously depend on
the respective levels of the students and their familiarity with cooperative learning techniques (Litz & Smith, 2004).
A step-by-step guide to the process of designing rubrics in tandem with students is described below. Information was compiled from
various sources such as Wiggins (1993), Mertler (2001), and Stix (1997). The steps will be discussed in the context of a real-world
example of an ESL teacher who has assigned their high-beginner/low-intermediate class the task of writing an autobiographical
essay of at least fifteen sentences.
Step 1: Students Examine and Discuss Possible Samples of Work that Exemplify Each Level
for the Task at Hand
Before the students begin any work on the task the teacher arranges the class into cooperative learning groups. As a warm-up the
teacher provides an example of an excellent sample of work as well as a good one, fair one, and a poor one. The teacher then has
each group of students decide what they thought were excellent, good, fair, and poor about each one.
A very good example might elicit responses from the students such as:





no obvious spelling mistakes;
excellent use of vocabulary;
original and creative;
no important grammar mistakes;
well-organized, etc.
A poor example, on the other hand, might elicit responses such as:




many spelling errors;
poor use of vocabulary;
unoriginal and unorganized;
many grammar problems, etc.
After each group submits their suggestions the teacher records them on chart-paper and posts them around the room for later use in
the overall process.
Step 2: Students Brainstorm Observable Attributes and Task Outcomes (Skills,
Characteristics, and Behaviors That Will Be Expected)
During the second step the students are told they will decide on how the task (autobiographical essay) will be graded, and the
procedure can be presented to the students in the following manner:
"I want you to be the teacher. What things would you look for in this assignment that would receive the best grade? Working in your
groups, make a list of criteria that you as a teacher would use for grading purposes. We will examine them together and make a list
36
that we will all agree on as the criteria of assessment for this assignment."
After allowing time for discussion, the teacher calls on one speaker at a time from each group. The spokesperson for the cooperative
group submits one criterion to be listed on the board. The teacher utilizes active listening for this phase of the activity, meaning that
students are required to listen to one another and check off each item if it has already been mentioned. This avoids wasting time and
ensures that the same ideas are not being repeated. The teacher charts the various groups' criteria on the board. Examples for a short
autobiographical essay might include: vocabulary and spelling, organization, design and layout, style, coherence and cohesion,
grammar, originality, content, task fulfillment i.e. complete/incomplete etc. After all of the groups have submitted their ideas, the
students can discuss them. If the teacher has a criterion that was not posted on the board, but is essential to a fair assessment of the
project being assigned, the teacher should detail the item being added to the list, and explain why it is so important. After the
students have exhausted all their ideas, they work in their cooperative groups and prioritize their top-five favorites. Once again, the
teacher calls on the speaker for each group, having the student submit his or her group's first choice. The teacher charts the
information, and again, utilizes active listening. As each item is posted on the board, the teacher asks how many other groups had
that particular criterion on their top five listing. The teacher makes a check mark next to the criterion to note its priority among all
the cooperative groups. Once the list is completed, the teacher checks which criteria were heavily weighted and which were not.
In this particular example the students and teacher selected:




Task Completion;
Organization;
Vocabulary and Spelling; and
Grammar and Punctuation as their most popular and important criteria for the autobiographical essay task (See: Figure 1).
It is recommended that only four or five criteria be selected to formulate the rubrics because the students should not feel threatened
by a seemingly insurmountable task. If a teacher insists on using more than that number, it might overwhelm the students.
Step 3a: Lower Level Students Examine Characteristics and Criteria that Describe Each of
the Selected Attributes or Task Outcomes
During the third phase the teacher could use a 'Pre-existing Rubrics Bank for Teachers'. If time is short or if he/she has lower level
students, the criteria can be easily cut and pasted to form the rubrics and descriptive levels and the students can be asked to complete
the rubrics as part of a communicative jigsaw activity. In this type of activity the students are placed in groups and each group is
provided with the different criteria and descriptive levels. Both the criteria as well as the descriptive levels are mixed up and the
students work together to put them in the correct places in the rubric.
Step 3b: Higher Level Students Brainstorm, Describe, and Develop Thorough Descriptive
Criteria for All of the Observable Attributes and Task Outcomes
If time permits and the teacher feels as though the students are of the right ability, he/she can submit one criterion to each
cooperative group so the students can help design the wording for the descriptive levels of the rubric. As an alternative the teacher
could have each group circulate to different tables around the classroom and have the students work on criteria descriptors for each
level. At this point in the lesson the students would be reminded of their descriptions of previous work samples and encouraged to
use some or all of this language while developing their own level descriptors. Higher level students might be permitted the freedom
to use a great deal of their own vocabulary for the linguistically-based descriptive scale listed from left to right across the top of the
rubric chart. Lower level students might have less autonomy in this regard and might benefit more from increased assistance and
elicitation from the teacher.
Conclusion
The use of negotiable contracting is an effective way of motivating and empowering our students through authentic or alternative
assessment practices. Giving ESL/EFL learners a voice in their grading not only provides them with a sense of ownership and a clear
understanding of the task, but it also enables them to practice the target language in a way that moves beyond the parameters of a
typical classroom lesson or unit of study; and the importance and relevance of this cannot be stressed enough.
Figure:1 Student-generated Rubric
37
CRITERIA
TASK
COMPLETION
LEVEL 1
Information was
either missing, not
needed or off task.
LEVEL 2
Task was completed, but
could be better. Some
information is needed and
some was on-task.
ORGANIZATION
Poor organization of
ideas. No paragraphs
and sentence marker
errors.
VOCABULARY &
SPELLING
Poor use or range of
vocabulary. Many
spelling errors.
Poor use of grammar
and punctuation.
Many errors.
GRAMMAR &
PUNCTUATUION
Little organization of
ideas. Paragraphs and
sentence markers were
used, but with some
errors.
Adequate (fair) use of
vocabulary. Some
spelling errors persist.
Adequate (fair) use of
grammar and punctuation.
Some errors still present.
LEVEL 3
Task was completed
well.
Most of the information
was needed and on-task.
Good organization of
ideas. Good use of
paragraphs and sentence
markers.
Good use of vocabulary.
A few spelling errors.
Good use of grammar
and punctuation. A few
errors still present.
LEVEL 4
Task was completed
very well. All of the
information was
needed and on-task.
Excellent organization
of ideas. Excellent use
of paragraphs and
sentence markers.
Excellent use of
spelling. Very few
spelling errors.
Excellent use of
grammar and
punctuation. Very few
errors are present
References







Litz, D. and Smith, A. (2004). How should we use rubrics in ESL/EFL? In Davidson, P., Al-Hamly, M., Khan, M.A.,
Aydelott, J., Bird, K. & Coombe, C. (Eds.). Proceedings of the 9th TESOL Arabia Conference: English Language Teaching
in the IT Age, Vol. 8. Dubai: TESOL Arabia.
Maryland Assessment Consortium. (1995). Developing Scoring Rubrics. Baltimore, MD: Maryland Department of
Education.
Mertler, C.A. (2001). Designing Scoring Rubrics For Your Classroom. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation,
7(25). Retrieved September 1, 2007 from: http://edresearch.org/pare/getvn.asp?v=7&n=25.
Nitko, A.J. (2001). Educational Assessment of Students (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Seeley, M.M. (1994). The mismatch between assessment and grading. Educational Leadership. 52 (2), 4-6.
Stix, A. (1997). Creating rubrics through negotiable contracting and assessment. US Department of Education: ERIC
#TM027246.
Wiggins, G. (1993). Assessment: authenticity, context and validity. Phi Delta Kappan, 75 (3), 200-214.
The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XIII, No. 11, November 2007
http://iteslj.org/
http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Litz-StudentDirectedAssessment.html
SLO Scoring Matrix
38
This matrix provides an SLO score tracking model you can choose to adopt, adapt (or abandon). Each of us needs to
have some method, a form, we can use to keep track of each student’s SLO class performance scores. We also need to
note what in each course we feel most requires improvement. The scores (per student/per SLO) will be collected
online and sent to IR for processing. You will need to draw on these notes when, the next semester, your department
receives the IR report and convenes to discuss the results and to formulate a plan for course improvement.
Course: Design 004– Bottlenecks
Student: Hal Scion
Course
SLO 1
SLO 2
SLOs
(Participation) (Researching)
% Weight
Section Number:0124
Measure 1
Participation
2
1
Measure 2
Mid Term
1
1
Measure 3
Presentation
2
Measure 4
Case Study
Measure 5
Lab Reports
Comments:
SLO 3
(Collect
Data &
Report)
SLO 4
(Information
Literacy)
1
1
2
2
Measure 6
Research
paper
SLO 5
(Design
Concepts)
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
Measure 7
Final Exam
2
1
2
1
0
Totals
1.75
1.25
1.75
1
0.75
List below the competencies, skills,
concepts students had difficulty
learning.
No consistency; little sense of
investment; reliance on strongest:
Training in group work, better
Rubric
Need more incentives to use Study
Guides and attend review sessions;
Focus more on Chapters 1
(Horticulture and Diving) & 5
(Brain waves in Kelp beds); Revise
lecture, week 1– Botanical Vanities
Public speaking skills; use of
appropriate graphics; time
management
Writing: Develop a guided process
to walk them through the steps
needed to produce a well
documented case study
Clearer format; Examples; Better
rubric; Use Peer editing
Research guide needs to be shorter,
simpler; More obvious incentives
for working with Writing Center
tutors
Review more carefully Chapters 5
(Height characteristics in ants), 9
(Lungs: Over rated or under
appreciated), & 04 (Informal
Discourse and Chaos Theory);
Revise lecture discussion design for
weeks 9 (Chloroform, the
researcher’s helper), 00 (Gerry
Brown and Linda Ronstadt in
retrospect) and 02 (Questioning the
dog’s inherent superiority).
39
Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is opinion.
-Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BC)
With that caveat: There is significant evidence supporting the claim that students succeed at higher
rates when they form relationships with their teachers (Dweck, Yeager), tutors, and peers (Mazur,
Perl, McKeachie). The most current influence in this direction comes from those using the
approaches embodied in Growth Mindset (Dweck) and Socio-Psychological Interventions (Navarro,
Yeager). These approaches corroborate the paradigm shift forwarded by Barr and Tagg in the early
90’s known as Learning Centered teaching.
The intention of the new pedagogy is to improve learning by understanding how it works, what
works for individuals, how that knowledge can be used to help each student succeed, persist and
progress. CATs (Cross and D’Angelo) in the mid 90’s built on classroom, Action research methods
from the 70’s and 80’s. The current commitment to learning beyond content broadcasting continues
to evolve. CATs have turned into Polling, audience response (Brull, Mazur) Clickers, which in turn
have reformed into Smartphone Apps.
The applied research edge now points to learning spaces, reflective ePortfolio and student agency,
co-curricular and non-cognitive integrative learning, peer mentoring, contingent teaching, Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy... Schools are beginning to use Student Consultants to help teachers better see
what is and isn’t being grasped by those enrolled in their classes. Metacognition continues to be a
major goal and has become built into assignments, learning, reading, and writing journals.
Motivation has finally found some means of implementation (RP Group, Dweck, Yeager). Learning
science is now a degree path. The argument is that every teacher needs to know more about: brain
science, cognition, non-cognitive engagement, cultural studies, co-curricular learning; we need to
study learning as it happens in real-world situations and how to better facilitate learning in designed
environments – in school, online, in the workplace, at home and in other informal environments. …
Knowing your field is a given. Knowing how to teach is now as important as learning is the goal.
Knowledge changes every 2-3 years in the sciences, social sciences. Techniques change every few
years in language acquisition courses… Learning to learn and developing the skills we promise to
deliver in our GEs and ILOs are now considered essential for success in the workplace where our
students will hold many different jobs over a lifetime. Fewer and fewer people work in the field in
which they majored. The ability to pursue Lifelong learning is a requirement for all students, not just
a good idea for retirees who would like to ward off encroaching senescence.
All of these findings and positive results point us in a new direction, one that demands more time
spent on learning with students. This requires changes in emphasis, in time allocation, in demands
on teachers. The more time teachers spend with students using techniques of engagement and
emphasizing agency, the better the results. It takes time. That is the problem, but the time it takes
produces greater learning which is our intent.
Those involved are encountering many complications in trying to implement a fully responsive
Learning Centered Curriculum and pedagogy as we have yet to gain a fully defined sense of how
learning works. Some innovations, however, are having success around the country. On a large
scale student response systems and peer instruction have been shown to increase learning
(Harvard, Vanderbilt studies). Flipping courses has allowed faculty to make students responsible for
the content. It is assigned outside of class. Lectures are recorded, written, made available online
40
and students are asked to study them in preparation for class. In class time is spent quizzing to test
what is and isn’t being understood and on problem solving, in discussion of content, not in the
broadcasting of information or lecture notes.. Learning and assessing of learning take center stage.
Formative feedback (Rubrics) and focused follow up (DLAs)* are part of the process. Assignments
too become learning tools not simply summative testing devices. Guided processes, study guides,
the teaching of the skills you require of students so that they can complete your assignments make
new demand on teachers as well.
It has become too clear that if you simply lecture or tell student to do certain things, only those
students with prior experience or exceptional gifts will derive much benefit, will learn much.
Teachers are now accountable for teaching, not simply content. On the up side, SLOs are a tool
designed to inform teachers about what is and isn’t being learned in their classes. If having that
information were not actually a new demand, one that requires teachers to know more about
teaching than their teachers knew, SLOs probably wouldn’t be as aggravating as they are for some.
They are an outcome of the paradigm shift.
Those of us who chose to pursue end of semester, final SLO assessment, may have missed the
opportunity to use rubrics on a regular basis during the term to provide extensive formative feedback
to students based on their performance on assignments scored across the semester. Providing such
feedback is a decidedly learning centered practice. Without using rubrics among other interactive
tools, without providing regular formative feedback and follow-up, we remain quite traditional,
teacher centric, not learning centered in our pedagogy.
Using these tools of engagement and promoting student agency are not self-evident or self-directing
endeavors. Some faculty, particularly those teaching big classes, find it very difficult if not impossible
to use rubrics to help students re-do assignments. They are comfortable with using rubrics as
guides to prepare students to complete an assignment and as a scoring tool, but find it very hard to
use the scoring results to develop follow-up plans for each student to use to better his/her
preparation. A Learning Centered approach depends on follow-up recommendations. Finding
manageable ways to achieve that is a challenge, TA’s can be trained to help; students can be
directed to the Learning Center. DLAs* can be assigned, but they all demand more time.
The goal is to increase rubric use, but to do that we must develop manageable methods for
providing formative feedback and “outcomes” follow-up to students. We need to test these
practices to see if they can become sustainable and are of sufficient value to justify their
implementation:
1. Adopting rubrics and follow-up as best practices should make collecting SLO scores midsemester prove useful to teachers as scores, more than grades, indicate where students
need to invest their time mastering specific skills and/or gaining specific knowledge.
2. All of the interventions now being proposed via growth mindset and other socio-psychological
interventions as well as the recommendations of the RP group point to the need for and
success of individualized instruction and relationship building.
Zeroing in on individualized instruction should produce gains in learning, success and
persistence sufficient to justify the effort needed to engage students more directly.
3. The teaching paradigm and the methodologies used to implement it need to be instituted and
assessed.
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4. To determine the value in become a learning centered institution the effectiveness of the
approaches and techniques used in a learning centered environment as set out by Barr and
Tagg in the mid 90s needs to be tested. They developed this simple matrix to highlight
differences between the old and new paradigms:
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5. If you want to see where your goals place you on the paradigm continuum, you might want to
use the Teaching Goals Inventory developed by Cross and D’Angelo to differentiate
approaches: http://fm.iowa.uiowa.edu/fmi/xsl/tgi/data_entry.xsl.
6. There are also Teaching Style Inventories for Math, Science and Social Science faculty:
http://www.teachingperspectives.com/tpi/#/reflect-items;
https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/?sm=oEwBI6VN6tNc1hh97MjLew%3D%3D
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*Directed Learning Activity (DLAs)
Creating a Directed Learning Activity
The Purpose of the Directed Learning Activity
(http://www.chaffey.edu/profdev/fsc/workshops/hewlett_10/CreatingaDirectedLearningActivity.pdf)
Directed Learning Activities (DLAs) were created at Chaffey to support, complement, and/or
supplement the learning needed by students in the class whose teacher sent them to the Success
Center for assistance. The language of the activity should connect to the course assignments,
objectives, and/or outcomes. DLAs should be integrated into the curriculum of the host course;
therefore, it is recommended that instructors connect the learning, information, and skills from the
DLA to class discussion, tests, quizzes, projects, or other in-class activities.
Step 1: Identify a specific need, skill, thought process, etc. that students need additional and varied
opportunities to engage in outside of class.
What skill, process, or concept do the students need in order to be successful at a particular
assignment or activity in your class, but typically lack? What obstacles do students often face in
successfully completing this assignment or activity?
What type of activity or process could students engage in outside of your class to build their success in
this necessary skill, process, or concept?
In what ways is this activity different from something they could do as homework? How will this
activity be integrated or connected to your course?
How will students receive feedback on this activity (tutors, instructor of the course, answer key, etc.)?
Which Success Center has the appropriate materials, tutors, equipment, etc. to support this activity?
Will the Success Center be able to support the activity (Is it tutor or resource-intensive? Have you
consulted with the Instructional Specialist in the Success Center regarding feasibility, etc.?)
Step 2: Determine what kind of learning you want to take place as a result of the activity.
Application Skills
Thinking:
 Critical, creative & practical thinking
 Managing projects
Foundational Knowledge
 Understanding and remembering: Information
 Ideas
Integration
Connecting:
• Ideas
• People
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• Realms of life
Human Dimension
Learning about:
 Oneself
 Others
Learning How to Learn
 Becoming a better student
 Inquiring about a subject
 Self-directing learners
Caring
Developing new...
 Feelings
 Interests
(Taxonomy of Significant Learning from WHAT IS “SIGNIFICANT LEARNING”? By Dr. L. Dee Fink;
Jossey-Bass, 2003)
Questions for Reflection:
What types of learning do your students engage in related to the topic/skill/activity you have chosen for
a DLA?
What type(s) of learning do your students need to engage in outside of class in this area?
How can you design your directed learning activity to address these types of learning?
What are some of the best practices you use in teaching? What creative activities do you use that
engage students in the learning process? How might you be able to transfer these creative practices to
the design of the DLA?
Step 3: Design an activity that meets the criteria of a directed learning activity. Use the checklist to help
you think through the possibilities.
Review your activity by evaluating it according to the criteria listed below. As a result of completing this
activity, students will...
 Engage in deep learning (see appendix on deep learning) and/or a process of learning, not just a
product.
 See a connection between the DLA and their coursework.
 Integrate knowledge, skills, concepts, or processes from their course and apply them in the DLA.
 Develop skills and/or strategies rather than just complete exercises.
 Interact with various modes of learning.
This DLA could not be done as homework because it...
 Requires unique resources, materials, or services only available in the Success Center.
Specific and clear instructions have been provided to both the student and the Success Center regarding...
 The expectations of the activity.
 The due date of the activity.
 The feedback or verification needed from the Success Center.
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

Tutor session guidelines for the activity
The limitations and restrictions of the activity (which Success Center location is appropriate for the
activity, what materials are required or recommended, what type of assistance should be given by
Success Center tutors/staff for the activity, etc.)
Make sure to check with the Success Center before implementing the DLA regarding...
 The approval of the DLA
 Available resources and tutors in the center for the DLA
 Timing of the DLA (How long does the center need to make copies, train tutors, provide the
resources, send copies to the other centers as appropriate, etc.?)
 The time frame to complete the activity - Is the activity in the DLA designed to work within the
specified time frame?
Step 4: Create feedback for the student through an answer key, tutor or instructor feedback, and/or
through in-class activities such as tests, quizzes, discussion, projects, etc.
What mechanism will you use to give the student feedback regarding this directed learning activity?
Once you have completed creating this Directed Learning Activity, meet with the Instructional Specialist and
ask him/her to review your DLA and give you feedback related to Step 3 criteria.
What are Directed Learning Activities?
(http://www2.palomar.edu/pages/learningcommunities/files/2013/10/What-are-Directed-LearningActivities.pdf )
A Directed Learning Activity (DLA) is an exercise developed by a faculty member that students complete in a
tutoring center. A DLA allows the students to gain more practice on a concept or skill introduced in class. A
DLA differs from a homework assignment in that a DLA 1) usually has a short time limit – 30 to 45 minutes,
and 2) requires a follow-up session with a tutor after completion.
Though DLAs are not graded, some instructors assign the completion of a certain number of DLAs per
semester as a percentage of the students’ overall grade. Assigning DLAs assures that the students are getting
extra practice and receiving face-to-face assistance from tutors. Ideally, DLAs are created as a department
project so as to ensure consensus among the faculty on what skills and concepts are crucial for particular
courses. DLAs can be posted on a department’s or tutoring center’s site.
Chaffey College developed the idea of Directed Learning Activities for use in their Success Centers. Other
community colleges have implemented DLAs in their academic success centers as well.
Benefits of Creating and Assigning Directed Learning Activities
A carefully designed DLA can:
 give the students extra practice and require them to receive immediate feedback on their
comprehension and performance.
 give instructors a way to expand on ideas and skills they were only able to briefly cover in class.
 allow students to review foundational concepts and skills they have not mastered before entering their
present courses.
 connect classroom instruction and tutoring activities by showing tutors the discrete skills needed by
students for their courses.
 save valuable class time by reducing the amount of review done in class
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