INTRODUCTION
Some Points To Consider While Reading
Before we start reading the theory behind instructional design,
consider the three points below. These three points establish a
common ground for considering the role of theory in design of
training or instruction.
1. Think of yourself as someone who designs learning
environments.
The puppeteer analogy helps us think of learning environments. We
use the term instructional designer to describe the puppeteer,
the person who creates the experience, but plays a behind the
scene role.
For some of you, the instructional designer term might appear
unrelated to your goals and needs. For example, if you are a
teacher or trainer, you probably do not think of yourself as an
instructional designer.
I hope you will reconsider this notion. Given that teachers and
trainers today take on more of a facilitator role (the guide on
the side) versus the traditional “teacher” role (the sage on the
stage), consider yourself instructional designers as well. You
are often asked to create learning environments, the primary task
of an instructional designer.
2. Consider universal design as a way to focus on what all
learners have in common, a memory system that is both limited and
at the same time infinite.
While this probably sounds impossible, it is not. In fact, that
sentence tells you that memory is very deep and lasting, but part
of is like a very small door into that memory. You have to learn
how to get information through that tiny opening in a way that
allows it to be embedded in long-term memory.
Focusing on memory allows you to look at learners in a universal
way. “Universal Design” is a recent term describing accessible
design, design that reaches the largest audience possible. This
idea might contradict with beliefs you hold about learning
styles. In this chapter, you will discover at the onset that the
best of designs often do not work, simply because learners are
not all the same. You might think that different learning styles
should then be our focus, so why is a universal approach taken?
Understanding different knowledge representations within a
universal cognitive structure is a key construct for this
chapter. Rather than design focused on learning styles, design is
focused on finding an optimal representation of content for
different types of learners. You will soon learn that this
optimal representation is equated to optimal chunk size, or the
optimal amount of content required for different people.
Individual differences in terms of memory and what may or may not
be there, becomes our focus instead of learning styles. You will
see that the way we chunk (organize) content allows us to address
different learners, mostly in terms of different levels of
experience. We may use the same content, but use different ways
of organizing that content to match the expertise level of the
student.
3. Think of the theory behind the rules.
The overall purpose of this and future chapters is to explain how
research in learning can be applied to the design of
instructional materials. As such, general learning theory
applies.
Over the course of the semester we will cover a number of
learning theories, starting with Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), and
ending with Mayer’s multimedia theory.
In this unit we cover Cognitive Load Theory, our macro theory. In
future chapters we explore information processing theory and
basic memory structure. From there we move to Pavio’s (2000) dual
coding theory, which introduces separate visual and auditory
memories. You then learn about specific components of working
memory introduced by Baddeley (2000). This takes you a number of
design principles upon which this book is based, Mayer’s (2001)
theory of multimedia.
Think of your progression through these theories this way.

Cognitive Load theory explains an overall goal – making
learning easier (Unit 1. Theory).

The 4-Step approach to creating an instructional
environment is shared in Unit 2 (The 4 Steps). The 4 Steps
introduce a process that helps designers address cognitive
load. Information processing theory explains three types of
memory influenced during the 4 Step process.

Step 1, Sizing up the Learner (Unit 3) focuses on the
learner and factors involved in perception. The theories of
Pavio and Baddeley explain in increasing detail how the
complexity of memory plays a role in learner perception.

Step 2, Stating the Outcome, describes the design of
instructional content at micro level. Writing instructional
objectives for an optimal interaction between the learner
and their environment is covered.

Step 3, Making it Happen address instructional strategies
that reach out and grab the learners mind. Mayer's theory
of multimedia prescribes several design principles that
instructional designer may consider employing.

Step 4, Knowing
assessment. How
learner memory?
learner and the
What the Learner Knows, introduces
do we know what worked? What is retained in
This final chapter helps us evaluate the
learning environment as well.
THEORY
Cognitive Load Theory: Our Macro Design Theory
Cognitive load is a term used to
needed to think about or process
we’ll learn about cognitive load
of instruction. We’ll also cover
learning theories that will help
human memory in order to provide
possible.
describe the mental energy
information. In this chapter
theory and its meaning to design
a number of memory-related
us work within the structure of
the best learning experiences
Attention to cognitive load is a critical concern for designers
of instruction, particularly when a learning context and its
content is complex. If the cognitive load for a student is too
high, learning is not effective. Too much information, irrelevant
information, complex information, and the like can all result in
a high cognitive load. If the cognitive load is too low, learning
is not efficient. Too little is covered to make a difference, or,
the mind does not engage in information in a way that allows them
to remember and use the information later when they need it.
As the term load would connote, information can be thought of as
having a weight that places demands on memory. Table 1 shows
examples of what might be considered low information loads,
optimal information loads, and high information loads.
Table 1
Possible* Low, Optimal, and High Load Examples
Low load examples
Small quantities
of information
Optimal load
examples
A quantity of
information that
fits with your
High load examples
High quantity of
information
target learners’
schema
Recently learned
(familiar)
information
Recently learned
information along
with new, but
similar, information
New (unfamiliar)
information that does
not have a familiar
context
New information
presented using an
analogy that
almost all
learners
understand
New information
presented using an
analogy you’re your
target learner
understands
New information
presented using a poor
analogy the learner
does not fully
understand
Images that
clearly depict a
process, idea,
concept. Most
learners will see
the big picture.
Images that clearly
depict a process,
idea, concept, but
do so without losing
the critical details
Images that are
difficult to interpret
because so many
information units are
presented that the
learner doesn’t know
where to begin. The
learner is unable to
see the big picture.
Germane
information,
information that
has meaning to
most learners
Germane information,
information that has
meaning to your
target learner
Extraneous
information,
information that is
not directly related
to a concept or idea
being presented
Easily understood
information
Easily understood
Complex information
information along
requiring an
with new, but
understanding of
contextually
prerequisite
relevant,
information
information
*load size depends upon each individual learner, what might be
low for one learner might be high or optimal for another
At any point in time, human memory holds only seconds of
information before it is either passed on to a long-term storage
area of the brain, or simply lost. We will cover this later in
the Information Processing Theory section of the chapter. For
now, it suffices to consider memory as a bottleneck in the flow
of information within the brain. If we present information in a
way that is compatible with the individual learner, those seconds
may be used optimally. You can think of chunking content
(organizing into units) as a type of presentation strategy useful
when considering optimal load.
Categories of cognitive load
The research on cognitive load describes three categories of
load: intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load (Paas,
Renkle & Sweller, 2003). Understanding each category assists in
the identification of potential instructional strategies.
Intrinsic load
Intrinsic load refers to the nature of the content and its level
of complexity. Complexity can be defined in terms of element
interactivity, or the extent that a learner must understand
instructional content that overlaps and interacts with other
instructional content. High content interactivity describes
content that can only be understood or studied when an
understanding of many different factors is taken into account.
Low content interactivity describes content that is more easily
understood in isolation, because it requires an understanding of
fewer elements. For example, learning concepts would be more
likely to involve high element interactivity than learning facts,
which would involve low element interactivity.
Extraneous load
Extraneous load can be thought of as the noise, or superfluous
elements of communication, that act as barriers to learning due
to the increased load they place on memory. For example, using a
large number of fonts in a section of text does not add to the
content, but rather adds to the extraneous load as the reader
attempts to assign meaning to the various typographic changes.
Germane load
Germane load can be thought of as those things that a designer
can do to facilitate optimal learner load. For example, textual
techniques that reinforce the content, such as chunking content,
sequencing it, and providing analogies can help people understand
new information more quickly.