Introduction to Philosophy
Philosophical Terms
Logic
Things you ought to know.
What is Philosophy?
• The study of philosophy involves critical
thinking. Critical thinking, the engagement
of the thinker in rational deliberationinvestigation, assessment of arguments,
and assessment of justification, is a skill
that is necessary in all aspects of our daily
life as citizens, professionals and persons.
You must Think!
• Critical thinking is more than a
regurgitating answers for multiple choice
exams! Assessment and evaluation is
much broader, and more important, than
giving meaningless busy work. You’ll never
see a multiple choice exam in one of my
classes- ever!
Learning how to Think.
• I do not believe that philosophy should be
reduced to such a ridiculous state- a mere
caricature of what it means to engage in
rational thought. Most courses trivialize
their subject by boiling down the course
content to a few exam questions- Facts
and figures that will be forgotten as soon
as your course finishes.
Critical Thinking Exams
• The goal of this course is to provide you with
knowledge and skills that you can apply to your
daily life. "Critical Thinking" exams are becoming
part of the college curriculum. Students in
nursing school at MDC take a critical thinking
exam each semester. If they do not pass then
exam, they fail and must do remediation- even
though they passed their classes! In the
business world, employees must be able to
solve problems and create solutions- these are
skills that will serve you for the rest of your life.
FCAT Mentality
• If you live in Florida, then you know about
the FCAT. The FCAT is a high school
competency exam that "measures" what
you learned in high school. What has
developed is what I call the "FCAT
complex". It is the idea that learning can
only take place if there is some
"measurable" gain. It is a sickness that
has now crept into higher education.
The FCAT view…
• Some, in the college, claim that we must
measure learning outcomes by means of
standardized assessment. The business model
of education has stifled intellectual curiosity and
growth. It is the reason the state of Florida limits
your funding and the number of credits you can
receive financial aid for. All most students want
to know when they hear a lecture is information
that is going to be on the final- if they aren't
going to be tested on it, they don't want to learn
it.
Education has Intrinsic Value!
• Education is much more important, and
has a far greater value, than can be
measured by some pedantic assessment.
As students of philosophy you must be
willing to employ rationality. You must be
able to justify your views in a coherent
way.
Open your Mind!
• You must be willing to open your mind to
new ideas and new possibilities- if you
hold fast to your indoctrinated beliefs, you
are going to have trouble understanding
the content in this course. This course
deals with abstract questions and topics,
many of which you may have never
considered. If you have an open mind and
put forth a consistent effort you will do fine
in this course!
Philosophy- The love of wisdom
• Divisions of Philosophy
– Epistemology: Theory of Knowledge
– Metaphysics: Nature of Existence
– Ethics: Study of Right and Wrong
– Political Philosophy
– Philosophy of Religion
– Aesthetics
– Eastern Philosophy
– Logic
Philosophy of _______
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Philosophy of….
Education
Law
Science
Physics
Biology
Mathematics
Psychology
Logic
• The science of rational thought.
• Formal tools or ways of reasoning.
Rhetoric
• The art of persuading people.
Terms of Logic
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Formal
Informal
Deductive
Inductive
Fallacy
Formal and Informal Logic
• Formal logic- employ a structured
argument with a set of premises and
one conclusion.
• 1.If P then Q
• 2. P
• 3. Therefore Q
Deductive Logic
• Deductive logic• If the structure of the argument is VALID
• And if the premises are TRUE or SOUND
then the CONCLUSION must be TRUE!
• 1. PQ
1. PQ
• 2. P
2. Q
• 3. Q
3. P
• Valid
Invalid
Deductive Logic
• Deductive logic• If the structure of the argument is VALID
• And if the premises are TRUE or SOUND
then the CONCLUSION must be TRUE!
• 1. PQ
1. PQ
• 2. P
2. Q
• 3. Q
3. P
• Valid
Invalid
Inductive Logic
• Practical knowledge- Inductive logic or
reasoning.
• 1. I have measured 1000 triangles and the
sum of the internal angles always adds up
to 180 degrees.
• 2. Therefore the next triangle I measure,
the angles will add up to 180 degrees.
Fallacies
• A Fallacy is a logical defect in an
argument.
• There are formal or structural fallacies and
informal fallacies which are flaws in
thinking.
Argument ad Hominem
• Argue that a proposition must be false,
because of the person making the
argument.
• This is a Fallacy in reasoning- you should
attack the argument not the person
making it.
Appeal to Emotion
• Try to prove an argument based upon
sympathy or an appeal to emotion• This is a Fallacy in reasoning- emotions
are irrelevant to the structure of an
argument and the validity of its conclusion.
• This type of thinking can be a fallacy.
Appeal to Nature
• Some people argue that we should look to
nature for what is right or good.
• But what does it mean to be natural?
• Because it is “natural” is it better?
• This type of thinking can be a fallacy.
Appeal to the People or Majority
• Some argue that the majority must be
right?
• Was the majority right when the majority of
people thought slavery was okay? Or the
majority is Nazi Germany thought
concentration camps were good ideas?
• This type of thinking can be a fallacy.
Appeal to Tradition
• Some argue that since it has always been
that way, it should continue to be that way.
• Traditional marriage, traditional family…
the traditional family servant or slave.
• Traditions can be important, but they are
not all equally rational.
• This type of thinking can be a fallacy.
Appeal to Religion
• Some persons appeal to religion. With
10000 different ones, how are we to
choose the “right” one.
• Even people with the same religion
disagree about what is moral.
Straw man
• This is a technique where you
misrepresent the views of the opponent by
making there argument seem weaker or
(dumber) than it is.
• This is a fallacy because you are not
addressing the real issue, and have
proved nothing.
Red Herring
• In this fallacy you argue against
something that is not even at issue.
• Example;
“Embryonic” Stem Cell Debate
What is at Issue.
Begging the Question
• You assume the conclusion. The
argument is circular.
• 1. God is all powerful,
• 2. God is All knowing,
• 3. God is all good.
• 4. Therefore, God Exist.
False Dilemma
• In this situation, an argument is given
which ignores viable alternatives:
• 1. If you don’t believe in God, then you will
go to Hell….
• 2. Therefore, you’d better believe in God.
• Well, maybe there is no heaven or hell.
Example from Animal Rights
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Descartes:
1. If you do not have a soul,
Then you do not have rights.
2. Animals do not have souls.
• 3. Therefore, Animals do not have rights.
Kant- Animal Rights
• 1. If you do not have rationality;
• Then you do not have Rights.
• 2. Animals do not have rationality.
• 3. Therefore, Animals do not have rights.
Reductio ad um Serdum
• 1. If you do not have rationality;
• Then you do not have Rights.
• 2. Babies do not have rationality
• 3. Therefore, Babies do not have rights.
Rationality/ Moral Responsibility
• 1. If you do not have rationality;
then you do not have Moral Responsibility.
• 2. Animals do not have rationality.
• 3. Therefore, Animals do not have Moral
Responsibility.
Utilitarianism: Animal rights
• 1. If you have the capacity to feel pain or
pleasure, then you have rights.
• 2. Animals have the capacity to feel pain
and pleasure.
• 3. Therefore: Animals have rights.
People have Rights too
• 1. If you have the capacity to feel pain or
pleasure, then you have rights.
• 2. People have the capacity to feel pain
and pleasure.
• 3. Therefore: People have rights.
Crazy Utilitarian Argument
• 1. People have rights.
• 2. Animals have rights.
• 3. Therefore people and animals have the
same rights.
• People are equal to Goats.
Equivocation
• Equivocation in the use of the term “rights”
• People have the right to drive and vote,
• Goats have the same “rights” too.
What Rights
• People have Rights
• Animals have Rights
• But it is not specified what rights each
have- there is no reason to assume they
have the same rights.
Babies = Goats
• Babies can’t vote or drive, and yet they
have rights• As such, Goats have the same rights as
Babies.
Babies = Goats
• 1. People have rights.
• 2. Animals have rights.
• 3. Therefore people and animals have the
same rights.
• People are equal to Goats.
Potential rationality
• 1. If you have the potential for rationality,
then you have rights.
• 2. Babies have the potential for rationality
• 3. Therefore babies have rights.
Animal potential rationality
• 1.If you have the potential for rationality,
• Then you have rights.
• 2. Animals do not have the potential for
rationality
• 3. Therefore animals do not have rights.
Potential Rationality Applied
• Mentally handicapped people and fetuses,
people with brain injuries, people in comas
or vegetative states all lack the potential
for rationality- as such they lack rights.