UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
Format for submitting pursuant to Article 8 of the
Stockholm Convention the information specified
in Annex E of the Convention
Introductory information
Name of the submitting Party/observer
NGO Observers: Pesticide Action Network (PAN) International and the
International POPs Elimination Network (IPEN)
Contact details
Meriel Watts, PhD
Pesticide Action Network Aotearoa New Zealand
PO Box 296,Ostend
Waiheke Island,
Auckland 1971, New Zealand
ph/fax: 0064-372-2034
merielwatts@xtra.co.nz
and
Pamela Miller, M.En.
Biologist and Executive Director
Alaska Community Action on Toxics
505 W. Northern Lights Blvd., Suite 205
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
pkmiller@akaction.net
Chemical name - Endosulfan
CAS:
959-98-8 - alpha (α) Endosulfan
33213-65-9 - beta (β) Endosulfan
115-29-7 - technical Endosulfan
1031-07-8 - Endosulfan sulfate:
Trade names and synonyms
Agrisulfán, Afidan, Aikido, Akodan, Alodan, Axis, Benzoepin, Beosit, BIO 5462,
Bromyx, Caiiman, Chlorbicyclen, Chlorthiepin, Crisulfan, Cyclodan, Cytophos,
Devisulfan, Endel, Endocel, Endocide, Endocoral, Endocoton, Endofan, Endoflo,
Endomight Super, Endopol, Endosan, Endosol, Endosulphan, Endotaf,
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Endoxilan, Enrofán, Ensure, ENT 23979, Flavylan 350E, FMC 5462, Galgofon,
Galgptal, Global E, Goldenleaf Tobacco Spray, Hexasulfan, Hildan, HOE 2671,
Insectophene, Isolan, Kop-thiodan, Lucasulfan, Malix, Misulfan, NIA 5462,
Niagara 5462, Novasulfan, Palmarol, Parrysulfan, Phaser, Rasayansulfan, Red
Sun, Rocky, SD-4314, Sharsulfan, Sialan, Sonii, Sulfan, Techn’ufan, Thifor,
Thimul, Thiodan, Thiofanex, Thiofor, Thioflo, Thiomet, Thiomul, Thionate,
Thionex, Thiosulfan, Thiosulfax, Thiokil, Thiotox, Tionel, Tionex, Tiovel, Tridane,
Termizol pó, Veldosulfan, Vulcán, Zebra Ciagro.
Date of submission - January 8, 2009
(a) Sources, including as appropriate (provide summary information
and relevant references)
(i) Production data:
Quantity:
1. Cumulative global usage on crops was estimated in 2005 to be 338,000
tonnes.1
2. India has a reported production capacity of 9,900 tonnes 2 and exported
4,103.92 tonnes in 2007-08 to 31 countries.3 Hindustan Insecticides Ltd, owned
by the Government of India produces 1,600 tonnes annually. 4
3. Germany produces 4,000 tonnes per year.5
4. China produces 2,400 tonnes per year.6
5. Israel produces an unspecified quantity of endosulfan.7
1
Li YF, Macdonald RW. 2005. Sources and pathways of selected organochlorine pesticides to the Arctic
and the effect of pathway divergence on HCH trends in biota: a review. Sci Total Environ 342:87-106.
2
Performance of Chemical & Petrochemical Industry at a Glance (2001-2007). Monitoring and Evaluation
Division, Department of Chemicals & Petrochemicals, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers, Government of
India, New Delhi. http://www.chemicals.nic.in/stat0107.pdf.
3
Export Import Data Bank. Export: Commodity-wise all countries. Commodity 38081018. Endosulfan
technical. Government of India, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Department of Commerce,
http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/Default.asp.
4
Hindustan Insecticides Ltd Manufacturing Units. http://www.hil-india.com/manufacturingunits.htm.
5
Endosulfan. Draft Dossier prepared in support of a proposal of endosulfan to be considered as a candidate
for inclusion in the CLRTAP protocol on persistent organic pollutants. German Federal Environment
Agency – Umweltbundesamt, Berlin. 2007.
6
Li J, Zhang G, Guo L, Xu W, Li X, Lee CSL, Ding A, Wang T. 2007. Organochlorine pesticides in the
atmosphere of Guangzhou and Hong Kong: Regional sources and long-range atmospheric transport. Atmos
Environ 41:3889-903.
7
Makhteshim Agan. Thionex. http://www.maindustries.com/ProductsSolutions/CropProtection/tabid/61/Default.aspx.
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6. South Korea exports technical endosulfan.8
Location:
7. India - Hindustan Insecticides in Kerala;9 Coromandel Fertilisers in Mumbai;10
Excel Crop Care (in association with Australia’s Nufarm) in Bhavnagar, Gujarat.11
8. Germany - Bayer CropScience at Frankfurt.12
9. China - 3 manufacturers of technical endosulfan in Jiangsu province.13
10. Israel - Makhteshim Chemical Works Ltd, Beer-Sheva, Israel.14
(ii) Uses
11. Use of Endosulfan has been declining globally. It is now banned in at least 57
countries15 with former uses replaced by less hazardous products and methods.
The Environmental Risk Management Authority of New Zealand (ERMANZ) said
in its final decision to revoke registration of Endosulfan that “There is evidence
that endosulfan use in New Zealand has been declining over the past 10 years.
This has been market driven as well as resulting from the availability of some
8
Jia H, Li Y-F, Wang D, Cai D, Yang M, Ma J, Hu J. 2008. Endosulfan in China 1. Gridded usage
inventories. Enviro Sci Poll Res Int [Epub September 4].
9
Hindustan Insecticides Ltd Manufacturing Units. http://www.hil-india.com/manufacturingunits.htm.
10
Coromandel Fertilisers Ltd. http://www.cflindia.com/.
11
(a) Excel Crop Care. http://www.excelcropcare.com/ProductDetails.asp?name=1. (b) Excel Crop Care Investment research report with target. Dec 26, 2008. http://www.indianstocksnews.com/2008/12/excelcrop-care-investment-research.html. (c) Fundamental Research. Excel Industries Ltd. HDFC Securities.
http://www.hdfcsec.com/Research/FResearch.aspx?Heading=FundamentalResearch&FP_Code=EXCELIN
DUS&View=FRHistory.ascx.
12
Endosulfan. Draft Dossier prepared in support of a proposal of endosulfan to be considered as a
candidate for inclusion in the CLRTAP protocol on persistent organic pollutants. German Federal
Environment Agency – Umweltbundesamt, Berlin. 2007.
13
Jia H, Li Y-F, Wang D, Cai D, Yang M, Ma J, Hu J. 2008. Endosulfan in China 1. Gridded usage
inventories. Enviro Sci Poll Res Int [Epub September 4].
14
Makhteshim Agan Global Presence. http://www.maindustries.com/OurGroup/GlobalPresence/tabid/69/Default.aspx.
15
Austria, Bahrain, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cap-Vert, Colombia, Cote
d’Ivoire, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Gambia, Germany, Greece, Guinea
Bissau, Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Kuwait, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Mali,
Malta, Mauritania, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Poland, Portugal, Qatar,
Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, St Lucia, Sweden, Syria,
Tchad, the United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom.
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new insecticide chemistry.” … “The Committee notes that there are alternative
products available for most of the current uses for endosulfan in New Zealand.” 16
(iii) Releases
Discharges
12. Endosulfan is discharged directly to the environment when it is used
deliberately on crops and other uses. That discharge is estimated to have been
338,000 tonnes by 2005 (based on cumulative global usage as estimated by Li &
Macdonald 200517), and is estimated to be more than 16,000 tonnes per annum
based on reported production figures (see Production Data, Quantity).
13. High residue levels of Endosulfan reported for the Vellar River (206-2035
ng/l) and Kolleru Lake (2396 ng/l) in India are stated to be “primarily the result of
the close proximity of a pesticide manufacturing facility”, indicating discharge
from the facility into the environment.18
Losses
14. Studies of Endosulfan application to cotton fields in Australia showed that
about 70% of Endosulfan is lost from the cotton field through volatilisation, with
only 8.5% remaining on the field one month after spraying; 2% is carried away in
run-off, 1% remains in the soil, and the remainder is degraded by plants or
microorganisms). Hence approximately 73% of Endosulfan applied, at least in
hot/tropical environments, leaves the site of application and is transported in the
wider environment.19
Emissions
Other
16
ERMANZ. 2008. Environmental Risk Management Authority Decision. Application Code HRC07003.
10 December 2008. http://www.ermanz.govt.nz/search/registers.html?id=23290.
17
Li YF, Macdonald RW. 2005. Sources and pathways of selected organochlorine pesticides to the Arctic
and the effect of pathway divergence on HCH trends in biota: a review. Sci Total Environ 342:87-106.
18
Sarkar SK, Bhattacharya BD, Bhattacharya A, Chatterjee, Alam A, Satpathy KK, Jonathan MP. 2008.
Occurrence, distribution and possible sources of organochlorine pesticide residues in tropical coastal
environment of India: An overview. Environ Int 34(7):1062-71.
19
Kennedy IR, Sanchez-Bayo F, Kimber SW, Hugo L, Ahmad N. 2001. Off-site movement of endosulfan
from irrigated cotton in New South Wales. J Environ Qual 30:683-96.
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(b) Hazard assessment for endpoints of concern,
including consideration of toxicological interactions
involving multiple chemicals (provide summary information and relevant
references)
Toxicokinetics
15. Absorption through the gastrointestinal tract is very rapid and efficient with
>90% absorbed in rats. Absorption through the skin is also rapid, with 73-89% in
male rats at 24 hours and 20-46% in female rats at 168 hours.20
16. In humans, Endosulfan is absorbed across the skin, through the
gastrointestinal tract, and through inhalation.21
17. Ingested Endosulfan is subject to significant first pass metabolism by the liver
and biliary excretion. It is therefore expected to be more toxic by inhalation than
oral exposure, and indeed, the limited number of inhalation toxicology studies
that have been conducted found lower NOAELs than oral studies that evaluated
similar endpoints.22
18. Endosulfan is metabolised in animals by microsomal enzymes to Endosulfan
sulphate, Endosulfan diol, Endosulfan ether, Endosulfan hydroxyether, and
Endosulfan lactone.23
19. It is excreted in urine and faeces, as well as being distributed to adipose,
liver, kidney, heart, spleen, testes, epididymis, prostate, seminal vesicle, milk and
muscle, with greater accumulation in adipose tissue of females than males.24
20
EU. 1999. Monograph prepared in the context of the inclusion of the following active substance in
Annex I of the Council Directive 91/414/EEC. ENDOSULFAN. Volume I Report and Proposed Decision.
Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria
y Alimentaria (I.N.I.A.), Ctra. De La Coruña, km. 7, 28040 – Madrid, España.
21
ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Endosulfan. Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
Atlanta, USA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp41.html.
22
OEHHA. 2008. Revised findings on the health effects of the active ingredient: endosulfan. Office of
Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, June 4, 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/memo_findings060408.pdf.
23
EU. 1999. Monograph prepared in the context of the inclusion of the following active substance in
Annex I of the Council Directive 91/414/EEC. ENDOSULFAN. Volume I Report and Proposed Decision.
Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria
y Alimentaria (I.N.I.A.), Ctra. De La Coruña, km. 7, 28040 – Madrid, España.
24
ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Endosulfan. Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
Atlanta, USA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp41.html.
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20. In humans it is commonly found distributed to breast milk, adipose tissue,
placental tissue, umbilical cord blood and follicular fluid.25 For more details refer
section: Monitoring.
21. Residues have also been found in the liver, kidney and brain of humans.26
22. Residues in people not occupationally exposed are thought to result from
intake of food chain residues.27 28 A positive correlation has been found between
intake of vegetables containing residues of Endosulfan and the presence of
Endosulfan-lactone in breast milk.29
Mode of action in mammals
23. Endosulfan has an affinity with the GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
receptors in the brain and acts as a non-competitive GABA antagonist. Binding of
GABA to its receptors induces the uptake of chloride ions by neurons and
blockage of this uptake by Endosulfan results in a state of uncontrolled
excitation.30
24. In vitro assays indicate that Endosulfan can form DNA-adducts, and inhibit
hepatocyte gap junction intercellular communication.31
25. In vitro assays also show that Endosulfan has an oestrogenic
progestogenic action. 33
32
and an anti-
25
Cerrillo I, Granada A, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Olmos B, Jimenez M, Cano A, Olea N, Fatima Olea-Serrano
M. 2005. Endosulfan and its metabolites in fertile women, placenta, cord blood, and human milk. Environ
Res 98(2):233-39.
26
ATSDR 2000, op. cit.
27
Sanghi R, Pillai MK, Jayalekshmi TR, Nair A. 2003. Organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticide
residues in breast milk from Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. Hum Exp Toxicol 22(2):73-6.
28
Carreno J, Rivas A, Granada A, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Mariscal M, Olea N, Olea-Serrano F. 2007.
Exposure of young men to organochlorine pesticides in Southern Spain. Environ Res 103:55-61.
29
Campoy C, Jimenz M, Olea-Serrano MF, Moreno-Frias M, Canabate F, Olea N, Bayes R, Molina-Font
JA. 2001. Analysis of organochlorine pesticides in human milk: preliminary results. Early Hum Devel
65(s2):S183-90.
30
UNEP/FAO. 2007. Inclusion of the Chemical Endosulfan in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention.
United Nations Environment Programme and Food and Agriculture Organisation UNEP/FAO/RC/COP.4/9.
http://www.pic.int/COPS/COP4/i9)/English/K0763331%20COP-4-9.pdf.
31
SRP. 2008. Findings of the Scientific Review Panel on Toxic Air Contaminants on the Proposed
Identification of Endosulfan as a Toxic Air Contaminant. Scientific Review Panel on Toxic Air
Contaminants, Department of Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency,
Sacramento. May 16, 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/srp_finding_end_final.pdf.
32
Soto AM, Chung KL, Sonnenschein C. 1994. The pesticides endosulfan, toxaphene, and dieldrin have
estrogenic effects on human estrogen-sensitive cells. Environ Health Perspect 102(4):380-83.
33
Chatterjee S, Kumar V, Majumder CB, Roy P. 2008. Screening of some anti-progestin endocrine
disruptors using a recombinant yeast-based in vitro bioassay. Toxicol in Vitro 22(3):788-98.
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Acute effects
26. Endosulfan is of high acute toxicity in experimental animal studies with an
acute oral LD50 rat of 10-22.7 mg/kg in females, and 48-160 mg/kg in males.34
27. It is even more toxic by inhalation, with LC50 values of 0.0126 mg/L (2.1
mg/kg) in females and 0.0345 mg/L (5.8 mg/kg) in males.35
28. In rats, Endosulfan is acutely toxic in small oral doses of 3.0 mg/kg, causing
stilted gait, straddled hind-limbs, irregular respirations, panting and decreased
motor activity. This study resulted in a NOAEL of 1.5 mg/kg/day, which the US
EPA selected as the critical endpoint for evaluation of dietary risk for
Endosulfan.36 It is even more toxic to pregnant rabbits causing hyperactivity after
a single oral 1.8 mg/kg dose. The NOAEL for this study was 0.7 mg/kg/day,
which the US state of California selected as the critical endpoint for evaluation of
dietary risk in its assessment of Endosulfan.37
29. Acute toxicity effects observed in animal studies include hyperexcitability,
tremors, convulsions, seizures, irregular respiration, altered heart rate, brain
oedema, salivation, dilated pupils, poor muscle tone, head swaying, vomiting,
diarrhoea, emphysema, cyanosis, respiratory paralysis, haemorrhage of heart
muscle, lung and kidney; death.38
30. Acute effects reported in humans as a consequence of occupational
inhalation exposure are primarily neurotoxic and include malaise, nausea,
vomiting, dizziness, confusion, and/or weakness, and convulsions.39
31. Endosulfan is very toxic to some amphibian species. A recent study (Relyea
2008) found that leopard frog tadpoles (Rana pipines) exposed to 6.4 ppb
aqueous Endosulfan experienced 84% mortality. A combination of 5 insecticides
34
EU. 1999. Monograph prepared in the context of the inclusion of the following active
substance in Annex I of the Council Directive 91/414/EEC. ENDOSULFAN. Volume I Report and
Proposed Decision. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y
Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (I.N.I.A.), Ctra. De La Coruña, km. 7, 28040 – Madrid, España.
35
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document, Volume I: Health Risk Assessment.
Department of Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento. August
2008. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/hlth_rsk_asmt1.pdf.
36
US EPA. 2007. Endosulfan. Acute and Chronic (Food and Drinking Water) Dietary Exposure
Assessment to update the 2002 Registration Eligibility Decision. March 14, 2007. United States
Environmental Protection Agency. Available in the public docket at www.regulations.gov under docket ID
No. EPA-HQ-OPP-2002-0262-0061.
37
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document, Volume I: Health Risk Assessment.
Department of Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento. August
2008. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/finaleval/endosulfan.htm.
38
ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Endosulfan. Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
Atlanta, USA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp41.html.
39
ATSDR 2000, op. cit.
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including Endosulfan was even more toxic, causing 99% mortality. In contrast
grey tree frog tadpoles (Hyla versicolor) were unaffected by exposure to this level
of Endosulfan alone or in combination with other insecticides, and survival to
metamorphosis was statistically identical to controls. Relyea also cites
unpublished work finding LC50s as low as 1 ppb for undisclosed tadpole species,
a study finding that Litoria Citropa tadpoles exposed to 0.8 ppb experienced 11–
34% mortality, and other studies reporting significant mortality in salamander and
tadpole species exposed to Endosulfan in the range of tens to hundreds of ppb. 40
32. Endosulfan is highly toxic to bees, with an acute oral toxicity LD50 of 2 μg
ai/bee, and an acute contact toxicity LD50 of 0.82 μg ai/bee (both based on
formulated product).41 Sublethal effects of Endosulfan on bees include reduced
olfactory learning.42
33. Endosulfan is toxic to a wide range of beneficial insects. It significantly
reduced the emergence and the parasitism of the parasitic wasp Trichogramma
pretiosum,43 which kills the eggs of various moth pests such as heliothis, corn
borer, cabbage moth, loopers, and yellow peach moth. It is toxic to Orius
insidiosus (Minute pirate bug / insidious flower bug), which predates thrips, mites,
aphids and small caterpillars; and to the parasitic wasp Aphidius colemani, which
parasitizes aphids 44 —both important in glasshouse IPM programmes. Orius
insidiosus also predates Helicoverpa zea, cotton bollworm, as does Geocoris
punctipes. Endosulfan is toxic to both of these predators, but more so to females
of the latter species, and it reduces fecundity and consumption of bollworm eggs
by both predators.45 It is also toxic to the predacious mite Phytoseiulus persimilis,
which predates upon spider mites and is very important in IPM programmes.
Endosulfan reduces the number of females laying eggs and the number of eggs
that hatch.46 Endosulfan is highly toxic to the eggs and larvae of Chrysoperla
externa, a lacewing that predates mites and is a valuable biological control
40
Relyea R. 2008. A cocktail of contaminants: how mixtures of pesticides at low concentrations affect
aquatic communities. Oecologica [Epub November 11].
41
UNEP/FAO. 2006. Endosulfan. Documentation received from the European Commission to support its
notification of final regulatory action on endosulfan. United Nations Environment Programme and Food
and Agriculture Organisation. UNEP/FAO/RC/CRC.3/10/Add.1. http://www.pic.int/incs/crc3/j10add1)/English/K0654655%20CRC3-10-ADD-1%20final.pdf.
42
Decourtye A, Devillers J, Genecque E, Le Menach K, Budzinski H, Cluzeau S, Pham-Delegue MH.
2005. Comparative sublethal toxicity of nine pesticides on olfactory learning performances of the honeybee
Apis meillifera. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 48(2):242-50.
43
Bastos CS, de Almeida RP, Suinaga FA. 2006. Selectivity of pesticides used on cotton (Gossypium
hirsutum) to Trichogramma pretiosum reared on two laboratory-reared hosts. Pest Manag Sci 62:91–8.
44
Bostanian NJ, Akalach M. 2004. The contact toxicity of indoxacarb and five other insecticides to Orius
insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) and Aphidius colemani (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), beneficials used
in the greenhouse industry. Pest Manag Sci 60(12):1231-6.
45
Elzen GW. 2001. Lethal and sublethal effects of insecticide residues on Orius insidiorus (Hemiptera:
Anthocoridae) and Geocoris punctipes (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae). J Econ Entomol 94(1):55-9.
46
Bostanian NJ, Akalach M. 2006. The effect of indoxacarb and five other insecticides on Phytoseiulus
persimilis (Acari: Phytoseiidae), Amblyseius fallacis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and nymphs of Orius insidiosus
(Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Pest Manag Sci 62:334–9.
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species. 47 It also reduces prey consumption and web building of the spider
Araneus pratensis, an important predator of agricultural pests such as midges,
and an indicator of ecosystem disturbance (Benamú et al. 2007).48
34. Endosulfan significantly reduced the development of the ‘entomopathogenic’
fungus, Verticillium lecanii (Zimm.)—a fungus used in some IPM programmes to
kill insect pests such as aphids, thrips and whitefly.49
35. Endosulfan treatment of cotton fields in India resulted in a 60.5% decrease in
the population of the beneficial bacteria actinomycetes 10 days after treatment. 50
Actinomycetes play a vital role in replenishing the supply of nutrients in the soil:
they help with the decomposition of organic matter and the formation of humus,
particularly by breaking down cellulose and chitin; and help non-leguminous
plants fix nitrogen. Endosulfan is also toxic to the major groups of beneficial small
soil invertebrates, mites and springtails, causing a persistent decline in
populations. These invertebrates are key to maintaining soil fertility and mixing
the organic and mineral components of soil.51
36. Coral organisms are highly sensitive to Endosulfan at around detection limits,
with effects noted including bleaching, reduced larval set, metamorphosis and
photosynthetic efficiency. Contamination of coral reefs with run-off from
agricultural areas could have a profound effect—even at levels at the limits of
detection—on the replenishment of populations of coral organisms, and hence
survival of the reefs.52
Systemic effects
37. The primary systemic targets are the liver and kidney, but Endosulfan also
causes haematological and respiratory effects as a result of generalised effects
on the central nervous system. Observed effects on rats include inflammation of
lungs; congestion and degeneration of kidney tubules, renal necrosis, and renal
haemorrhage; congestion and necrosis of the liver; blood in small intestines;
decreased haemoglobin and red blood cell count in protein deficient rats;
47
Schneider MI, Pineda P, Smagghe G. 2006. Side effects of conventional and non-conventional
insecticides on eggs and larvae of Chrysoperla externa (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) in Argentine.
Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci 71(2 Pt B):425-7.
48
Benamú MA, Schneider MI, Pineda S, Sanchez NE, Gonzalez A. 2007. Sublethal effects of two
neurotoxican insecticides on Araneus pratensis (Araneae: Araneidae). Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci
72(3):557-9.
49
Alizadeh A, Samih MA, Izadi H. 2007. Compatibility of Verticillium lecani (Zimm.) with several
pesticides. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci 72(4):1011-5.
50
Vig K, Singh DK, Agarwal HC, Dhawan AK, Dureja P. 2008. Soil microorganisms in cotton fields
sequentially treated with insecticides. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 69(2):263-76.
51
Joy VC, Chakravorty PP. 1991. Impact of insecticide on nontarget microarthropod fauna in agricultural
soil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 22(1):8-16).
52
Markey KL, Baird AH, Humphrey C, Negri AP. 2007. Insecticides and a fungicide affect multiple coral
life stages. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 330:127–37.
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calcification of heart and coronary and mesenteric arteries, aneurisms,
cardiotoxicity through oedema and swelling of myocardial cells, heart and
circulatory failure; reduced body weight gain, reduced appetite; and
hyperglycaemia more marked in older animals.53
38. “At a concentration of 0.001 pg/ml (1 ppb) Endosulfan was found to damage
human red cell membranes as demonstrated by fluorescence of 30-50% of red
cells on staining with MC-540. This was supported by the finding of crenation and
threading of red blood cells under SEM. At a concentration of 1 pg/ml (1 ppm) the
cells were markedly damaged.” … “This is accompanied with increased
permeability of these membranes as shown by estimation of plasma
haemoglobin in supernatants after incubation with Endosulfan”.54
Neurological and behavioural effects
39. Occupational inhalation of Endosulfan, in an Israeli chemical factory, led to
long-term brain damage with psychiatric manifestations. The man suffered longterm cognitive and emotional deterioration, severe memory impairment, and
inability to perform small tasks, with impaired visual-motor coordination. The
acute phase included malaise, repeated convulsions and impaired
consciousness, and after recovery from these the person became disoriented
and agitated.55
40. An agricultural pilot exposed to Endosulfan showed persistent “nonspecific
epileptic foci in the cerebral frontal lobes”.56
41. From 1992–2005, Endosulfan was identified as a potential contributor to 58
cases of pesticide related illness in the state of California, USA. Almost all cases
involved either pesticide applicators or farmworkers exposed occupationally. Skin
irritation and rashes were the most common symptoms (43 cases), though
systemic effects and signs of neurotoxicity (nausea, numbness, headache, etc.)
were also sometimes noted (15 cases), as were respiratory effects (15 cases).57
Elsewhere in the US, two cases are noteworthy. In one case, a mixer spilled
Endosulfan onto his clothes and did not wash or change his clothing. He may
also have been exposed to acephate and maleic hydrazide. The second was
53
ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Endosulfan. Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
Atlanta, USA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp41.html.
54
Daniel CS, Agarwal S, Agarwal SS. 1986. Human red blood cell membrane damage by endosulfan.
Toxicol Letts 32(1-2):113-8.
55
Alexsandrowicz DR. 1979. Endosulfan poisoning and chronic brain syndrome. Arch Toxicol 43:65-8.
56
ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Endosulfan. Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
Atlanta, USA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp41.html.
57
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document, Volume II: Exposure Assessment, HS-1647.
Department of Pesticide Regulations, California Environmental Protection Agency, May 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/whs/pdf/hs1647.pdf.
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similar, but involved only Endosulfan. The first case was fatal; the second
resulted in “permanent neurological impairment”.58
42. A case-control study, by the National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH),
of 619 school children in the Kasargod District of Kerala, India, that had been
chronically exposed to Endosulfan through spraying of neighbouring cashew nut
plantations, found a “significantly higher prevalence of neurobehavioural
disorders” in the study group compared with the control group of 416 children.
The finding included significantly higher “scholastic backwardness” and reduced
IQ, and a higher prevalence of arrogant and aggressive behaviour and
restlessness. The authors concluded that “in the study groups the children are
having a number of functional abnormalities of the nervous system which though
not severe enough to prevent them from attending school, may interfere with
their optimal intellectual development and total personality”. There was also a
non-statistically significant increase in prevalence of epilepsy in girls. 59
43. An epidemiological study in California (USA), by Roberts et al. (2007), linked
maternal non-occupational exposure to Endosulfan and dicofol to autism in
children amongst women living within 500m of its application during the first
trimester of pregnancy, suggesting exposure by inhalation of drift. The rate of
autism was 6 times higher than expected.60
44. Endosulfan caused behavioural effects in rats, including aggression and
increased time to learn tasks, even after exposure had ceased; and impaired
learning and memory processes, extreme sensitivity to noise and light, and
muscle spasms.61
45. Developmental exposure to Endosulfan may increase the risk of Parkinson’s
disease through its effects on neurotransmitters and amino acids in the brain. It
changes the brain levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine, noradrenalin and
serotonin.62 Mice exposed to endosulfan from postnatal days 5 to 19 exhibited
only insignificant changes in dopamine, acetylcholinesterase and alpha-synuclein
levels; however when re-exposed as adults they showed significantly depleted
dopamine,
increased
levels
of
alpha-synuclein
and
increased
58
Brandt VA, Moon S, Ehlers J, Methner MM, Struttmann T. 2001. Exposure to endosulfan in farmers:
two case studies. Am J Ind Med 39(6):643-9.
59
NIOH. 2003. Final Report of the Investigation of Unusual Illnesses Allegedly Produced by Endosulfan
Exposure in Padre Village of Kasargod District (N Kerala). National Institute of Occupational Health,
Indian Council for Medical Research, Ahmedabad.
60
Roberts EM, English PB, Grether KJ, Windham GC, Somberg L, Wolff C. 2007. Maternal residence near
agricultural pesticide applications and autism spectrum disorders among children in the California Central
Valley. Environ Health Perspect 115(10):1482-9.
61
ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Endosulfan. Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
Atlanta, USA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp41.html.
62
ATSDR 2000, op. cit.
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acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain.63 Endosulfan, at low concentrations (10
nmol/l to 10 umol/l) also inhibits proteasome activity and degradation of alphasynuclein.64 The loss of dopamine and the accumulation of alpha-synuclein are
both associated with Parkinson’s disease.
46. Cabaleiro et al. (2008) 65 recently reported a developmental neurotoxicity
(DNT) study in which Endosulfan was administered to pregnant Sprague-Dawley
rats at 0, 0.61, and 6.12 mg Endosulfan/kg/day orally via gavage from the
beginning of gestation until weaning. Changes in neurochemistry in pups were
noted at doses that were not maternally toxic. At the highest dose tested (HDT),
the body weight of dams was statistically significantly depressed at the end of
gestation. Adverse effects were not noted in dams at the lowest dose tested
(LDT), but were observed in their offspring. Male offspring were sacrificed at
post-natal days (PND) 15, 30, and 60, and biogenic amine and amino acid levels
in the prefrontal cortex were determined. At the LDT, aspartate, glutamate, and
serotonin levels differed statistically significantly from controls at PND 30; GABA
levels differed significantly at PND 60; the ratio of homovanilic acid to dopamine
differed significantly at PND 15; the ratio of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid to
dopamine differed significantly at PND 15 and 60; and taurine levels differed
significantly at PND 15 and 30. At the HDT, aspartate and glutamate levels
differed significantly from controls at PND 15 and 30; glutamine levels differed
significantly at PND 15; taurine levels differed significantly at PND 15, 30, and
60; the ratio of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid to dopamine differed significantly
at PND 15 and 60; serotonin levels differed significantly at PND 30 and 60; and
the ratio of 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid to serotonin differed significantly at PND
60. Pup weight gain was statistically significantly decreased at PND 21 at the
LDT (and at PND 15, 21, and 30 at the HDT).
47. Gilmore (2006)66 reported a developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) study to the
US EPA in support of continued Endosulfan registration in the US. In this study,
Endosulfan was administered to dams beginning on the 6 th day of pregnancy and
continuing until weaning (post-natal day 21). This study did not find signs of DNT
in pups or of neurotoxicity in dams, even at the highest dose tested, 29.8
mg/kg/day. However other adverse effects were noted, including decreased
weight gain (pups and dams) and delayed preputial separation (pups).
63
Jia Z, Misra HP. 2007. Developmental exposure to pesticides zineb and/or endosulfan renders the
nigrostriatal dopamine system more susceptible to these environmental chemicals later in life.
Neurotoxicology 28(4):727-35.
64
Wang XF, Li S, Chou AP, Bronstein JM. 2006. Inhibitory effects of pesticides on proteasome activity:
implication in Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 23(1):198-205.
65
Cabaleiro T, Caride A, Romero A, Lafuente A. 2008. Effects of in utero and lactational exposure to
endosulfan in prefrontal cortex of male rats. Toxicol Lett 176(1):58-67.
66
Gilmore RG, Sheets LP, Hoss HE. 2006. A Developmental Neurotoxicity Study with Technical Grade
Endosulfan in Wistar Rats. Bayer CropScience LP, Toxicology, Stilwell KS: Report No. 201563; 9/26/06.
See also: US EPA. 2007. PC079402: Endosulfan—Developmental Neurotoxicity Feeding Study in Rats
with Endosulfan [MRID £ 46968301], Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OPP-2002-0262-58, March, 2007. Both
can be found in public docket http://www.regulations.gov under document ID no EPA-HQ-OPP-20020262-0058.1.
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Interpretation of this study’s results has been difficult, and there is disagreement
among experts about what the No Observable Adverse Effects Levels (NOAEL)
are. The authors identified 3.74 mg/kg/day as the NOAEL for both dams and
pups based on effects observed at the next highest dose. For dams these effects
were “Statistically significant decreases in body weight, weight gain and food
consumption during gestation and statistically significant decreases in body
weight during lactation”; and for pups “Statistically significant decreases in pre(both sexes) and post-weaning (males only) body weight and similar decreases
in body weight gain, a delay in balanopreputial separation and significant
decrease in PND 21 terminal body weight (perfused females)”. Reviewers at the
US EPA disagreed with the authors’ conclusions about the pup NOAEL, finding
that pup weights were also reduced at 3.74 mg/kg/day. US EPA therefore
considers 3.74 mg/kg/day to be the Lowest Observable Adverse Effects Level
(LOAEL) for pups, and estimates the pup NOAEL to be 1.75 mg/kg/day by
applying a 3-fold uncertainty factor to the LOAEL. 67 In contrast, the California
Department of Pesticide Regulation (USA) considers 3.74 mg/kg/day to be the
LOAEL for both dams and pups. 68 The usefulness of this study is further
undermined by the fact that dosing did not begin until the sixth day of gestation.
In humans, early pregnancy is a critical period for neural development, and
Roberts et al. (2007; see above) found that Endosulfan exposure during the first
trimester was correlated with increased autism incidence. Since dosing in the
Gilmore study did not begin until about 1/3 through gestation, this window of
increased susceptibility was missed. Finally, LD50 values for Endosulfan in
females range from 10-22.7 mg/kg, 69 and convulsions have been observed in
female Wistar rats fed a single 3.0 mg/kg dose. 70 In contrast, in the Gilmore
study, which was also carried out in Wistar rats, no convulsions or other signs of
neurotoxicity were observed, even in females fed doses as high as 29.8
mg/kg/day for 5 weeks. The large discrepancy between the results of this study
vis-à-vis others casts doubts on its integrity.
Reproductive and developmental effects
48. The NIOH case-control study of 619 school children in the Kasargod District
US EPA. 2007. Endosulfan. The Health Effects Division’s Addendum and Update to the 2002 Risk
Assessment. November 13, 2007. Available in the public docket at http://www.regulations.gov under
Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OPP-2002-0262-0064.
68
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document, Volume II: Exposure Assessment, HS-1647.
Department of Pesticide Regulations, California Environmental Protection Agency, May 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/whs/pdf/hs1647.pdf.
69
EU. 1999. Monograph prepared in the context of the inclusion of the following active
substance in Annex I of the Council Directive 91/414/EEC. ENDOSULFAN. Volume I Report and
Proposed Decision. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y
Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (I.N.I.A.), Ctra. De La Coruña, km. 7, 28040 – Madrid, España.
70
EPA. 2007. Endosulfan. Hazard Characterization and Endpoint Selection Reflecting Receipt of a
Developmental Neurotoxicity Study and Subchronic Neurotoxicity Study. United States Environmental
Protection Agency, April 2, 2007. Available in the public docket at http://www.regulations.gov under
Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OPP-2002-0262-0065.
67
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of Kerala, India, that had been chronically exposed to Endosulfan through
spraying of neighbouring cashew nut plantations, found a “significantly higher
prevalence of congenital malformations in female subjects and abnormalities
related to the male reproductive system” in the study group compared with the
control group of 416 children. “The prominent abnormalities were congenital
heart diseases and skeletal abnormalities.” … “The abnormalities of testes like
Cryptorchidism and hydrocele were reported exclusively amongst the study
subjects.” The study found statistically significant lower sexual maturity rating
scores for males for pubic hair, penis and testes, and higher physiological goitre
occurring at onset of puberty. It also found significantly higher prevalence of
subnormal or delayed mental development.71 72
49. Pregnant rats were exposed to Endosulfan (1 or 2 mg/kg/day) from day 12 of
gestation through parturition. Exposure to Endosulfan during foetal gonadal
differentiation altered the process of spermatogenesis by affecting testicular
lactate dehydrogenase and sorbitol dehydrogenase. Reduction in spermatid
count in testis and sperm count in cauda epididymis was observed. Testis,
epididymis and seminal vesicle showed significant decrease in weights in both
the treated groups while no effect on prostate weight was recorded. “Hence it can
be suggested that endosulfan interferes in the process of spermatogenesis”. The
overall toxicity was dose dependent. The dose levels were not maternally toxic,
and no mortality, clinical or behavioural effects were observed.73
50. In a study of 21 women attending an in vitro fertilisation programme in
Canada, a correlation was found between levels of Endosulfan in serum and lack
of fertilisation. The mean level of endosulfan in serum from women who became
pregnant was 160 pg/ml, whilst that of women who did not achieve fertilisation
was 810 pg/ml.74
51. Dose levels of 4 mg/kg/day completely inhibited implantation in female mice,
as well as significantly decreasing dioestrus and increasing oestrus.75
52. Endosulfan at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 10 uM disrupted the human
retinoid signalling pathway in reporter cell lines, and Lemaire et al. (2005)
71
NIOH. 2003. Final Report of the Investigation of Unusual Illnesses Allegedly Produced by Endosulfan
Exposure in Padre Village of Kasargod District (N Kerala). National Institute of Occupational Health,
Indian Council for Medical Research, Ahmedabad.
72
Saiyed H, Dewan A, Bhatnagar V, Shenoy U, Shenoy R, Rajmohan H, Patel K, Kashyap R, Kulkarni P,
Rajan B, Lakkad B. 2003. Effect of endosulfan on male reproductive development. Environ Health
Perspect 111(16):1958-62.
73
Sinha N, Adhikari N, Saxena DK. 2001. Effect of endosulfan during gonadal differentiation on
spermatogenesis in rats. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 10:29-32.
74
Younglai EV, Foster WG, Hughes EG, Trim K, Jarrell JF. 2002. Levels of environmental contaminants
in human follicular fluid, serum, and seminal plasma of couples undergoing in vitro fertilization. Arch
Environ Contam Toxicol 43(1):121-26.
75
Hiremath MB, Kaliwal BB. 2002. The anti-implantation action of endosulfan in albino mice: possible
mechanisms. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 13(4):329-40.
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proposed this as the explanation for observed teratogenic effects in humans as a
result of long-term exposure.76
53. Endosulfan, at a dose level of 1 mg/kg body weight administered to pregnant
rats by oral intubation, “caused significant teratogenic effects in the developing
fetuses. There was no maternal mortality, however, reduced maternal weight
gain and number of live fetuses and increased fetal resorptions were recorded.
The fetal body weights and crown to rump lengths were significantly decreased
and the per cent gross, visceral and skeletal anomalies were significantly
increased in the fetuses of dams of all the treated groups. The internal
hydrocephalus, cerebellar hypoplasia, microphthalmia, contracted and notched
kidneys, multilobulated liver, dilated renal pelvis, incomplete ossification of skull
bones, rib anomalies and sacral and caudal vertebrae agenesis were the
important fetal malformations.” 77
54. Dalsenter et al. (1999)78 treated pregnant Wistar rats from gestation day 15
through day 21 of lactation with endosulfan at 0, 1.5, and 3 mg/kg/day and
examined male offspring for reproductive effects. Age of testis descent and
preputial separation were not affected at either dose, but at both doses sperm
production was reduced and histology revealed abnormalities at puberty (day
65). At the highest dose only, sperm production was still reduced at day 140. In a
follow-up study (Dalsenter 2003),79 female Wistar rats were treated at 0, 0.5, and
1.5 mg/kg/day from 21 days prior to mating through lactation. Age of testis
descent and preputial separation in male offspring were evaluated along with a
number of other reproductive endpoints including sex organ weights, sperm
parameters, and testosterone levels. The authors reported that “with the
exception of a significant increase in the relative epididymis weight seen in the
group treated with the lowest dose, we have not found any statistically significant
adverse effect in the reproductive endpoints investigated at adulthood.” However,
the authors assessed statistical significance only at the P < 0.01 level, rather
than the more common P < 0.05 level. We observe that the age of preputial
separation increased with dose, and this increase does appear to reach
statistical significance at the P < 0.05 level for the 1.5 mg/kg/day dose group.80
76
Lemaire G, Balaguer P, Michel S, Rahmani R. 2005. Activation of retinoic acid receptor-dependent
transcription by organochlorine pesticides. Toxicol Appld Pharmacol 202:38-49.
77
Singh ND, Sharma AK, Dwivedi P, Patil RD, Kumar M. 2006. Citrinin and endosulfan induced
teratogenic effects in Wistar rats. J Appl Toxicol 27(6):589-601.
78
Dalsenter PR, Dallegrave E, Mello JR, Langeloh A, Oliveira RT, Faqi AS. 1999. Reproductive effects of
endosulfan on male offspring of rats exposed during pregnancy and lactation. Hum Exp Toxicol 18(9):5839.
79
Dalsenter PR, de Araújo SL, de Assis HC, Andrade AJ, Dallegrave E. 2003. Pre and postnatal exposure
to endosulfan in Wistar rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 22(4):171-5.
80
Using the Student t-test and assuming unequal population standard deviations, the one- and two-tailed pvalues are thus 0.022 and 0.043, respectively.
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55. Reproductive endpoints were also evaluated in the Gilmore (2006) 81 DNT
study discussed above. Despite its shortcomings noted above, the study did find
that preputial separation was delayed at 10.8 and 29.8 mg/kg/day. Sperm
parameters were not affected, but the California Office of Environmental Health
Hazard Assessment (USA) has noted since treatment was stopped at weaning
and did not continue through puberty, this study cannot be used to rule out the
possibility of adverse effects on male reproduction from endosulfan exposure. 82
Immune effects
56. The ATSDR derived a NOAEL of 0.45 mg/kg/day for immunological effects of
Endosulfan, on the basis of a dietary study83 in which male Wistar rats received
technical-grade Endosulfan at dietary levels of 0, 5, 10, or 20 ppm, equivalent to
0, 0.45, 0.9, and 1.8 mg/kg/day, and were immunized with tetanus toxin. Rats in
the 10 ppm dose group had significantly decreased serum IgG levels at weeks
12, 18, and 22. These rats also had significantly decreased antibody titer to
tetanus toxin at weeks 8, 12, 18, and 22. Leukocyte and macrophage migration
were also inhibited at weeks 8, 12, 18, and 22. The magnitude of the differences
between the 10 ppm rats and the controls increased at each later time point.
These rats also had an increased albumin-to-globulin ratio at week 22. Rats in
the 20 ppm dose group exhibited similar changes, but to a greater degree. In
addition, at weeks 2, 18, and 22, these rats showed an increased albumin-toglobulin ratio, and at 22 weeks, these rats showed a decrease in relative spleen
weight. The NOAEL value of 0.45 mg/kg/day was calculated from the 5 ppm
group.84
57. “Endosulfan can induce apoptosis in a human T-cell leukemic cell line which
may have direct relevance to loss of T cells and thymocytes in vivo.” …
“Endosulfan lowered cell viability and inhibited cell growth in a dose- and timedependent manner. DAPI staining was used to enumerate apoptotic cells and we
observed that endosulfan at 10–200 AM induced a significant percentage of cells
to undergo apoptotic cell death. At 48 h, more than 90% cells were apoptotic with
50 μM of endosulfan.” 85
81
Gilmore RG, Sheets LP, Hoss HE. 2006. A Developmental Neurotoxicity Study with Technical Grade
Endosulfan in Wistar Rats. Bayer CropScience LP, Toxicology, Stilwell KS: Report No. 201563; 9/26/06.
Can be found in public docket http://www.regulations.gov under document ID no EPA-HQ-OPP-20020262-0058.1.
82
OEHHA. 2008. Revised findings on the health effects of the active ingredient: endosulfan. Office of
Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, June 4, 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/memo_findings060408.pdf.
83
Banerjee BD, Hussain QZ. 1986. Effect of sub-chronic endosulfan exposure on humoral and cellmediated immune responses in albino rats. Arch Toxicol 59:279-84.
84
Abadin HG, Chou C-HSJ, Llados FT. 2007. Health effects classification and its role in the derivation of
minimal risk levels: Immunological effects. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 47:249–56.
85
Kannan K, Holcombe RF, Jain SK, Alvarez-Hernandez X, Chervenak R, Wolf RE, Glass J. 2000.
Evidence for the induction of apoptosis by endosulfan in a human T-cell leukemic line. Mol Cell Biochem
205:53-66.
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58. Endosulfan was immunosuppressive and immunotoxic in sheep leukocytes.
At a concentration of 10-1 M it caused significant suppression of the metabolic
activity of phagocytic cells and decreased spontaneous migration of leukocytes,
and at 10-3 M it significantly decreased lymphocytic activation.86
59. In broiler chicks, Endosulfan at 2 ppm (dietary) significantly reduced total
leucocytes, T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, macrophages, and caused atrophy
and haemorrhage of the thymus gland.87
60. At concentrations of 10-11 to 10-8 M, Endosulfan caused rapid, dose-related
release of β–hexosaminidase (a marker for the granules that contain preformed
allergic mediators) from human mast cells, and enhanced IgE-mediated
release.88
Genotoxicity and mutagenicity
61. The ATSDR concluded “In summary, genotoxicity studies of endosulfan have
provided evidence that this compound is mutagenic and clastogenic, and that it
induces effects on cell cycle kinetics in two different mammalian species.” 89
62. Both OEHHA 90 and the Scientific Review Panel for California’s Toxic Air
Contaminants Program (USA)91 concluded in 2008 that Endosulfan is likely to be
genotoxic.
63. Endosulfan and its metabolites (diol, ether, hydroxyether, lactone and
sulphate) were genotoxic in Chinese hamster ovary cells and human
lymphocytes using the comet assay and mutagenic in Salmonella using the
Ames test. There were statistically significant concentration dependent (0.25-10
86
Pistl J, Kovalkovicova N, Holovska V, Legath J, Mikula I. 2003. Determination of the immunotoxic
potential of pesticides on functional activity of sheep leukocytes in vitro. Toxicology 188(1):73-81.
87
Garg UK, Pal AK, Jha GJ, Jadhao SB. 2004. Haemato-biochemical and immuno-pathophysiological
effects of chronic toxicity with synthetic pyrethroid, organophosphate and chlorinated pesticides in broiler
chicks. Int Immunopharmacol 4(13):1709-22.
88
Narita S, Goldblum RM, Watson CS, Brooks EG, Estes DM, Curran EM, Midoro-Horiuti T. 2007.
Environmental estrogens induce mast cell degranulation and enhance IgE-mediated release of allergic
mediators. Environ Health Perspect 115(1):48-52.
89
ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Endosulfan. Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
Atlanta, USA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp41.html. p 135.
90
OEHHA. 2008. Revised findings on the health effects of the active ingredient: endosulfan. Office of
Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento. June
4, 2008. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/memo_findings060408.pdf.
91
SRP. 2008. Findings of the Scientific Review Panel on Toxic Air Contaminants on the Proposed
Identification of Endosulfan as a Toxic Air Contaminant. Scientific Review Panel on Toxic Air
Contaminants, Department of Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency,
Sacramento. May 16, 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/srp_finding_end_final.pdf.
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uM) increases in DNA damage in both the ovary cells and the lymphocytes. It
was mutagenic in some strains of Salmonella at concentrations of 1-20
ug/plate.92
64. Endosulfan caused significant DNA damage as determined by increases in
tail length in the comet assay, in human lymphocytes in vitro, at concentrations
from 0.7 to 1 mg/ml.93
65. Endosulfan was genotoxic in human HepG2 cells. DNA strand breaks were
significantly induced by alpha-Endosulfan at concentrations from 2×10-4 M to
1×10-3 M, and by beta-Endosulfan at 1×10-3 M, as detected by the single-cell gel
electrophoresis assay.94
66. Endosulfan was genotoxic in the fresh water teleost fish Mystus vittatus at
nonlethal concentrations 1/10 of the LC50. Using the comet assay, it caused
significant single-strand DNA breaks in gill, kidney and erythrocytes, in a
concentration dependent manner at all concentrations (0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 ug/l).95
67. Endosulfan caused significant dose-dependent increases in erythrocytic
micronuclei and erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities in the blood of gilthead sea
bream Sparus aurata L., using micronuclei assays, at concentrations 0.5 and 1
ug/l.96
68. Endosulfan was genotoxic in embryos of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea
gigas, causing DNA strand breaks using the comet assay, in a dose-dependent
manner that became statistically significant at the highest dose used, 150 nM.97
69. Endosulfan was genotoxic in the root tip cells of the wetland macrophyte
Bidens laevis L (bur marigold, beggars tick) at environmentally relevant
concentrations. It interacted with the mitotic spindle at concentrations of 5 ug/l.98
92
Bajpayee M, Pandey AK, Zaidi S, Musarrat J, Parmar D, Mathur N, Serth PK, Dhawan A. 2006. DNA
damage and mutagenicity induced by endosulfan and its metabolites. Environ Mol Mutagen 47(9):682-92.
93
Jamil K, Shaik AP, Mahboob M, Krishna D. 2004. Effect of organophosphorus and organochlorine
pesticides (monocrotophos, chlorpyriphos, dimethoate, and endosulfan) on human lymphocytes in-vitro.
Drug Chem Toxicol 27(2):133-44.
94
Lu Y, Morimoto K, Takeshita T, Takeuchi T, Saito T. 2000. Genotoxic effects of alpha-endosulfan and
beta-endosulfan on human HepG2 cells. Environ Health Perspect 108(6):559-61.
95
Sharma S, Nagpure NS, Kumar R, Pandey S, Srivastava SK, Singh PJ, Mathur PK. 2007. Studies on the
genotoxicity of endosulfan in different tissues of fresh water fish Mystus vittatus using the Comet assay.
Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 53(4):617-23.
96
Neuparth T, Bickham JW, Theodorakis CW, Costa FO, Costa MH. 2006. Endosulfan-induced
genotoxicity detected in the Gilthead Seabream, Sparus aurata L., by means of flow cytometry and
micronuclei assays. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 76(2):242-8.
97
Wessel N, Rousseau S, Caisey X, Quiniou F, Akcha F. 2007. Investigating the relationship between
embryotoxic and genotoxic effects of benzo[a]pyrene, 17a-ethinylestradiol and endosulfan on Crassostrea
gigas embryos. Aquat Toxicol 85:133-42.
98
Perez DJ, Menone ML, Camadro EL, Moreno VJ. 2007. Genotoxicity evaluation of the insecticide
endosulfan in the wetland macrophyte Bidens laevis L. Environ Pol 153(3):695-8.
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70. Endosulfan caused DNA strand breaks in a comet assay on microalgae
Karenia mikimotoi at concentrations of 1 ug/l.99
Cancer
71. Endosulfan, as the formulated product Thiodan, “induced malignant
neoplasms at all sites in male and female [Osborne-Mendel] rats and in the
endocrine organs of male rats. Rats of both sexes developed lymphosarcomas,
and female rats had neoplasms of the reproductive system. Endosulfan is
carcinogenic for the liver of female mice.” 100
72. Alpha-Endosulfan and beta-Endosulfan “enhanced development of CGTpositive foci in rat liver indicating that it is a potential liver tumour promoter in a
similar manner to structurally-related chlorinated cyclodienes”.101
73. Endosulfan is described as a potential carcinogen as a result of its ability to
inhibit apoptosis, the generation of reactive oxygen species resulting in oxidative
stress, and increased DNA strand breaks.102
74. Through its oestrogenic effects (see below) it has the potential to contribute
to cancers of oestrogen-sensitive tissue such as breast tissue.
75. The Scientific Review Panel for California’s Toxic Air Contaminants Program
(USA) concluded that although “[e]ndosulfan has not consistently induced tumors
in rats and mice… due to its genotoxicity and tumor promoting ability, endosulfan
has the potential to be carcinogenic with further studies required.” 103
Endocrine effects
76. The NIOH study of the children in Kerala exposed to Endosulfan previously
referred to found endocrine disruption had occurred. It found statistically
99
Akcha F, Arzul G, Rousseau S, Bardouil M. 2008. Comet assay in phytoplankton as biomarker of
genotoxic effects of environmental pollution. Mar Environ Res 66(1):59-61.
100
Reuber MD. 1981. The role of toxicity in the carcinogenicity of endosulfan. Sci Total Environ 20(1):2347.
101
Fransson-Steen R, Flodstrom S, Warngard L. 1992. The insecticide endosulfan and its two stereoisomers
promote the growth of altered hepatic foci in rats. Carcinogenesis 13(12):2299-303.
102
Antherieu S, Ledirac N, Luzy AP, Lenormand P, Caron JC, Rahmani R. 2007. Endosulfan decreases cell
growth and apoptosis in human HaCaT keratinocytes: Partial ROS-dependent ERK1/2 mechanism. J Cell
Physiol 213(1):177-86.
103
SRP. 2008. Findings of the Scientific Review Panel on Toxic Air Contaminants on the Proposed
Identification of Endosulfan as a Toxic Air Contaminant. Scientific Review Panel on Toxic Air
Contaminants, Department of Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency,
Sacramento. May 16, 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/srp_finding_end_final.pdf.
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significant higher prevalence of menstrual disorders particularly longer periods
and irregular or excessive flow, as well as statistically significantly higher skin
fold thickness in female pre-pubertal and pubertal children, and significantly
lower skin fold thickness in males less than 10 years of age. The study found that
the levels of luteinizing hormone, progesterone and oestradiol were higher in the
exposed children and the levels of testosterone were lower, when comparing for
sex and age.104
77. An in vivo study on rats found Endosulfan modulated oestrogen-sensitive
genes at the mRNA and protein levels. It caused statistically significant
alterations in levels of hormone receptors and complement factor-3 mRNAs in
the uteri of ovariectomized rats dosed on three consecutive days with 0.006
mg/kg/day Endosulfan, a non-uterotrophic dose, which mimicked the actions of
estradiol. This dose level is 100 times smaller than the NOEL.105
78. “Endosulfan significantly inhibited testicular androgen biosynthesis in adult
rats, when fed at 7.5 and 10 mg/kg body weight dose levels, consecutively for 15
and 30 days. No appreciable alterations were apparent in body weights,
testicular wet weights, and cytosolic and microsomal protein contents of testis in
treated rats. Profound decrease in the levels of plasma gonadotrophins (FSH and
LH) along with plasma testosterone and testicular testosterone were observed at
both the doses of endosulfan, particularly after the longer exposure of 30 days.
Activities of steroidogenic enzymes studied (3 beta- and 17 beta-hydroxysteroid
dehydrogenases) were considerably lowered on longer exposure of endosulfan.
A significant decrease in the contents/activities of microsomal cytochrome P-450
and related mixed function oxidases (MFOs) in testis of treated rats was also
observed, along with a marked inhibition in the activity of cytosolic conjugation
enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase at both doses studied. These biochemical
changes were reversed when the endosulfan treatment was withdrawn.”
However the testicular testosterone remained depressed.106
79. Technical grade Endosulfan and the alpha and beta isomers were found to
be oestrogenic at concentrations of 10-25 uM, causing proliferation of human
breast cancer oestrogen sensitive MCF7 cells in an E-screen assay.107
104
NIOH. 2003. Final Report of the Investigation of Unusual Illnesses Allegedly Produced by Endosulfan
Exposure in Padre Village of Kasargod District (N Kerala). National Institute of Occupational Health,
Indian Council for Medical Research, Ahmedabad. p37-38.
105
Varayoud J, Monje L, Bernhardt T, Munoz-de-Toro M, Luque EH, Ramos JG. 2008. Endosulfan
modulates estrogen-dependent genes like a non-uterotrophic dose of 17B-estradiol. Repro Toxicol
26(2):138-45.
106
Singh SK, Pandey RS. 1990. Effect of sub-chronic endosulfan exposures on plasma gonadotrophins,
testosterone, testicular testosterone and enzymes of androgen biosynthesis in rat. Indian J Exp Biol
28(10):953-6.
107
Soto AM, Chung KL, Sonnenschein C. 1994. The pesticides endosulfan, toxaphene, and dieldrin have
estrogenic effects on human estrogen-sensitive cells. Environ Health Perspect 102(4):380-83.
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80. Alpha-Endosulfan (100 nM) caused concentration dependent oestrogen
receptor mediated cell proliferation in BG-1 ovarian cells, as well as upregulation
of the ERE-dependent progesterone receptors.108
81. Endosulfan elicited rapid extracellular-regulated kinase activation in pituitary
tumour cells, which leads to cell proliferation, in a manner similar to the other
oestrogenic substances tested. It showed a bimodal response: it was active at
10-14 M and at 10-8 M, but not at 10-10 M concentrations.109
82. Alpha-Endosulfan was anti-progestogenic in a recombinant yeast based in
vitro bioassay, causing significant reduction in progesterone-induced
transactivation at 1 uM concentration.110
83. Endosulfan at 10 uM concentrations significantly induced aromatase activity
in human choriocarcinoma JEG-3 cells after 24 hr exposure.111
Interactions with other chemicals
84. Like the related organochlorine pesticides Lindane, Aldrin, Dieldrin, and
Chlordane, Endosulfan is a GABA antagonist. Therefore, there exists the
possibility of cumulative or additive effects resulting from co-exposure to
Endosulfan and these pesticides.
85. In rats, simultaneous exposure to Endosulfan and methyl parathion can
cause “behavioral alternations” not observed when these pesticides are
administered individually. Co-exposed rats performed worse on a water-maze
and displayed impaired learning compared to singly-exposed and control
animals. These effects were observed in the absence of signs of systemic
toxicity.112
86. It has been shown that chickens may be adversely affected by simultaneous
exposure to arsenic and Endosulfan more than the exposure to either chemical in
isolation.113
108
Wong PS, Matsumura F. 2006. Serum free BG-1 cell proliferation assay: a sensitive method for
determining organochlorine pesticide estrogen receptor activation at the nanomolar range. Toxicol In Vitro
20(3):382-94.
109
Bulayeva NN, Watson CS. 2004. Xenoestrogen-induced ERK-1 and ERK-2 activation via multiple
membrane-initiated signalling pathways. Environ Health Perspect 112(15):1481-7.
110
Chatterjee S, Kumar V, Majumder CB, Roy P. 2008. Screening of some anti-progestin endocrine
disruptors using a recombinant yeast-based in vitro bioassay. Toxicol in Vitro 22(3):788-98.
111
Laville N, Balguerf P, Brion F, Hinfray N, Casellas C, Porcher JM, Ait-Aissa S. 2006. Modulation of
aromatase and mRNA by various selected pesticides in the human choriocarcinoma JEG-3 cell line.
Toxicology 228(1):98-108.
112
Castillo CG, Montante M, Dufour L, Martínez ML, Jiménez-Capdeville ME. 2002. Behavioral effects of
exposure to endosulfan and methyl parathion in adult rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 24(6):797–804.
113
(a) Aggarwal M, Naraharisetti SB, Sarkar SN, Rao GS, Degen GH, Malik JK. 2008. Effects of
subchronic coexposure to arsenic and endosulfan on the erythrocytes of broiler chickens: A biochemical
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87. Endosulfan and zineb in combination exhibited significantly higher toxicity to
human cells than either by itself.114
(c) Environmental fate (provide summary information and relevant
references)
Chemical/physical properties
Persistence
88. The US State of California recently finalized its Risk Characterization
Document (RCD) for endosulfan and concluded that: “Both α- and β-endosulfan
can be oxidized to endosulfan sulfate via biotic metabolism. Endosulfan sulfate is
of comparable toxicity as its parents and more persistent with half-life of 1002148 days, two or more times longer than its parents. Estimated half-lives for αand β-endosulfan in different soils and other environmental conditions ranged 19124 and 42-265 days respectively, and those for the combined toxic residues (αand β-endosulfan plus endosulfan sulfate) ranged from 9 months to 6 years.
They all can, when in water, hydrolyze abiotically or biotically to endosulfan diol.
Endosulfan diol is more hydrophilic and less toxic. Hydrolysis is favored in neutral
to alkaline media. At 250C estimated half-lives of α- and β- endosulfan were 11
and 19 days at pH 7, and 4 and 6 days, respectively, at pH 9. However, at pH 5,
they were more than 200 days for both α- and β-endosulfan.” 115
89. US EPA’s revised Ecological Risk Assessment of Endosulfan from 2007
identifies 1336 days as the aerobic soil half-life for total Endosulfan (alpha + beta
+ sulfate).116
90. Volatilized Endosulfan is not subject to photolysis or abiotic hydrolysis, and
the atmospheric half-life of alpha-Endosulfan was estimated to be 1.4 years.117
study. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol [Epub April 29]. (b) Aggarwal M, Naraharisetti SB, Dandapat S,
Degen GH, Malik JK. 2008. Perturbations in immune responses induced by concurrent subchronic
exposure to arsenic and endosulfan. Toxicology 251(1-3):51-60.
114
Jia Z, Misra HP. 2007. Exposure to mixtures of endosulfan and zineb induces apoptotic and necrotic cell
death in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, in vitro. J Appl Toxicol 27(5):434-6.
115
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document: Executive Summary. Department of
Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento. May 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/tacpdfs/endosulfan/exec_sum.pdf.
116
US EPA. 2007. Addendum to the Ecological Risk Assessment of Endosulfan. October, 31 st, 2008.
Available in the public docket at http://www.regulations.gov under docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OPP-20080262-0063. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/finaleval/endosulfan.htm.
117
CDPR 2008, op cit.
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91. The overall persistence and long-range transport potential of the Endosulfan
substance family are similar to those of acknowledged POPs, such as aldrin,
DDT, and heptachlor. Results also show that the overall persistence and longrange transport potential of the entire substance family, i.e. including the
transformation products, are significantly higher than those of the parent
compounds alone.118
92. The half-life of Endosulfan in water at pH 5, which is relevant in the Arctic, is
>1 year at 220C, persistence increasing with decreasing temperature and
therefore likely to be significantly more persistent at < 5 0C.119 MacDonald et al.
(2000) note that rates of degradation of pesticides such as endosulfan satisfy the
conditions to be called “persistent” because rates of degradation of these
compounds in water decrease dramatically as temperature drops to the water
temperatures observed in the Arctic.120
How are chemical/physical properties and persistence linked to
environmental transport, transfer within and between environmental
compartments, degradation and transformation to other chemicals?
93. Studies of Endosulfan application to cotton fields in Australia showed that
about 70% of Endosulfan is lost from the cotton field through volatilisation, with
only 8.5% remaining on the field one month after spraying; 2% is carried away in
run-off, 1% remains in the soil, and the remainder is degraded by plants or
microorganisms). Hence approximately 73% of Endosulfan applied, at least in
hot/tropical environments, leaves the site of application and is transported in the
wider environment.121
94. In a controlled laboratory setting with a constant airflow of 1 m/s at 21-22 oC
and 50% relative humidity, 25-30% of Endosulfan applied to soil had volatilized
and dissipated within 24 hours. Sixty-four percent dissipated from foliage under
the same conditions. Endosulfan sulfate was found to be less volatile, and
118
Becker L, Schenker U, Scheringer M. 2008. Overall Persistence and Long-Range Transport Potential of
Endosulfan and its Transformation Products. Submission by Switzerland to the Persistent Organic
Pollutants Review Committee, 13 October 2008, Geneva. http://www.sust-chem.ethz.ch/downloads.
119
Mackay N, Arnold D. 2005. Evaluation and Interpretation of Environmental Data on Endosulfan in
Arctic Regions. Draft Report for Bayer CropScience. Report Number CEA.107, p 38.
120
Macdonald RW, Barrie LA, Bidleman TF, Diamond ML, Gregor DJ, Semkin RG, Strachan WMJ, Li
YF, Wania F, Alaee M, Alexeeva LB, Backus SM, Bailey R, Bewers JM, Gobeil C, Halsall CJ, Harner T,
Hoff JT, Jantunen LMM, Lockhart WL, Mackay D, Muir DCG, Pudykiewicz J, Reimer KJ, Smith JN,
Stern GA, Schroeder WH, Wagemann R, Yunker MB. 2000. Contaminants in the Canadian Arctic: 5 years
of progress in understanding sources, occurrence, and pathways. Sci Total Environ 254(2-3):93-234.
121
Kennedy IR, Sanchez-Bayo F, Kimber SW, Hugo L, Ahmad N. 2001. Off-site movement of endosulfan
from irrigated cotton in New South Wales. J Environ Qual 30:683-96.
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dissipation of Endosulfan from a water surface was slower than from soil or
foliage.122
95. Dissipation half-lives for alpha- and beta-Endosulfan were measured at 40 oC
in a field study and found to be 12 and 36 hours, respectively. At 29 oC they were
24 and 60 h, respectively.123
96. Endosulfan is subject to regional and long-range atmospheric transport and
deposition in colder regions. Endosulfan was found in the air and soil in
neotropical montane forests in Costa Rica, as a result of regional transport.
Endosulfan was ubiquitous in the air across the country with very high
concentrations at some lowland sites (e.g. 2.3 ng/m3), and lesser concentrations
in the mountain air. However the reverse was true for residues in the soil with
higher residue levels (e.g. 3.175 ng/kg) in the mountain soils. The authors of this
study (Daly et al. 2007) explained a process whereby Endosulfan used in lowland
agriculture is carried by easterly winds to the downwind mountains; forced
atmospheric uplift causes the formation of orographic clouds and subsequent
rainfall. The drop in temperature with elevation greatly increases the scavenging
by the rain of Endosulfan from the air (only slightly scavenged at the higher
temperatures in the lowlands), leading to greater deposition in rainfall and a build
up of residues in the soil because of lower evaporation. The authors suggested
that the high soil residues in the mountain forest may be a factor in the observed
decline in amphibia in the mountains.124
97. LeNoir (1999) observed Endosulfan transport from California’s San Joaquin
Valley (USA) to the adjacent Sierra Nevada Mountains during the summer of
1996. One air sample per month (May-September) was collected from each of 3
sites. The western-most site was closest to the agricultural activity in the Valley
and at elevation of 200 m. Mean alpha, beta, and sulfate concentrations were
2.3, 4.6, and 0.5 ng/m3, respectively. At the middle site, located at 533 m
elevation and 18 km northeast of the first, mean concentrations were 1.09, 0.16,
and 0.03 ng/m3. At the western-most site, elevation 1,920 and even further from
agricultural activity, mean concentrations were 0.95, and 0.03 ng/m 3,
respectively. The two western sites were located within Sequoia National Park
(USA). Surface water samples were also collected at several altitudes within the
park. For samples collected at elevations from 118 to 2,042 m, alpha-Endosulfan
concentrations ranged from 16.96–24.8 ng/m3, and beta from 87.35–140.5
ng/m3. The two samples from above 3000 m had levels of 0.34 and 0.9 ng/m 3 for
alpha- and 1.0 and 0.41 ng/m3 for beta-Endosulfan. Temporally, peak Endosulfan
concentrations in air and water “correlated roughly with peak application periods
122
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document, Volume III: Environmental Fate.
Department of Pesticide Regulations, California Environmental Protection Agency, May 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/finaleval/endosulfan.htm.
123
CDPR 2008, op cit.
124
Daly G, Lei YD, Teixeira C, Muir DCG, Castillo LE, Wania F. 2007. Accumulation of current-use
pesticides in neotropical montane forests. Environ Sci Total 41:118-23.
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in the [San Joaquin Valley, USA] in summer”, and demonstrate that Endosulfan
is transported from the warmer valley and deposited in the cooler, higher altitude
Sierra Nevada Mountains (USA).125
98. The US National Parks Service has concluded that “endosulfan
contamination by air transport is actually occurring in ENP [Everglades National
Park, Florida].” As evidence, the Service cites studies showing Endosulfan in
rainwater in the region—levels are highest during the growing season, but it is
present year-round—and studies finding Endosulfan in tissue of animals
collected far from areas of Endosulfan use. They also note that in the
Chesapeake Bay (on the US east coast), a study has found that “from the total
annual endosulfan applied to a site, 14% of alpha endosulfan and 90% of beta
endosulfan were deposited by rain back into the watershed”.126
99. The Global Air Passive Sampling (GAPS) study carried out over 4
consecutive 3-month periods in 2005 found residues of alpha-Endosulfan in the
air at every one of the more than 50 sites tested—from Alert in the Canadian
Arctic through Europe, Africa, Asia and Central America, to Chile and Australia in
the south (see Table 1)—including in a number of urban areas. The annual
geometric mean concentration was higher for Endosulfan (82 pg.m -3) than any
other persistent organic pollutant. “Exceptionally high concentrations (pg.m -3) of
[sum] Endosulfan were observed at agricultural sites in Bahia Blanca, Argentina
(~19,000) during period 1, Delhi, India during periods 3 (~11,000) and 4 (~4,000)
and at a rural site in Accra, Ghana (~5,200) during period 2.” … “Endo1, the
dominant congener, accounted for 82% of total, with 16% associated with endo2
and 2% associated with Endo SO4.” … “Concentrations range from less than 100
pg.m-3 at background sites to several thousand pg.m -3. The occurrence of
endosulfan in remote and polar sites demonstrates its ability to travel long
distances in the environment.”127
Table 1: Residues found in GAPS study
Country
Location
Site type
Argentina
India
Korea
Ghana
France
Brazil
Bahia Blanca
Delhi
Seoul
Accra
Paris
Indaiatuba
Agricultural
Agricultural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Background
pg.m-3
18,739
10,898
5,407
5,198
4,520
2,822
Sampling
period
1
2
3
2
2
2
125
LeNoir JS, McConnell LL, Fellers GM, Cahill TM, Seiber JN. 1999. Summertime transport of current
use pesticides from California’s Central Valley to the Sierra Nevada Mountain range, USA. Environ
Toxicol Chem 18(12):2715–22.
126
NPS. 2008. Comments on Petition to Revoke All Tolerances for Endosulfan. U.S. National Parks
Service. October 29, 2008. Available in the public docket at http://www.regulations.gov under Document
ID No. EPA-HQ-OPP-2008-0615-0041.1.
127
Pozo K, Harner T, Lee SC, Wania F, Muir DCG, Jones KC. 2008. Seasonally resolved concentrations of
persistent organic pollutants in the global atmosphere from the first year of the GAPS study. Environ Sci
Technol [Epub December 10].
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Canary Islands
Turkey
Spain
Canada
Canada
USA
Norway
USA
Telde
Ismir
Barcelona
Whistler
Alert
Barrow
Ny-Alesund
St Lawerence Is
Background
Urban
Urban
Background
Polar
Polar
Polar
Polar
2,441
1,823
1,738
129
63
55
37
7
1
3
1
1
1
4
1
3,4
100. An earlier pilot study carried out over 2002-2004 found higher levels at
Whistler Mountain in Canada (321 pg.m-3). According to the study’s authors,
“India is currently the world’s largest consumer of endosulfan which may partly
explain the elevated concentrations at Whistler Mountain during period 4 when
advective trans-Pacific flow was greater”.128
101. A study by Tuduri et al. (2006) concluded that Endosulfan is “one of the
most abundant and ubiquitous organochlorine pesticides in the North American
atmosphere today.”129
102. “Long-range atmospheric transportation was evidenced by widely distributed
endosulfan in a pristine environment, the Arctic region, where endosulfan air
concentrations ranged 4.2-4.7 pg/m3 during 1993-1997 (Patton, et al., 1989;
Halsall, et al., 1998; Hung, et al., 2002). In the eastern Arctic, endosulfan
concentrations in air were reported between 1–10 pg/m3 (De Wit, et al., 2002;
Konoplev, et al., 2002).”130
103. Residues of organochlorine pesticides were collected at the Canadian high
Arctic site of Alert, Nunavut over a 5-year period 1992-1997. “Several
compounds showed a general decline over the 5 years of study, including cisand trans-chlordane and R- and γ-HCH. Endosulfan I, on the other hand,
128
Harner T, Pozo K, Gouin T, Macdonald A-M, Hung H, Cainey J, Peters A. 2006. Global pilot study for
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) using PUF disk passive air samplers. Environ Poll 144:445-52.
129
Tuduri L, Harner T, Blanchard P, Li Y-F, Poissant L, Waite DT, Murphy C, Belzer W. 2006. A review
of currently used pesticides (CUPS) in Canadian air and precipitation: Part 1: lindane and endosulfans.
Atmos Environ 40:1563-78.
130
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document, Volume III: Environmental Fate.
Department of Pesticide Regulations, California Environmental Protection Agency, May 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/tac/finaleval/endosulfan.htm. Citing: (a) Patton GW, Hinckley
DA, Walla MD, Bidleman TF. 1989. Airborne organochlorines in the Canadian High Arctic. Tellus
41B:243-255. (b) Halsall CJ, Bailey R, Stern GA, Barrie LA, Fellin P, Muir DCG, Rosenberg B, Rovinsky
FY, Kononov EY, Pastukhov B. 1998. Multi-year observations of organohalogen pesticides in the Arctic
atmosphere. Environ Poll 102:51-62. (c) Hung H, Halsall CJ, Blanchard P, Li H, Fellin P, Stern G,
Rosenberg B. 2002. Temporal trends of organochlorine pesticides in the Canadian Arctic atmosphere.
Environ Sci Technol 36:862-868. (d) De Wit CA, Fisk AT, Hobbs KE, Muir DCG. 2002. Levels, trends and
effects of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Arctic environment. 2nd AMAP International
Symposium on Environmental Pollution in the Arctic, Rovaniemi 1-3 October 2002. (e) Konoplev A, Fellin
P, Li H, Blanchard P, Hung H, Samsonov D, Stern G. 2002. Monitoring of POPs in Arctic ambient air:
Initial results from Anderma (Russia) and preliminary assessment. 2nd AMAP International Symposium on
Environmental Pollution in the Arctic, Rovaniemi 1-3 October 2002.
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appeared to be increasing”.131
104. “Endosulfan was found as a widely distributed currently-used pesticide in
the polar atmosphere.” Endosulfan was first measured in Arctic air in 1986-87132
and with a general increasing trend measured over the long term from 1993-2005
at Alert in the Canadian Arctic.133 In a 2002 paper by Hung, concentrations of
Endosulfan in air measured in the Canadian Arctic are exceeded only by HCH
and HCB.134 “Arctic marine fog was sampled in the Bering and Chukchi Seas,
and for the first time, several currently-used pesticides (chlorpyrifos, trifluralin,
metolachlor, chlorothalanil, terbufos, and endosulfan) were detected at
concentrations several times higher than in adjacent waters or ice.” 135
105. According to the Canadian Arctic Contaminants Assessment Report: “Unlike
most other organochlorine pesticides, concentrations of endosulfan in Arctic air
have not declined over the last 7 years.”136
106. In 2005 Braune et al. had also stated that “Chlorobenzenes and endosulfan
were among the few OCs [organochlorines] to show increases during this period
(1997-2005) while ∑HCH remained relatively constant in most species.” 137
Researchers reported 0.4-8.8 pg/l alpha-Endosulfan and 0.1-7.8 beta-Endosulfan
on the scientific expedition from the Chukchi Sea across the Polar Cap. Unlike
other organochlorine contaminants, levels of the Endosulfans were higher in the
Chukchi Sea than in the northern Canada Basin. Alpha-Endosulfan is routinely
found in air at the Alert, Tagish, and Dunay monitoring stations, with annual
means of 2-5 pg m3.138
131
Hung H, Halsall CJ, Blanchard P, Li HH, Fellin P, Stern G, Rosenberg B. 2002. Temporal trends of
organochlorine pesticides in the Canadian Arctic atmosphere. Environ Sci Technol 36(5):862-8.
132
German Federal Environmental Agency, 2007. Endosulfan Draft Dossier prepared in support of a
proposal of endosulfan to be considered as a candidate for inclusion in the CLRTAP Protocol on POPs.
133
Hung H. 2008. Hayley Hung, Environment Canada, Personal communication with Pamela Miller,
October 7, 2008.
134
Hung H, Halsall CJ, Blanchard P, Li HH, Fellin P, Stern G, Rosenberg B. 2002. Temporal trends of
organochlorine pesticides in the Canadian Arctic atmosphere. Environ Sci Technol 35(5):862-8.
135
Chernyak SM, Rice CP, McConnell LL. 1996. Evidence of currently used pesticides in air, ice, fog,
seawater, and surface microlayer in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. Mar Poll Bull 32(5):410-19.
136
NCP. 2006. Canadian Arctic Contaminants Assessment Report II, Sources, Occurrence, Trends, and
Pathways in the Physical Environment. Northern Contaminants Programme, Indian and Northern Affairs
Canada, Ottawa. http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nth/ct/ncp/pubs/phy/phy-eng.pdf.
137
Braune BM, Outridge PM, Fisk AT, Muir DCG, Helm PA, Hobbs K, Hoekstra PF, Kuzyk ZA, Kwan M,
Letcher RJ, Lockhart WL, Norstrom RJ, Stern GA, Stirling I. 2005. Persistent organic pollutants and
mercury in marine biota of the Canadian Arctic: an overview of spatial and temporal trends. Sci Total
Environ 351-352: 4-56.
138
Macdonald RW, Barrie LA, Bidleman TF, Diamond ML, Gregor DJ, Semkin RG, Strachan WMJ, Li
YF, Wania F, Alaee M, Alexeeva LB, Backus SM, Bailey R, Bewers JM, Gobeil C, Halsall CJ, Harner T,
Hoff JT, Jantunen LMM, Lockhart WL, Mackay D, Muir DCG, Pudykiewicz J, Reimer KJ, Smith JN,
Stern GA, Schroeder WH, Wagemann R, Yunker MB. 2000. Contaminants in the Canadian Arctic: 5 years
of progress in understanding sources, occurrence, and pathways. Sci Total Environ 254(2-3):93-234.
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107. In 2008 Jantunen reported levels of alpha-Endosulfan as follows: Lake
Superior, August 2005, air average 20+17 pg/m3 (range 4.8-53), water average
12+5 (range 6-20); North Shore of Labrador, Hudson Bay and Churchill
Manitoba, August 2007, air average 3.4+1.2 pg/m3 (range 1.05-5); Canadian
Archipelago, Summer 1999, air average 6.5+3.7 pg/m3 (range 1.4-12.5), water
average 12+11 pg/L (range 2.2-19).139
108. Endosulfan, like other POPs, has a marked tendency to deposit out of the
air (cold condensation) in remote environments at high latitudes and at high
elevations. This is caused by low temperatures and efficient scavenging from the
atmosphere, by snow, of both particle-bound and gas-phase pesticides.140 141
109. Evidence that Endosulfan arriving in the Arctic, Antarctic, and high
mountains by long-range atmospheric transport then deposits out is provided by
findings of residues of Endosulfan in the snow, ice, water, soil and biota of these
regions—and these findings are summarised in Section (e) Exposure in local
areas – as a result of long-range environmental transport.
110. Endosulfan is more easily deposited onto water than it is onto ice, and it is
expected that as the ice in the Arctic—presumably also the Antarctic—diminishes
with increasing global temperatures, the deposition of Endosulfan in polar waters
will increase and hence become more available to plants and animals in the
marine food-web.142
Bio-concentration or bio-accumulation factor, based on measured values
(unless monitoring data are judged to meet this need)
111. Kelly & Gobas (2003) 143 and Kelly et al. (2007) 144 proposed that
biomagnification of Endosulfan (particularly the beta isomer) is greater in
terrestrial food chain than the marine food chain, because it has a high log
which is of greater importance than the Kow in air-breathing animals. A high
causes slow respiratory elimination.
the
the
K oa
Koa
139
Jantunen L. 2008. Liisa Jantunen, Environment Canada. Personal Communication with Pamela Miller,
September 29, 2008.
140
Hageman KJ, Simonich SL, Campbell DH, Wilson GR, Landers DH. 2006. Atmospheric deposition of
current-use and historic-use pesticides in snow at national parks in the western United States. Environ Sci
Technol 40:3174-80.
141
Daly G, Lei YD, Teixeira C, Muir DCG, Castillo LE, Wania F. 2007. Accumulation of current-use
pesticides in neotropical montane forests. Environ Sci Total 41:118-23.
142
NCP. 2003. Canadian Arctic Contaminants Assessment Report II: Highlights. Northern Contaminants
Programme, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. http://www.aincinac.gc.ca/nth/ct/ncp/pubs/hig/hil-eng.asp.
143
Kelly BC, Gobas FAPC. 2003. An arctic terrestrial food-chain bioaccumulation model for persistent
organic pollutants. Environ Sci Technol 37(13):2966-74.
144
Kelly BC, Ikonomou MG, Blair JD, Morin AE, Gobas FAPC. 2007. Food web-specific
biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants. Science 317:236-9.
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


log Koa alpha-Endosulfan = 10.29
log Koa beta-Endosulfan = 10.29
log Koa Endosulfan sulphate = 5.18
112. Armitage & Gobas et al. (2008)145 concluded that chemicals with a log Kow
between 1.75 and 12, and a log Koa > 5.25 have the potential to bioaccumulate in
air-breathing organisms.
113. Kelly & Gobas (2003) 146 established predicted biomagnification factors
(BMFs) for beta-Endosulfan in male wolves at various ages, showing significantly
higher biomagnification than found in the aquatic food chain even at 1.5 years,
and increasing considerably with age—refer Table 2.
Table 2: BMFs for beta-Endosulfan in male wolves
1.5 years 2.25 years 13.1 years
BMF 5.3
17.9
39.8
114. Kelly et al. (2007)147 summarised residues of Endosulfan found in the Arctic
food web in Hudson’s Bay, 1999-2002, to illustrate bioaccumulation especially of
beta-Endosulfan in beluga, a small arctic whale that feeds mainly on fish (units
are ug/kg lipid equivalent, geometric means)—refer Table 3.
Table 3: Endosulfan residues in Arctic food web (ug/kg lipid equivalent, geometric means)
species
alpha-Endosulfan beta-Endosulfan Endosulfan sulphate
lichen
0.03
sediment
0.16
0.33
0.16
cod (B. saida)
2.91
salmon
0.41
0.85
0.18
beluga (m)
12.56
0.86
beluga (f)
4.87
0.58
ringed seals (f)
3.02
0.19
ringed seals (m) 0.30
2.26
0.32
eider ducks
2.32
scotors
0.87
115. Kelly et al. (2007) then showed that, although the less hydrophobic
compounds (Kow <5) such as alpha-, beta-, and gamma-HCH (Kow = 103.8),
tetrachlorobenzenes (Kow = 104.1) and Endosulfans (Kow = 103.7) did not
biomagnify in the piscivorous food web, they have a high degree of
biomagnification in the lichen-caribou-wolf food chain and in air breathing
organisms of the marine mammalian food web.148
145
Armitage JM, Gobas FAPC. 2008. A terrestrial food-chain bioaccumulation model for POPs. Environ
Sci Technol 41:409-25.
146
Kelly BC, Gobas FAPC. 2003. An arctic terrestrial food-chain bioaccumulation model for persistent
organic pollutants. Environ Sci Technol 37(13):2966-74.
147
Kelly BC, Ikonomou MG, Blair JD, Morin AE, Gobas FAPC. 2007. Food web-specific
biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants. Science 317:236-9.
148
Kelly BC, Ikonomou MG, Blair JD, Morin AE, Gobas FAPC. 2007. Food web-specific
biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants. Science 317:236-9.
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Table 4: Beta-Endosulfan: biomagnification factors (BMF )
species
BMF
reptile
4.9
amphibian
11
seabird
10
terrestrial herbivore 2.5
terrestrial carnivore 28
marine mammal
22
human
23
116. Mackay & Arnold (2005) reported measured bioaccumulation factor (BAF)
values for a number of Arctic species ranged from 3.4 x 10 3 to 2.6 x 107. It is
postulated that low temperatures of the Arctic may increase bioaccumulation by
reducing metabolism potential. The authors state (p 124) that “Such an influence
could account for differences between bioconcentration profiles observed under
laboratory conditions (BCF: 200-3700), typically measured at 20-250C, and
ambient Arctic conditions”.149
117. Mackay & Arnold (2005, p89) stated that “Although endosulfan is not
expected to biomagnify because of its relatively short half-life in biota, there are
apparent increases in α-endosulfan from prey to predator within each food web
particularly from fish to seals.” They also noted, on p 29, “As with the southern
Beaufort Sea food web, there is a significant increase in α-endosulfan
concentration with trophic level (r2 = 0.44, p = 0.34).” The BMFs for ringed seal
to cod were > 1 for all locations, except the White Sea, and as high as 22.7 for
Barrow, Alaska. Overall mean BMFs for alpha-endosulfan were 10.2 for fish to
marine mammals, and cross the threshold of concern, with a high degree of
uncertainty.150
118. Mackay & Arnold (2005)151 concluded that the trophic magnification factor
for alpha-Endosulfan, if marine mammals are included in the food web, is >1 in
the Southern Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf food webs. This value is higher
than for chlordane, lindane and similar to alpha-HCH and DDE.
119. US EPA (2007d) calculated a BMF of 7 for male beluga and 3 for female
beluga.152
120. Menone et al. (2000)153 found residues of Endosulfan sulfate in the liver,
gonads, fat and muscle of fish from a coastal lagoon in Argentina, at levels
149
Mackay N, Arnold D. 2005. Evaluation and Interpretation of Environmental Data on Endosulfan in
Arctic Regions. Draft Report for Bayer CropScience Report Number CEA.107.
150
Mackay N, Arnold D. 2005. Evaluation and Interpretation of Environmental Data on Endosulfan in
Arctic Regions. Draft Report for Bayer CropScience Report Number CEA.107.
151
Mackay & Arnold 2005, op cit.
152
US EPA. 2007. Appendix 1 to Addendum. Environmental Fate and Ecological Risk Assessment of
Endosulfan. Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. http://www.regulations.gov.
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ranging up to 0.018 ug/kg of tissue. They calculated a BMF of 4.02, higher than
that for DDT.
121. Lanfranchi et al. (2006) found Endosulfan biomagnified in striped weakfish
also in Argentina, with higher concentrations of beta-Endosulfan in adult liver
tissue than in juvenile liver tissue. The BMFs for adult males were 3.6 for betaEndosulfan, 2.3 for alpha-Endosulfan and 0.9 for Endosulfan sulfate.154
122. Bioconcentration of Endosulfan may be occurring in freshwater fish in
Ghana: Endosulfan levels in fish (up to 0.42 ug/kg) were, on average, 10 times
those found in water samples, although the mean level in the sediments was
about 14 times the levels measured in fish.155
123. Bioaccumulation has been found in plants: a BCF of 30.9 was found for
Endosulfan sulfate in bulrushes from a lake in Argentina, which appear to have
sequestered it from the sediment. This BCF was significantly higher than those
for other POPs such as DDT (1.1), Chlordane (2.1), Dieldrin (2.1), and
Heptachlor (3.8), with the exception of HCH (61.1).156
124. An analysis of airborne pollutants in the western national parks of the USA,
carried out from 2002 to 2007, found evidence of the bioaccumulation of
Endosulfan in vegetation, the degree of accumulation increasing with forest
productivity and proximity to sources of Endosulfan. The mean level of total
Endosulfan in two-year-old needles of White Fir (7573 ug/kg lipid) was 3 times
higher than the levels in one-year-old needles (2448 ug/kg). The degree of
bioaccumulation varies between species with firs accumulating substantially
higher concentrations than pines. The coniferous forests of the western United
States and Alaska are estimated to be removing between 1,280 and 7,210 kg of
Endosulfan from the air annually, amounting to about 2% of the USA’s annual
usage. There was no estimation of how much other vegetation types might also
be accumulating, but there were significantly higher levels of Endosulfan in some
lichen species than in the conifers (nearly 6 times higher).157
153
Menone ML, Aizpun de Moreno JE, Moreno VJ, Lanfranchi AL, Metcalfe TL, Metcalfe CD. 2000.
PCBs and organochlorines in tissues of silverside (Odontesthes bonariensis) from a coastal lagoon in
Argentina. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 38:202-8.
154
Lanfranchi AL, Menone ML, Miglioranza KSB, Janiot LJ, Aizpun JE, Moreno VJ. 2006. Striped
weakfish (Cynoscoon guatucupa): a biomonitor of organochlorine pesticides in estuarine and near-coastal
zones. Mar Poll Bull 52:74-80.
155
Darko G, Akoto O, Oppong C. 2008. Persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in fish, sediments and
water from Lake Bosomtwi, Ghana. Chemosphere 72:21-4.
156
Miglioranza KS, de Moreno JE, Moreno VJ. 2004. Organochlorine pesticides sequestered in the aquatic
macrophyte Schoenoplectus californicus (C.A. Meyer) Sojak from a shallow lake in Argentina. Water Res
38(7):1765-72.
157
Landers DH, Simonich SL, Jaffe DA, Geiser LH, Campbell DH, Schwindt AR, Schreck CB, Kent ML,
Hafner WD, Taylor HE, Hageman KJ, Usenko S, Ackerman LK, Schrlau JE, Rose NL, Blett TF, Erway
MM. 2008. The Fate, Transport, and Ecological Impacts of Airborne Contaminants in Western National
Parks (USA). EPA/600/R-07/138. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, NHEERL, Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, Oregon.
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125. Leeks grown on an organic farm in Argentina, and not treated with
Endosulfan, were found to contain residues of Endosulfan. 158 Samples were
taken at 15, 59, and 210 days of growth. The residues in the roots were believed
to have bioaccumulated from the soil, with the highest bioaccumulation factor
being for Endosulfan sulphate in the early stages of growth. Residues in the soil
were thought to have resulted from atmospheric deposition and/or surface run-off
from neighbouring farms. The Root Bioaccumulation Factors were calculated as
pesticide concentration in plant dry mass divided by pesticide concentration in
soil dry mass, as follows:
Table 5: Root Bioaccumulation Factors for leek
15 days 59 days 210 days
alpha-Endosulfan
9.1
0.9
2.8
beta-Endosulfan
3.9
1.2
2.8
Endosulfan sulfate 20.1
8.8
11.6
These were calculated on the basis of the following residue levels:
Table 6: residues of endosulfan in leek (ng/g dry weight)
soil
rhizosphere
rhizosphere
59 days
210 days
alpha-Endosulfan
0.08 0.01
0.04
beta-Endosulfan
0.04 0.2
0.2
Endosulfan sulfate
16.0 7.1
11.9
root
15 days
0.7
1.4
321.9
root
59 days
0.1
0.4
141.0
root
210 days
<DL
1.0
185.4
(d) Monitoring data (provide summary information and relevant references)
Human breast milk
126. Alpha-Endosulfan was found in breastmilk fat of 80% of women sampled in
rural Indonesia, with concentrations ranging from <0.01 to 0.02 mg/kg milk fat.159
127. In a study of breast milk from healthy women in two areas of Southern
Spain, one in an area of intensive agriculture, the other urban, 80% of urban and
61.1% of rural samples contained alpha-Endosulfan. The maximum level of 0.87
ng/ml alpha and 26.89 ng/ml beta was found in the rural women. The frequency
of detection was lower for colostrum and it was mainly the beta isomer found – in
158
Gonzalez M, Miglioranza KS, Aizpun De Moreno JE, Moreno VJ. 2003. Organochlorine pesticide
residues in leek (Allium porrum) crops grown on untreated soils from an agricultural environment. J Agric
Food Chem 51(17):5024-9.
159
Burke ER, Holden AJ, Shaw IC. 2003. A method to determine residue levels of persistent
organochlorine pesticides in human milk from Indonesian women. Chemosphere 50(4):529-35.
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28.5% of urban samples and 25% of rural samples, with the maximum level of
24.8 ng/ml found in urban women.160
128. In a study of 60 breast milk samples from 20 Egyptian governates, the mean
level of alpha-Endosulfan was 4.84 ppb.161
129. Residues of Endosulfan were found in 60% of pregnant women in a survey
in Delhi, India, with maximum levels of 6.9 ug/ml in maternal blood and 5.9 ug/ml
in cord blood, with the mean values (3.7 and 2.27) indicating a 60% transfer from
mothers to newborns.162
130. A mean level of 363 ug/l (range 0-763 ug/l) of Endosulfan in breast milk in
Bhopal, India, in women who were not occupationally exposed to it, resulted in
infants consuming 8.6 times more Endosulfan than the WHO Acceptable Daily
Intake (ADI).163
Human placenta, cord blood and follicular tissue
131. A study of Danish and Finish women found mean levels of Endosulfan of
7.41 ng/g lipid (Danish) and 7.3 ng/g (Finnish) in breast milk, and 2.28 ng/g
(Danish) and 2.52 ng/g (Finnish) in placental tissue. “Despite a lower burden,
transplacental exposure of the developing foetus may still be more critical with
regard to physical development and cognitive functioning of the child than
postnatal exposure via breast milk.”164
132. A study of 130 women in Denmark found alpha-Endosulfan in 100% of
samples of breast milk, with a maximum level of 22.66 ng/g lipid (mean 6.66-6.95
ng/g).165
160
Campoy C, Jimenz M, Olea-Serrano MF, Moreno-Frias M, Canabate F, Olea N, Bayes R, Molina-Font
JA. 2001. Analysis of organochlorine pesticides in human milk: preliminary results. Early Hum Devel
65(s2):S183-90.
161
Saleh M, Kamel A, Ragab A, El-Baroty G, El-Sebae AK. 1996. Regional distribution of organochlorine
insecticide residues in human milk from Egypt. J Environ Sci Health B 31(2):241-55.
162
Pathak R, Suke SG, Ahmed RS, Tripathi AK, Guleria K, Sharma CS, Makhijani SD, Mishra M,
Banerjee BD. 2008. Endosulfan and other organochlorine pesticide residues in maternal and cord blood in
North Indian population. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 81(2):216-9.
163
Sanghi R, Pillai MK, Jayalekshmi TR, Nair A. 2003. Organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticide
residues in breast milk from Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. Hum Exp Toxicol 22(2):73-6.
164
Shen H, Main KM, Virtanen HE, Damgaard IN, Haavisto A-M, Kaleva M, Boisen KA, Schmidt IM,
Chellakooty M, Skakkebaek NE, Toppari J, Schramm K-W. 2007. From mother to child: investigation of
prenatal and postnatal exposure to persistent bioaccumulating toxicants using breast milk and placenta
biomonitoring. Chemosphere 67:S256-62.
165
Damgaard IN, Skakkebaek NE, Toppari J, Virtanen HE, Shen H, Schramm KW, Petersen JH, Jensen
TK, Main KM, Nordic Cryptorchidism Study Group. 2006. Persistent pesticides in human breast milk and
cryptorchidism. Environ Health Perspect. 114(7):1133-8.
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133. In a study of 72 pregnant women giving birth by caesarean section in
southern Spain, alpha-Endosulfan was found in 61% of samples of maternal
serum and cord blood. The levels found were: maternal adipose, alphaEndosulfan (max 334.18 ng/g fat, mean 75.46 ng/g); maternal serum, betaEndosulfan (max 201.57 ng/g, mean 76.38 ng/g); cord blood, beta-Endosulfan
(max 299.48 ng/g, mean 66.05 ng/g).166
134. A study of 32 urban pregnant women in Japan found Endosulfan (alpha +
beta) in 90% of maternal serum and 70% of umbilical cord tissue but not in cord
serum. The maximum levels found in maternal serum were 1,100 pg/g lipid
(mean = 380 pg/g), and in umbilical cord tissue 9,400 pg/g lipid (mean = 2,090
pg/g).167
135. In a study of 149 women in southern Spain, a range of Endosulfan isomers
and metabolites were found in various human tissues. In breast milk Endosulfan
ether was found in 100% of samples and at the highest level (57.58 ng/m).
Alpha-Endosulfan, beta-Endosulfan and Endosulfan sulfate were all found in
adipose tissue (max = 944.1 ng/g fat alpha), placental tissue (max = 150 ng/g
beta), umbilical cord blood (max = 60.25 ng/ml alpha), and breast milk (max=
26.89 ng/ml beta). Mean residue levels were 6.11 ng/ml (alpha-Endosulfan +
beta-Endosulfan) in umbilical cord blood, and 7.74 in placental tissue.168
136. In a study of 21 females attending an in vitro fertilisation programme in
Canada, Endosulfan sulfate was found in the follicular fluid of one subject.169
Human adipose tissue
137. A study of 200 postmenopausal women in Southern Spain found
Endosulfan in the serum of 96% of women and in adipose tissue of 78%.
“Endosulfans I and II and their metabolites followed DDTs in the frequency of
their presence in adipose tissue and serum samples but were found at lower
concentrations. Among endosulfan metabolites, endosulfan-ether was the most
predominant compound in both adipose tissue (68%) and serum (86%) samples.”
The maximum levels of total Endosulfan found were 417.59 ng/g lipid in adipose
166
Jimenz Torres M, Campoy Folgoso C, Canabate Reche F, Rivas Velasco R, Cerrillo Garcia I, Mariscal
Arcas M, Olea-Serrano F. 2006. Organochlorine pesticides in serum and adipose tissue of pregnant women
in Southern Spain giving birth by cesarean section. Sci Total Environ 372(1):32-8.
167
Fukata H, Omori M, Osada H, Todaka E, Mori C. 2005. Necessity to measure PCBs and organochlorine
pesticide concentrations in human umbilical cords for fetal exposure assessment. Environ Health Perspect
113:297-303.
168
Cerrillo I, Granada A, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Olmos B, Jimenez M, Cano A, Olea N, Fatima Olea-Serrano
M. 2005. Endosulfan and its metabolites in fertile women, placenta, cord blood, and human milk. Environ
Res 98(2):233-39.
169
Younglai EV, Foster WG, Hughes EG, Trim K, Jarrell JF. 2002. Levels of environmental contaminants
in human follicular fluid, serum, and seminal plasma of couples undergoing in vitro fertilization. Arch
Environ Contam Toxicol 43(1):121-26.
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tissue (mean 21.37 ng/g), and 210.99 ng/ml in serum (mean 8.85 ng/ml). 170
Human blood
138. In a study of 220 young males in southern Spain, “residues of endosulfans
were detected in all serum samples. Detectable concentrations of endosulfan I
and II and metabolites endosulfan-diol, and -sulfate were found in the samples.
Endosulfan-diol was the most frequently detected metabolite (92%) followed by
alpha endosulfan (80%). Among endosulfans, endosulfan-diol showed the
highest concentration (15.39+14.87 ng/mL).” The highest concentration of total
Endosulfan was 145.55 ng/ml, the median was 18.66 ng/ml.171
139. In a study of organochlorine pesticides in the serum of 160 students from
Coimbra, Portugal over the period 1997-2001, Endosulfan sulfate, p,p’-DDE, o,p’DDT, and p,p’-DDD were the most frequently identified residues (87.5%).
“Endosulfan sulfate presented the highest mean level, 42.6 ug/l, with
concentrations ranging from undetected to 1295.5 ug/l.”172
140. In a study of cacao farmers in southwestern Nigeria, 29% had residues of
Endosulfan in their serum, with a mean level of 0.033 mg/kg.173
(e) Exposure in local areas (provide summary information and relevant
references)
- general
Air
Regionally transported
141. In Canada Endosulfan has been measured in the air in both agricultural
areas and in so-called receptor sites demonstrating regional atmospheric
transport, including in the Great Lakes Basin, the City of Toronto, the Fraser
Valley in British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario and
Saskatchewan. 100% of air samples collected at 5 sites across Canada in the
170
Botella B, Crespo J, Rivas A, Cerrillo I, Olea-Serrano MF, Olea N. 2004. Exposure of women to
organochlorine pesticides in Southern Spain. Environ Res 96(1):34-40.
171
Carreno J, Rivas A, Granada A, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Mariscal M, Olea N, Olea-Serrano F. 2007.
Exposure of young men to organochlorine pesticides in Southern Spain. Environ Res 103:55-61.
172
Lino CM, da Silveira IN. 2006. Evaluation of organochlorine pesticides in serum from students in
Coimbra, Portugal: 1997-2001. Environ Res 102:339-51.
173
Sosan MB, Akingbohungbe AE, Ojo IAO, Durosinmi MA. 2008. Insecticide residues in the blood serum
and domestic water source of cacao farmers in Southwestern Nigeria. Chemosphere 72(5):781-4.
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summer of 2003 contained Endosulfan, at high levels of 5.71 ng/m 3 alphaEndosulfan.174
142. Alpha-Endosulfan was present in 100% of air samples taken on the campus
of the University of Maryland beside the Choptank River, Chesapeake Bay over a
7-month period Apr-Nov, with a maximum concentration of 0.68 ng/m 3. The
Endosulfan was thought to come from sources outside the Choptank River
watershed area.175
143. Regional transport of Endosulfan has been identified in China and over the
Yellow Sea. The beta isomer was found, at levels up to 0.025 ng/m 3, in all 9 dayand night-time samples taken at the Ocean University of China, which is in an
urban setting in Qingdao on the Yellow Sea coast. 176 High concentrations of
Endosulfan have also been reported in Guangzhou and Hong Kong and are
thought to originate in agricultural areas of East China where it is used in cotton
fields, and to have been carried from there by the winter monsoon. Levels of
alpha-Endosulfan at a suburban site in Guangzhou were as high as 2.5 ng/m 3
and in urban Hong Kong 0.84 ng/m 3.177 The air around Lake Taihu contained
residues of alpha-Endosulfan up to 0.888 ng/m3,178 with an estimated deposition
rate of 25 ng/m2/day in summer179 indicating that it is rapidly moving out of the air
and into the Lake.
144. In Chile alpha-Endosulfan was found in a concentration gradient that
decreased from 0.099 ng/m3 in the north to 0.035 ng/m3 in the south.180
Transported to Mountains
145. Endosulfan has been found in the air around a number of mountains.
Temperate mountains in particular experience effective upslope air movement
174
Yao Y, Tuduri L, Harner T, Blanchard P, Waite D, Poissant L, Murphy C, Belzer W, Aulagnier F, Li YF, Sverko E. 2006. Spatial and temporal distribution of pesticide air concentrations in Canadian agricultural
regions. Atmos Environ 40:4339-51.
175
Kuang Z, McConnell LL, Torrents A, Meritt D, Tobash S. 2003. Atmospheric deposition of pesticides to
an agricultural watershed of the Chesapeake Bay. J Environ Qual 32(5):1611-22.
176
Lammel G, Ghim Y-S, Grados A, Gao H, Huhnerfuss H, Lohmann R. 2007. Levels of persistent organic
pollutants in air in China and over the Yellow Sea. Atmos Environ 41:452-64.
177
Li J, Zhang G, Guo L, Xu W, Li X, Lee CSL, Ding A, Wang T. 2007. Organochlorine pesticides in the
atmosphere of Guangzhou and Hong Kong: Regional sources and long-range atmospheric transport. Atmos
Environ 41:3889-903.
178
Qiu X, Zhu T, Li J, Pan H, Li Q, Miao G, Gong J. 2004. Organochlorine pesticides in the air around the
Taihu Lake, China. Environ Sci Technol 38(5):1368-74.
179
Qiu X, Zhu T, Wang F, Hu J. 2008. Air-water gas exchange of organochlorine pesticides in Taihu Lake,
China. Environ Sci Technol 42:1928-32.
180
Pozo K, Harner T, Shoeib M, Urrutia R, Barra R, Parra O, Focardi S. 2004. Passive-sampler derived air
concentrations of persistent organic pollutants on a north-south transect in Chile. Environ Sci Technol
38(24):6529-37.
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which brings with it residues originating from regional applications, residue levels
increasing with elevation.181
146. It has been found as a ubiquitous air contaminant in the mountains of the
Canadian Rockies and the California Sierra Nevada,182 and the USA’s western
national parks.183
147. It has also been measured in air in the European Central Pyrenees (0.006
ng/m3 alpha-) and the High Tatras (0.042 ng/m3 alpha-); 184 and in mean
concentrations of 27.6 pg/m3, higher than any other organochlorine pesticide, in
the air in the Mt Everest region.185
148. Concentrations of alpha-Endosulfan measured in the atmosphere of the
Central Himalaya “were similar to those found in North American mountains.
Concentration gradients with altitude displayed large differences between
summer (May to October) and winter (November to April). In summer
concentrations of all the chemicals increased with elevation up to a maximum at
5000 m a.s.l [above sea level] and then declined above that elevation. Winter
time concentration of all chemicals declined with altitude, except for HCB which
had similar elevational trends year-round. This indicates that during the summer
monsoon lower tropospheric air contaminated with pesticides is being driven by
thermal and mechanical forcing from the Indian subcontinent into the central
Himalaya.”186
149. Concentrations of 27.6 pg/m3 of alpha-Endosulfan were measured in the
Rongbuk Valley, and 71.1 pg/m3 at Dingri, both in the Mt Everest region in 2002.
Backward trajectory analysis was used to identify the origin of the endosulfan
and other pesticides measured. “The trajectory for sample E [1 of 3 from
Rongbuk Valley] started from an area to the west of Afghanistan and reached the
Mt. Everest region driven by westerly winds. Compared to sample E, air masses
181
Daly G, Lei YD, Teixeira C, Muir DCG, Castillo LE, Wania F. 2007. Accumulation of current-use
pesticides in neotropical montane forests. Environ Sci Technol 41:118-23.
182
Daly GL, Lei YD, Teixeira C, Muir DCG, Wania F. 2007. Pesticides in western Canadian mountain air
and soil. Environ Sci Technol 41:6020-5.
183
Landers DH, Simonich SL, Jaffe DA, Geiser LH, Campbell DH, Schwindt AR, Schreck CB, Kent ML,
Hafner WD, Taylor HE, Hageman KJ, Usenko S, Ackerman LK, Schrlau JE, Rose NL, Blett TF, Erway
MM. 2008. The Fate, Transport, and Ecological Impacts of Airborne Contaminants in Western National
Parks (USA). EPA/600/R-07/138. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, NHEERL, Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, Oregon.
http://www.epa.gov/nheerl/wacap/WACAP_Table_of_Contents_Abbrev_Acknow.pdf.
184
van Drooge BL, Grimalt JO, Camarero L, Catalan J, Stuchlik E, Torres Garcia CJ. 2004. Atmospheric
semivolatile organochlorine compounds in European high-mountain areas (central Pyrenees and high
Tatras). Environ Sci Technol 38(13):3525-32.
185
Li J, Zhu T, Wang F, Qiu XH, Lin WL. 2006. Observation of organochlorine pesticides in the air of the
Mt. Everest region. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 63(1):33-41.
186
Loewen MD, Sharma S, Fuchs C, Wang F, Wania F, Muir DCG, Tomy GT. 2007. Seasonal and
altitudinal trends of chlorinated pesticides in the central Himalayan atmosphere. In: Book of Abstract,
Persistent Organic Pollutants in Mountainous Areas, An International Symposium Nov. 26–27, 2007,
Salzburg, Austria.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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associated with other samples had higher OCP [organochlorine pesticide]
concentrations and traveled shorter distances, and many originated from areas
close to OCP source regions, e.g., India and north Pakistan. Driven by the Asian
monsoon, the air masses for samples A and B started at the Nepal–Indian
border, initially moved westward, and then climbed Himalaya eastward to Dingri.
Air masses for samples C, D, and F collected at Rongbuk Valley were driven
mostly by westerly winds and passed through three different paths: India–Nepal,
Afghanistan–Pakistan– India–Nepal, and western Tibetan plateau.”187
Short-range drift and ambient air contamination
150. In a passive air sampling study at 18 locations in urban, rural and wetland
sites along the coastal length of India, Endosulfan was “regularly detected”. Total
Endosulfan ranged from 0.45 to 1122 pg/m 3, with highest level at Porto Nova.
“Except for South America (29-14600 pg/m3) the level is comparable to Europe
(21-1760 pg/m3) and higher than the rest of the world. The range detected is also
consistent with the GAPS study (40-1090 pg/m3).” 188
151. Endosulfan was the most prevalent organochlorine pesticide measured in
rural air in South Korea (max 12 ng/m3 alpha- + beta-),189 and in urban Seoul
(alpha- + beta-: mean 329, max 1086 pg/m3; sulfate: mean 60.5, max 316
pg/m3).190
152. Beta-Endosulfan (av 20, max 30 pg/m3) and Endosulfan sulfate (av 369,
max 1271 pg/m3) were measured in air samples taken in Izmir, Turkey.191
153. In France, endosulfan was measured in 79% of indoor air samples in the
Paris area (median 0.3, max 13.5 ng/m3),192 and in 100% of air samples taken in
urban Strasbourg during July (max alpha 102, and beta 85 pg/m3).193
187
Li J, Zhu T, Wang F, Qiu XH, Lin WL. 2006. Observation of organochlorine pesticides in the air of the
Mt. Everest region. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 63(1):33-41.
188
Zhang G, Chakraborty P, Li J, Sampathkumar P, Balasubramanian T, Kathiresan K, Takahashi K,
Subramanian A, Tanabe S, Jones KC. 2008. Passive atmospheric sampling of organochlorine pesticides,
polychlorinated biphenyls, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in urban, rural, and wetland sites along the
coastal length of India. Environ Sci Technol 42:8218-23.
189
Yeo H-G, Choi M, Chun M-Y, Sunwoo Y. 2003. Concentration distribution of polychlorinated
biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides and their relationship with temperature in rural air in Korea. Atmos
Environ 37(27):3831-9.
190
Yeo H-G, Choi M, Sunwoo Y. 2004. Seasonal variations in atmospheric concentrations of
organochlorine pesticides in urban and rural areas of Korea. Atmos Environ 38(28):4779-88.
191
Sofuoglu A, Cetin E, Bozacioglu SS, Sener GD, Odabasi M. 2004. Short-term variation in ambient
concentrations and gas/particle partitioning of organochlorine pesticides in Izmir, Turkey. Atmos Environ
38(27):4483-93.
192
Bouvier G, Blanchard O, Momas I, Seta N. 2006. Pesticide exposure of non-occupationally exposed
subjects compared to some occupational exposure: a French pilot study. Sci Total Environ 366(1):74-91.
193
Scheyer A, Graeff C, Morville S, Mirabel P, Millet M. 2005. Analysis of some organochlorine
pesticides in an urban atmosphere (Strasbourg, east of France). Chemosphere 58(11):1517-24.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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154. Ambient air concentrations of endosulfan were found in farming areas of
Prince Edward Island in Canada, where it is used in potato cultivation. AlphaEndosulfan was detected in the air at 48% of farms (mean 6.3, max 14.8 ng/m3)
and beta-Endosulfan at 41% (mean 2.2, max 7.2 ng/m 3).194
155. Endosulfan was found in 66 out of 75 rural air samples taken in California
(USA), on the roofs of community buildings such as schools in both rural and
urban communities. The mean concentration in urban areas was 3.8 ng/m 3, and
in rural areas was 180 ng/m3.195
156. In the United States, the California Department of Pesticide Regulation
(CDPR) monitored the air adjacent to a 2.4 ha apple orchard treated with
Endosulfan at 1.7 kg/ha. Monitoring stations were set up 6.4–16.5 m from the
boundaries of the orchard, and monitoring began when the application began
and continued for 3 days. For the first 24-hour period, time weighed average
concentrations ranged from 75–1,630 ng/m3 (sum, alpha and beta), and for the
entire 3-day sampling period, average concentrations were 37–952 ng/m3. CDPR
also conducted an ambient air monitoring studying in 1996, setting up monitoring
stations atop 5 buildings in Fresno County. Approximately 20 samples were
collected from each site from late July through August, and average alpha and
beta concentrations ranged from 2-54 ng/m3 and 6-8 ng/m3, respectively. About
6,400 kg of Endosulfan were reportedly used that August in the county, which
has an area of 15,444 km2.196
157. Pesticide Action Network North America (PANNA) has also conducted air
monitoring studies in the vicinity of Endosulfan applications. In 2006 and 2007
PANNA placed an air monitoring station at a private home next to an elementary
school in northern Florida, U.S. The station was 20 m from the edge of a Chinese
cabbage field treated with Endosulfan. Eight samples were collected from
December 6–14, 2006, and all contained alpha- and 7 contained betaEndosulfan. The average and maximum total Endosulfan concentrations were
278 and 626 ng/m3, respectively. 197 Thirty-nine samples were collected from
October 1–December 6, 2007, and 87% contained alpha-Endosulfan, 69%
contained beta-Endosulfan, 38% contained Endosulfan sulfate. The average and
maximum total Endosulfan concentrations were 248 ng/m 3 and 1,376 ng/m3.198
194
White LM, Ernst WR, Julien G, Garron C, Leger M. 2006. Ambient air concentrations of pesticides
used in potato cultivation in Prince Edward Island, Canada. Pest Manag Sci 62(2):126-36.
195
Lee S, McLaughlin R, Harnly M, Gunier R, Kreutzer R. 2002. Community exposures to airbourne
agricultural pesticides in California: Ranking of inhalation risks. Environ Health Perspect 110(2):1175-84.
196
CDPR. 2008. Endosulfan Risk Characterization Document, Volume II: Exposure Assessment, HS-1647.
Department of Pesticide Regulation, California Environmental Protection Agency, May 2008.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/whs/pdf/hs1647.pdf.
197
PANNA. 2007. Air Monitoring in Hastings, Florida December 6–14, 2006: Technical Report. Pesticide
Action Network North America, April 2007, Docket ID No. EPA-HQ- OPP-2002-0262-92.
http://www.panna.org/drift/catcher/results/hastings.
198
PANNA. 2008. Air Monitoring in Hastings, Florida October 1–December 6, 2007: Technical Report.
Pesticide Action Network North America, September 2008.
http://www.panna.org/drift/catcher/results/hastings07.
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Rainfall
158. For 20 years, between 1980 and 2000 Endosulfan was monitored in rainfall
in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland, on a monthly basis. The
highest concentrations found were 2 ng/l alpha-Endosulfan at Jackson, Nova
Scotia and Gros Morne, Newfoundland; and 10 ng/l beta-Endosulfan at
Kejimkujik, Nova Scotia. Frequency of detection varied between 0 and 6.9% for
the alpha isomer, and between 12.4 and 16.9% for the beta isomer.199
159. Samples taken at seven US and Canadian sites around the Great Lakes
between 1997 and 2003 showed residues of Endosulfan peaked in summer
corresponding to maximum usage in nearby agricultural areas, with highest
average concentration being 1,400 pg/l alpha and 600 pg/l beta-Endosulfan at
Point Petre near Lake Ontario.200
160. Endosulfan has also been measured in rainfall in urban areas: between
2000 and 2003, Endosulfan was measured in rain in the urban areas of Cuiaba,
Brazil at 107 ng/l,201 in Chicago at 700 pg/l alpha- + 680 pg/l beta-.202 In 2000,
the beta isomer was found in 28%, and alpha isomer in 13%, of rainfall samples,
taken on the campus of the University of Maryland beside the Choptank River,
Chesapeake Bay over a 7-month period Apr-Nov, with a maximum concentration
of 81 ng/l (beta-).203
161. Endosulfan was measured in 85% of rainwater samples taken in urban
Strasbourg and rural Erstein in France, in 2002-03, the highest concentration
being 3667 ng/l (alpha- + beta-) in Strasbourg.204
162. Endosulfan was measured in 100% of samples of rainwater collected in
Hisar, India in 2002, at levels of total Endosulfan as high as 3.020 ppb.205
Surface waters and sediment
199
Brun GL, MacDonald RM, Verge J, Aube J. 2008. Long-term atmospheric deposition of current-use and
banned pesticides in Atlantic Canada; 1980-2000. Chemosphere 71:314-27.
200
Sun P, Backus S, Blanchard P, Hites RA. 2006. Temporal and spatial trends of organochlorine
pesticides in Great Lakes precipitation. Environ Sci Technol 40:2135-41.
201
Laabs V, Amelung W, Pinto AA, Wantzen M, da Silva CJ, Zech W. 2002. Pesticides in surface water,
sediment, and rainfall of the northeastern Pantanal Basin, Brazil. J Environ Qual 31:1636-48.
202
Sun P, Backus S, Blanchard P, Hites RA. 2006. Temporal and spatial trends of organochlorine
pesticides in Great Lakes precipitation. Environ Sci Technol 40:2135-41.
203
Kuang Z, McConnell LL, Torrents A, Meritt D, Tobash S. 2003. Atmospheric deposition of pesticides to
an agricultural watershed of the Chesapeake Bay. J Environ Qual 32(5):1611-22.
204
Scheyer A, Morville S, Mirabel P, Millet M. 2007. Pesticides analysed in rainwater in Alsace region
(Eastern France): Comparison between urban and rural sites. Atmos Environ 41(34):7241-52.
205
Kumari B, Madan VK, Kathpal TS. 2007. Pesticide residues in rain water from Hisar, India. Environ
Monit Assess 133:467-71.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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163. Published reports of Endosulfan contamination of surface water between
1982 and 2003 contain 606 detections in Canada, USA, Sweden, Australia,
South Africa, and Argentina, 206 a far from complete record with many more
reports since then. The U.S. EPA207 reported 667 detections between 1980 and
1999 for beta-Endosulfan in the USA alone.
164. The contamination of surface waters has frequently occurred at levels
above those reported to cause adverse effects on aquatic life.208 The US EPA209
reports toxicity to estuarine/marine amphipods of Endosulfan in sediment at
concentrations as low as 1.5 ug/kg of pore water (water filling spaces between
grains of sediment). Other estimations for hazardous concentrations for aquatic
organisms include 0.2-11 ug/l for fish;210 and a mean level of 0.02 ug/l for effects
on 5% of aquatic organisms. 211 All of the figures reported below exceed this
level.
165. Endosulfan reaches surface waters as a result of direct deposition and
runoff from agricultural use. Reports of Endosulfan concentrations in run-off
include 100 ug/l in southern USA, 45 ug/l in Australia, 66.5 ug/l in India,212 12,082
ug/kg of suspended particles in South Africa, 213 and up to 1,530 ug/l in ditch
water during application on adjacent fields in British Columbia, Canada.214
166. Kennedy et al. (2001) found “significant contamination of all runoff water
throughout the entire cotton-growing season in New South Wales”, Australia, with
residue levels in the runoff reaching 10 ug/l seven days after aerial application,
and typically being 2-10 ug/l. Major storms soon after application can cause
runoff of 10% of the Endosulfan applied.215
167. Concentrations of Endosulfan in Australian rivers during the cotton growing
season were reported by Raupach et al. (2001) to be in the range of 0.02 to 0.2
ug/l, significantly exceeding the 0.01 ug/l guideline for ecosystem protection set
206
Schulz R. 2004. Field studies on exposure, effects, and risk mitigation of aquatic nonpoint-source
insecticide pollution: a review. J Environ Qual 33(2):419-48.
207
US EPA. 2007. Addendum to the Ecological Risk Assessment for Endosulfan. Memorandum to Special
Review and Reregistration Branch. Oct 31. EPA-HQ-OPP-2002-0262-0063. http://www.regulations.gov.
208
Schulz 2004, op cit.
209
US EPA 2007, op cit.
210
Kennedy IR, Sanchez-Bayo F, Kimber SW, Hugo L, Ahmad N. 2001. Off-site movement of endosulfan
from irrigated cotton in New South Wales. J Environ Qual 30:683-96.
211
Bollmohr S, Day JA, Schulz R. 2007. Temporal variability in particle-associated pesticide exposure in a
temporarily open estuary, Western Cape, South Africa. Chemosphere 68:479-88.
212
Menone ML, Pesce SF, Dı ́az MP, Moreno VJ, Wunderlin DA. 2008. Endosulfan induces oxidative
stress and changes in detoxication enzymes in the aquatic macrophyte Myriophyllum quitense.
Phytochemistry 69(5):1150-7.
213
Shulz R. 2001. Comparison of spray drift- and runoff-related input of azinphos-methyl and endosulfan
from fruit orchards into the Lourens River, South Africa. Chemosphere 45(2001):543-51.
214
Schulz R. 2004. Field studies on exposure, effects, and risk mitigation of aquatic nonpoint-source
insecticide pollution: a review. J Environ Qual 33(2):419-48.
215
Kennedy IR, Sanchez-Bayo F, Kimber SW, Hugo L, Ahmad N. 2001. Off-site movement of endosulfan
from irrigated cotton in New South Wales. J Environ Qual 30:683-96.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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by the Australia and New Zealand Conservation Council in 1992—due to nearly
continuous low level input from spray drift and vapour transport representing “a
steady drizzle”, and occasional higher input from run-off.216
168. In the USA, the National Sediment Quality Survey found endosulfan stream
sediments in 30 out of 76 watersheds it tested for residues; 217 year-round
detections of endosulfan in freshwater canals draining from agricultural areas in
South Florida into the Everglades and Florida Bay, indicating chronic exposure to
aquatic species;218 0.45 ug/kg (sulphate) in Florida surface waters and 120 ug/kg
(sulfate) in sediment;219 571 ug/kg in the sediment of tailwater ponds collecting
runoff from lettuce fields in California and 17.7 ug/kg in a nearby creek; 220
frequent detections in the water of 30 lakes in Canada and northeastern USA; 221
and in the sediment of mountain lakes in the Rocky Mountain and Glacier
National Parks in Western USA at up to 1.2 ug/kg (sulphate).222 According to a
recent review by the US National Parks Service, the State of Florida has
monitored surface water in the Florida Everglades since the 1980s, and the
mean and 90th percentile Endosulfan concentrations measured in the area are
0.09 mg/l and 0.25 mg/l, respectively. Others have found concentrations in the
region as high as 1.34 mg/l. The contamination is presumed to come from the
adjacent Homestead Agriculture Area, and levels are as much as three orders of
magnitude higher in the dry season that the rainy season (0.18–1.35 mg/l versus
0.005–0.001 mg/l).223
169. Endosulfan has
agricultural region of
detections exceeded
was reported to be
been found in 47% of surface water samples tested in an
Western Cape, South Africa. Thirty seven percent of the
0.1 ug/l, and reached levels of 3.6 ug/l. The main source
washout from the agricultural soils after irrigation and
216
Raupach MR, Briggs PR, Ford PW, Leys JF, Muschal M, Cooper B, Edge VE. 2001. Endosulfan
transport: I. Integrative assessment of airborne and waterborne pathways. J Environ Qual 30:714-28.
217
US EPA. 2002. Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Endosulfan. EPA 738-R-02-013. Pollution,
Pesticides and Toxic Substances (7508C), United States Environmental Protection Agency.
http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/endosulfan_red.pdf.
218
DeLorenzo ME, Taylor LA, Lund SA, Pennington PL, Strozier ED, Fulton MH. 2002. Toxicity and
bioconcentration potential of the agricultural pesticide endosulfan in phytoplankton and zooplankton. Arch
Environ Contam Toxicol 42:173-81.
219
Pfeuffer RJ, Rand GM. 2004. South Florida ambient pesticide monitoring program. Ecotoxicology
13(3):195-205.
220
Weston DP, You J, Lydy MJ. 2004. Distribution and toxicity of sediment-associated pesticides in
agriculture-dominated water bodies of California’s Central Valley. Environ Sci Technol 38:2752-9.
221
Muir DC, Teixeira C, Wania F. 2004. Empirical and modeling evidence of regional atmospheric
transport of current-use pesticides. Environ Toxicol Chem 23(10):2421-32.
222
Mast MA, Foreman WT, Skaates SV. 2007. Current-use pesticides and organochlorine compounds in
precipitation and lake sediment from two high-elevation national parks in the western United States. Arch
Environ Contam Toxicol 52:294-305.
223
NPS. 2008. Comments on Petition to Revoke All Tolerances for Endosulfan. U.S. National Parks
Service. October 29, 2008. Available in the public docket at http://www.regulations.gov under Document
ID No. EPA-HQ-OPP-2008-0615-0041.1.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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rainfall.224 A pervious study in Western Cape, reported by Dalvie et al. (2003),
found endosulfan in 26 out of 27 Elgin dams at levels up to 626 ug/l; Bollmohr et
al. (2007) report 12.7 ug/l particle-associated endosulfan.225
170. Levels of 1.85 ug/l of Endosulfan were found in water samples from the
Selangor River in Malaysia in 2003.226
171. In China Endosulfan has been measured in the sediment of Lake Taihu at
50.5 ug/kg (sulfate); 227 water at 445.9 ng/l (beta-) and sediment at 0.18 ng/l
(beta-) of the Tonghui River;228 and water (215.9 ng/l beta-), pore water (1042
ng/l beta-) and sediment (8.84 ng/l sulfate) in the Minjiang River estuary. 229
172. In India, endosulfan has been measured in a number of surface water
bodies, including water from the Yamuna River at Delhi, India (114 ng/l total
Endosulfan);230 streams, ponds and canals of the northern Indo-Gangetic alluvial
plains (0.13 ug/l total Endosulfan);231 water of the Gomti River, a tributary of the
Ganges (0.09 ug/l sulfate);232 water (98.6 ng/l) and sediment (89.6 to 238 ug/g) in
prawn ponds near Kolleru lake;233 and in the water of the Vellar River (206-2035
ng/l) and Kolleru Lake (2396 ng/l) possibly as the result of discharges from a
nearby Endosulfan manufacturing facility.234
173. Endosulfan has been found in surface waters and sediments in a number of
other countries, including Taiwan (10.5 ug/l sulfate in Wu-Shi River estuary
224
Dalvie MA, Cairncross E, Solomon A, London L. 2003. Contamination of rural surface and ground
water by endosulfan in farming areas of the Western Cape, South Africa. Environ Health 2(1):1-15.
225
Bollmohr S, Day JA, Schulz R. 2007. Temporal variability in particle-associated pesticide exposure in a
temporarily open estuary, Western Cape, South Africa. Chemosphere 68:479-88.
226
Leong KH, Tan LL, Mustafa AM. 2007. Contamination levels of selected organochlorine and
organophosphate pesticides in the Selangor River, Malaysia between 2002 and 2003. Chemosphere
66(6):1153-59.
227
Huang S, Qiao M, Wang H, Wang Z. 2006. Organchlorinated pesticides in surface sediments of
Meiliang Bay in Taihu Lake, China. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 41(2):223-34.
228
Zhang Z, Huang J, Yu G, Hong H. 2004. Occurrence of PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in
the Tonghui River of Beijing, China. Environ Pollut 130(2):249-61.
229
Zhang ZL, Hong HS, Zhou JL, Huang J, Yu G. 2003. Fate and assessment of persistent organic
pollutants in water and sediment from Minjiang River Estuary, Southeast China. Chemosphere 52(9):142330.
230
Aleem A, Malik A. 2005. Genotoxicity of the Yamuna River water at Okhla (Delhi), India. Ecotox
Environ Saf 61(3):404-12.
231
Singh KP, Malik A, Sinha S. 2007. Persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in soil and surface water
of northern Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains. Environ Monit Assess 125:147–55.
232
Malik A, Ojha P, Kunwar P, Singh KP. 2009. Levels and distribution of persistent organochlorine
pesticide residues in water and sediments of Gomti River (India)—a tributary of the Ganges River. Environ
Monit Assess 148(1-4):421-35.
233
Amaraneni SR. 2006. Distribution of pesticides, PAHs and heavy metals in prawn ponds near Kolleru
lake wetland, India. Environ Int 32(3):294-302.
234
Sarkar SK, Bhattacharya BD, Bhattacharya A, Chatterjee M, Alam A, Satpathy KK, Jonathan MP. 2008.
Occurrence, distribution and possible sources of organochlorine pesticide residues in tropical coastal
environment of India: An overview. Environ Int 34(7):1062-71.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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sediment);235 Turkey (42.6 ng/ml water and 107.8 ng/g sediment beta-Endosulfan
in Uluabat Lake);236 Ghana (62.3 + 7.3 alpha-, 31.4 + beta-, 30.8 + 12.3 sulfate
ng/l water sampled from the environs of Akumadan); 237 Mexico (0.814 ug/kg
sulfate in sediment from a coastal wetland); 238 and Argentina (319 ug/kg max
alpha- + beta- in suspended particles of a stream in a soybean growing area).239
Groundwater:
174. In Haryana, India, all samples of water from tube wells in agricultural areas
were contaminated with Endosulfan, with 83% of samples exceeding 0.1 ug/l,
and maximum levels of 0.405 ug/l.240
175. In Hyderabad City, India, all the samples of domestic well water contained
Endosulfan, at levels up to 11.23 ug/l, assumed to derive from agricultural use
near the city.241
176. In the Thiruvallur area of Tamil Nadu, India, where Endosulfan is used on
rice, total Endosulfan in open well and bore wells ranged from 1.1 to 19.2 ug/l.242
177. Endosulfan has recently been measured in 38% of groundwater samples in
Portugal, with 12% of them exceeding the European Union’s limit of 0.1 ug/l.243
178. In South Africa, Dalvie et al. (2003) found Endosulfan in 32% of
groundwater samples taken in farming areas in the Western Cape at levels up to
0.89 ug/l.244
235
Doong R-A, Peng C-K, Sun Y-C, Li P-L. 2002. Composition and distribution of organochlorine
pesticide residues in surface sediments from the Wu-Shi River estuary, Taiwan. Mar Poll Bull 45(112):246-53.
236
Barlas N, Cok I, Akbulut N. 2006. The contamination levels of organochlorine pesticides in water and
sediment samples in Uluabat Lake, Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 118:383-91.
237
Ntow WJ. 2001. Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediments, crops and human fluids in a farming
community in Ghana. Arc Environ Contam Toxicol 40(4):557-63.
238
Hernandez-Romero AH, Tovilla-Hernandez C, Malo EA, Bello-Mendoza R. 2004. Water quality and
presence of pesticides in a tropical coastal wetland in southern Mexico. Mar Pollut Bull 48(11-12):113041.
239
Jergentz S, Mugni H, Bonetto C, Schulz R. 2005. Assessment of insecticide contamination in runoff and
stream water of small agricultural streams in the main soybean area of Argentina. Chemosphere 61:817–26.
240
Kumari B, Madan VK, Kathpal TS. 2008. Status of insecticide contamination of soil and water in
Haryana, India. Environ Monit Assess 136(1-3):239-44.
241
Shukla G, Kumar A, Bhanti M, Joseph PE, Taneja A. 2006. Organochlorine pesticide contamination of
ground water in the city of Hyderabad. Environ Int 32(2):244-47.
242
Jayashree R, Vasudevan N. 2007. Organochlorine pesticide residues in ground water of Thiruvallur
district, India. Environ Monit Assess 128(1-3):209-15.
243
Goncalves CM, Silva JC, Alpendurada MF. 2007. Evaluation of the pesticide contamination of
groundwater sampled over two years from a vulnerable zone in Portugal. J Agric Food Chem 55(15):622735.
244
Dalvie MA, Cairncross E, Solomon A, London L. 2003. Contamination of rural surface and ground
water by endosulfan in farming areas of the Western Cape, South Africa. Environ Health 2(1):1-15.
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Marine sediments and seawater
179. Endosulfan has been found in marine sediment and seawater in a number
of countries. Concentrations of Endosulfan sulphate of 0.4 ug/l were found in
sediment taken from the mouth of the Hugli estuary in the vicinity of the
Sundarban mangrove environment in eastern India.245
180. Endosulfan sulphate was measured at 0.025 ug/l in sediment on the Black
Sea coast of Turkey in 2001-2003.246
181. It has also been measured inland coastal waters of Malaysia (0.4 ug/l) and
the Philippines, and the sediment in the Straits of Malacca;247 in the sediment of
Alexandria Harbour, Egypt; 248 in a coastal lagoon in Spain; 249 in the water of
harbours in South Africa;250 in the coastal waters of Honduras and Jamaica, the
sediment of Kingston Harbour; 251 and in coastal lagoons of the subtropical
Mexican Pacific.252
Soil
182. Very high levels of contamination have been found in Ethiopia, with total
Endosulfan reaching levels of 56,000 ug/kg in the soil of a state farm where
organochlorine insecticides have been used for about three decades. The Upper
Awash Agro Industry Enterprises grows cotton, fruits, vegetables, allium flowers
245
Bhattacharya B, Sarkar SK, Mukherjee N. 2003. Organochlorine pesticide residues in sediments of a
tropical mangrove estuary, India: implications for monitoring. Environ Int 29(5):587-92.
246
Ozkoc HB, Bakan G, Ariman S. 2007. Distribution and bioaccumulation of organochlorine pesticides
along the Black Sea coast. Environ Geochem Health 29:59-68.
247
GEF SEA SP. 2002. Regionally Based Assessment of Persistent Toxic Substances – South East Asia
and South Pacific Regional Report. Global Environment Facility, United Nations Environmental
Programme, Geneva. http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pts/.
248
Barakat AO, Kim M, Qian Y, Wade TL. 2002. Organochlorine pesticides and PCB residues in
sediments of Alexandria Harbour, Egypt. Mar Poll Bull 44(12):1421-34.
249
GEF M. 2002. Regionally Based Assessment of Persistent Toxic Substances – Mediterranean Regional
Report. Global Environment Facility, United Nations Environmental Programme, Geneva.
http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pts/.
250
Fatoki OS, Awofolu OR. 2004. Levels of organochlorine pesticide residues in marine-, surface-, groundand drinking waters from the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. J Environ Sci Health B 39(1):101-14.
251
GEF CAC. 2002. Regionally Based Assessment of Persistent Toxic Substances – Central America and
the Caribbean Regional Report. Global Environment Facility, United Nations Environmental Programme,
Geneva. http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pts/.
252
GEF M. 2002. Regionally Based Assessment of Persistent Toxic Substances – Mediterranean Regional
Report. Global Environment Facility, United Nations Environmental Programme, Geneva.
http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pts/.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
and cereals, and their annual Endosulfan use is 29,000 litres, estimated to be
about 10 tonnes active ingredient.253
183. In Australian cotton fields where Endosulfan was applied 3 times throughout
the cotton-growing season, residues from the previous season’s spraying were
found in the soil at the beginning of the next season (at 10 to 80 ug/kg),
indicating a continual build up in the soil.254
184. Similarly, in Tamil Nadu, India, 100 to 1,000 ug/kg residual Endosulfan
sulphate was found at the beginning of the rice season, with this level increasing
to 22,000 ug/kg during the season—still present at 5,500 ug/kg at 210 days after
application,255 again indicating accumulating residual levels.
185. Although at much lower levels, Endosulfan contamination of the soil in
cotton fields of the Punjab has been shown to increase with time, by a factor of 5
over the course of 3 years: in 1995 the residue after application was 7.3 ug/kg
reducing to 2.4 ug/kg after 22 days. But in 1998 in the same field the levels were
35.6 ug/kg reducing to 22 ug/kg after 22 days, despite the insecticide being
applied at the same rate (Vig et al. 2008).256
186. All samples of soil taken in cotton-wheat, paddy-wheat and sugarcane fields
in Haryana, India, were contaminated with Endosulfan at levels ranging up to 39
ug/kg.257
187. Endosulfan has also been found in the soils of the northern Indo-Gangetic
plains; 258 Hong Kong, 259 and the Taihu Lake Region of China; 260 Ghana, 261
253
Westbom R, Hussen A, Megersa N, Retta N, Mathiasson L, Bjorklund E. 2008. Assessment of
organochlorine pesticide pollution in Upper Awash Ethiopian state farm soils using selective pressurised
liquid extraction. Chemosphere 72(8):1181-7.
254
Kennedy IR, Sanchez-Bayo F, Kimber SW, Hugo L, Ahmad N. 2001. Off-site movement of endosulfan
from irrigated cotton in New South Wales. J Environ Qual 30:683-96.
255
Jayashree R, Vasudevan N. 2007. Persistence and distribution of endosulfan under field conditions.
Environ Monit Assess 131(1-3):475-87.
256
Vig K, Singh DK, Agarwal HC, Dhawan AK, Dureja P. 2008. Soil microorganisms in cotton fields
sequentially treated with insecticides. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 69(2):263-76.
257
Kumari B, Madan VK, Kathpal TS. 2008. Status of insecticide contamination of soil and water in
Haryana, India. Environ Monit Assess 136(1-3):239-44.
258
Singh KP, Malik A, Sinha S. 2007. Persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in soil and surface water
of northern Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains. Environ Monit Assess 125:147–55.
259
Zhang HB, Luo YM, Zhao QG, Wong MH, Zhang GL. 2006. Residues of organochlorine pesticides in
Hong Kong soils. Chemosphere 63(4):633-41.
260
Wang F, Jiang X, Bian YR, Yao FX, Gao HJ, Yu GF, Munch JC, Schroll R. 2007. Organochlorine
pesticides in soils under different land usage in the Taihu Lake region, China. J Environ Sci (China)
19(5):584-90.
261
Ntow WJ. 2001. Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediments, crops and human fluids in a farming
community in Ghana. Arc Environ Contam Toxicol 40(4):557-63.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
46
UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
Senegal and Kenya;262 Portugal,263 Czech Republic,264 and rice fields in Spain;265
Colombia (at 350 ug/kg), Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama,266 and in the soils
of environmental reserves in Brazil.267
Animals
Aquatic Species
188. In a study of organochlorine residues in bivalves from the lagoons of Ghana,
the following levels were measured during the dry season, with generally lower
levels in the wet season (except for mussels): in cockles, 21 (5-30) ng/g dry
weight alpha-, plus 51 (2-78) ng/gm beta-; in oysters, 31(10-93) ng/gm alpha-,
plus 20 (16-83) ng/g beta-; in mussels 18 (2-66) ng/g alpha-, plus 29 (21-66) ng/g
beta-.268
189. In India, Endosulfan residues were measured in fish at 1.41 ug/g (max
alpha- + beta-) in fish of the species Labeo rohita and Catla catla collected from
markets in Calcutta between 1993 and 1998. 269 Aktar et al. (2008) measured
total Endosulfan residues up to 2.95 ppm in fish collected from the Ganga at
Uluberia in West Bengal in 2005.270 Levels of 23 + 3 ppb (wet weight) of total
Endosulfan were recorded in fish collected from the Cochin Coast.271 In a study
of pesticide bioaccumulation in fish in rivers in north India, Singh & Singh (2007)
found that “The tissue bioaccumulation of aldrin and endosulfan were high in
liver, brain and ovary of R. rita and M. tengara captured from the polluted rivers
262
Westbom R, Hussen A, Megersa N, Retta N, Mathiasson L, Bjorklund E. 2008. Assessment of
organochlorine pesticide pollution in Upper Awash Ethiopian state farm soils using selective pressurised
liquid extraction. Chemosphere 72(8):1181-7.
263
Gonçalves C, Alpendurada MF. 2005. Assessment of pesticide contamination in soil samples from an
intensive horticulture area, using ultrasonic extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.
Talanta 65(5):1179-89.
264
Shegunova P, Klanova J, Holoubek I. 2007. Residues of organochlorinated pesticides in soils from the
Czech Republic. Environ Pol 146:257-61.
265
Gamón M, Sáez E, Gil J, Boluda R. 2003. Direct and indirect exogenous contamination by pesticides of
rice-farming soils in a Mediterranean wetland. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 44(2):141-51.
266
GEF CAC. 2002. Regionally Based Assessment of Persistent Toxic Substances – Central America and
the Caribbean Regional Report. Global Environment Facility, United Nations Environmental Programme,
Geneva. http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pts/.
267
Rissato SR, Galhiane MS, Ximenes VF, de Andrade RMB, Talamoni JLB, Libanio M, de Almeida MV,
Apon BM, Cavalari AA. 2006. Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in soil and water
samples in the Northeastern part of Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Chemosphere 65:1949-58.
268
Otchere FA. 2005. Organochlorines (PCBs and pesticides) in the bivalves Anadara (Senilis) senilis,
Crassostrea tulipa and Perna perna from the lagoons of Ghana. Sci Total Environ 348(1-3):102-14.
269
Kole RK, Banerjee H, Bhattacharyya A. 2001. Monitoring of market fish samples for endosulfan and
hexachlorocyclohexane residues in and around Calcutta. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 67:554-59.
270
Aktar MW, Paramasivam M, Sengupta D, Purkait S, Ganguly M, Banerjee S. 2008. Impact assessment
of pesticide residues in fish of Ganga river around Kolkata in West Bengal. Environ Monit Assess [Epub
August 30].
271
Muralidharan S, Dhananjayan V, Jayanthi P. 2009. Organochlorine pesticides in commercial marine
fishes of Coimbatore, India and their suitability for human consumption. Environ Res 109(1):15-21.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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Gomti and Ganga, respectively, when compared to the same species captured
from the reference site.” 272
190. Menone et al. (2000)273 found residues of Endosulfan sulfate in the liver,
gonads, fat and muscle of fish from a coastal lagoon in Argentina, at levels
ranging up to 0.018 ug/kg of tissue.
191. In a study measuring atmospherically deposited chemicals in fish in the
western US national parks, Ackerman et al. (2008) stated that “dacthal and
endosulfan sulfate were among the most concentrated and frequently detected
SOCs [semivolatile organic compounds] in this study . . ..”274
192. In a review of data on organochlorine pesticide residues in the marine
environment of tropical coastal India, Sarkar et al. (2008) reported the following
data on Endosulfan, all figures ng/g wet weight: zooplankton from the Bay of
Bengal (0.1-0.4), oysters and clams (0.8-5.7), and fish (0.02-2.47).275
193. Concentrations of Endosulfan in oyster samples from Laguna de Terminos,
Mexico ranged from 162 to 670 pg/g dry weight. Residues in lagoon sediments
ranged from 0 to 50.3 pg/g dry weight (mean 13 pg/g). Residues in filtered water
taken from the lagoon ranged from 0 to 37 pg/l. “Endosulfan was measured in
most water samples of Laguna de Terminos with maximal values in the estuaries
of rivers and near Ciudad del Carmen.” ... “Accumulation of this pesticide by
oysters takes place from the water fraction and allows accumulation of the two
endosulfan isomers and of endosulphan sulphate in oyster tissues.” The levels of
Endosulfan in the oysters were significantly higher than the water from which it
was accumulated.276
194. In a study measuring the levels of organochlorine contamination of Anuran
amphibians in an artificial lake in the semiarid midwest of Argentina, Endosulfan
(alpha- + beta-) was found at levels ranging 0.5-24.4 ng/g wet mass and 18.11406.8 ng/g fat.277
272
Singh PB, Singh V. 2007. Pesticide bioaccumulation and plasma sex steroids in fishes during breeding
phase from north India. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 55(3-4):223-37.
273
Menone ML, Aizpun de Moreno JE, Moreno VJ, Lanfranchi AL, Metcalfe TL, Metcalfe CD. 2000.
PCBs and organochlorines in tissues of silverside (Odontesthes bonariensis) from a coastal lagoon in
Argentina. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 38:202-8.
274
Ackerman LK, Schwindt AR, Simonich SLM, Koch DC, Blett TF, Schreck CB, Kent ML, Landers DH.
2008. Atmospherically deposited PBDEs, pesticides, PCBs, and PAHs in western U.S. National Park fish:
concentrations and consumption guidelines. Environ Sci Technol 42:2334-41.
275
Sarkar SK, Bhattacharya BD, Bhattacharya A, Chatterjee M, Alam A, Satpathy KK, Jonathan MP. 2008.
Occurrence, distribution and possible sources of organochlorine pesticide residues in tropical coastal
environment of India: An overview. Environ Int 34(7):1062-71.
276
Carvalho FP, Villeneuve J-P, Cattini C, Rendon J, Mota de Oliveira J. 2008. Pesticide and PCB residues
in the aquatic ecosystems of Laguna de Terminos, a protected area of the coast of Campeche, Mexico.
Chemosphere [Epub November 18].
277
Jofre MB, Anton RI, Caviedes-Vidal EC. 2008. Organochlorine contamination in anuran amphibians of
an artificial lake in the semiarid Midwest of Argentina. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 55(3):471-80.
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UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
195. In a study of pesticide residues in amphibia in California (USA), “all sites
had adults with measurable levels of endosulfan” . . . “up to 86% of some
populations had measurable endosulfan concentrations”. The maximal
concentration was 21.9 ppb. “Thus, the detection of endosulfan in frogs denotes
recent exposure and suggests risk”.278
196. Fish in the Everglades region of Florida have concentrations as high as 395
ng/g dry weight. Mussels from the region have some of the highest
concentrations measured in the US, with 3.4–8.1 ng/g dry weight. One study
found concentrations in small fish range from 0.3–20.1 ng/g, and in oysters from
3.3–21.3 ng/g dry weight. Another reported a maximum concentration in oysters
of 41.4 ng/g dry weight.279
197. It has also been found in freshwater fish in a number of countries including
Australia, 280 Zambia, 281 Benin and Kenya, 282 Tanzania , 283 Uganda, 284 and in
estuarine fish in Argentina. 285 It has been found in farmed prawns in India
(Amaranemi 2006).286
Terrestrial species
198. In Zimbabwe, Endosulfan was found to accumulate in the tissues of wild
rats feeding in soya bean fields to which Endosulfan was applied. Levels in liver
278
Sparling DW, Fellers GM, McConnell LL. 2001. Pesticides and amphibian population declines in
California USA. Environ Toxicol Chem 20(7):1591-95.
279
NPS. 2008. Comments on Petition to Revoke All Tolerances for Endosulfan. U.S. National Parks
Service. October 29, 2008. Available in the public docket at http://www.regulations.gov under Document
ID No. EPA-HQ-OPP-2008-0615-0041.1.
280
Nowak B. 1990. Residues of endosulfan in the livers of wild catfish from a cotton growing area.
Environ Monitor Assess 14(2-3):347-51.
281
Syakalima M, Choongo K, Mwenechanya R, Wepener V, Yamasaki M, Maede Y. 2006.
Pesticide/herbicide pollutants in the Kafue River and a preliminary investigation into their biological effect
through catalase levels in fish. Jpn J Vet Res 5(2-3):119-28.
282
(a) Pazou EY, Boko M, van Gestel CA, Ahissou H, Laleye P, Akpona S, van Hattum B, Swart K, van
Straalen NM. 2006a. Organochlorine and organophosphorous pesticide residues in the Oueme River
catchment in the Republic of Benin. Environ Int 32(5):616-23. (b) Pazou EY, Laleye P, Boko M, van
Gestel CA, Ahissou H, Akpona S, van Hattum B, Swart K, van Straalen NM. 2006b. Contamination of fish
by organochlorine pesticide residues in the Oueme River catchment in the Republic of Benin. Environ Int
32(5):594-99.
283
Henry L, Kishimba MA. 2006. Pesticide residues in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and Nile perch
(Lates niloticus) from Southern Lake Victoria, Tanzania. Environ Pollut 140(2):348-54.
284
Kasozi GN, Kiremire BT, Bugenyi FW, Kirsch NH, Nkedi-Kizza P. 2006. Organochlorine residues in fish
and water samples from Lake Victoria, Uganda. J Environ Qual 35(2):584-89.
285
Lanfranchi AL, Menone ML, Miglioranza KSB, Janiot LJ, Aizpun JE, Moreno VJ. 2006. Striped
weakfish (Cynoscoon guatucupa): a biomonitor of organochlorine pesticides in estuarine and near-coastal
zones. Mar Poll Bull 52(74-80).
286
Amaraneni SR. 2006. Distribution of pesticides, PAHs and heavy metals in prawn ponds near Kolleru
lake wetland, India. Environ Int 32(3):294-302.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
were generally higher (0.36-5.8 ug/kg) than those in muscles (0.09-5.17 ug/kg)
and fatty tissues (0.08-4.78 ug/kg).287
199. In a study of 3 types of vultures from different localities in South Africa, in
total blood samples “the greatest mean value was calculated for African
whitebacked vultures from Moholoholo (27.01 ug/l) followed by a substantially
lower value for the Dronfield population (11.8 ug/l). However, it should be noted
that the latter group displayed a maximum concentration of 37.74 ug/l) and a
wide dispersion around the geometric mean was found for individual endosulfan
sulfate values of the Dronfield birds.” … “The highest mean value was obtained
in kidneys (63.67 ug/l), followed by the livers (43.02 ug/l) and the clotted blood
samples (24.3 ug/l). Levels of this toxicant were measured in the kidney, liver
and blood samples from the same individuals, which contained quantifiable
residues of endosulfan sulfate.”288
200. Cid et al. (2007) carried out an analysis of organochlorine pesticide
contamination in three bird species of the Embalse La Florida water reservoir in
the semiarid midwest of Argentina. “The highest concentration of a single
contaminant was measured in one of the great kiskadees (aldrin at 5245.44 ng/g
fat), and this was followed by endosulfan (4276.23 ng/g fat) in a neotropic
cormorant.” … “Endosulfan, in the ΣALD family, occurred at a frequency of 92%
in the assayed samples and its average concentration was 1226.09 ng/g fat
(range: ND to 4276.23 ng/g fat), the highest observed for all OCs determined.
This high frequency of incidence and concentration may be due to its intensive
and continual use since 1970 as an insecticide in a variety of crops such as tea,
vegetables, fruits, and tobacco.” 289
201. Dong et al. (2004) carried out an analysis of organochlorine pesticide levels
in the eggs of 4 water bird species from a colony on Tai Lake in China. They
found residues of Endosulfan in all species, with the highest frequency and levels
in the eggs of little egret (Egretta garzetta): 77.8 % occurrence of alphaEndosulfan (mean 13.84, max 93.30 ng/g dry weight), and 19.4% occurrence of
beta-Endosulfan (mean 19.21, max 41.4 ng/gm).290
202. In a cross-taxa survey of organochlorine pesticide contamination in a
tropical conservation area in northwest Costa Rica, Klemens et al. (2003)
287
Kuvarega AT, Taru P. 2007. Accumulation of endosulfan in wild rat, Rattus norvegious as a result of
application to soya bean in Mazoe (Zimbabwe). Environ Monit Assess 125(1-3):333-45.
288
van Wyk E, Bouwman H, van der Bank H, Verdoorn GH, Hofmann D. 2001. Persistent organochlorine
pesticides detected in blood and tissue samples of vultures from different localities in South Africa. Comp
Biochem Physiol C 129:243-64.
289
Cid FD, Anton RI, Cavieded-Vidal E. 2007. Organochlorine pesticide contamination in three bird
species of the Embalse La Florida water reservoir in the semiarid midwest of Argentina. Sci Total Environ
385:86-96.
290
Dong YH, Wang H, An Q, Ruiz X, Fasola M, Zhang YM. 2004. Residues of organochlorinated
pesticides in eggs of water birds from Tai Lake in China. Environ Geochem Health 26:259-68.
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measured beta-Endosulfan in birds at up to 66 ug/kg, and at lower levels in
amphibians.291
203. Martın
́ ez-Lopez et al. (2008) studied pesticide levels in the blood of booted
eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) in Spain over the years 1999-2003. They found
levels of alpha-Endosulfan increased annually to the maximum in 2003 (109.04 +
75.42 ug/l), beta-Endosulfan peaked in 2002 (26.53 + 22.64 ug/l), as did the
sulphate (50.90 + 63.78 ug/l).292
204. An analysis of whole blood, serum, and liver tissue samples from Kafue
lechwe (marsh antelope) in the Lochinvar National Park of Zambia found mean
residue levels of Endosulfan of 3.7 (+ 0.1) ug/g wet weight in the liver tissue of
males and 4.2 (+ 2.2) in females; 8.6 (+3.2 ug/ml) in the serum of females, ND in
males; and 3.8 (+ 1.2 ug/ml) in males, ND in females.293
Non-target Plants
205. Endosulfan has been found in the bark of trees from every one of the 32
countries sampled all over the world between 1992 and 1995, including India
(1500 ug/gm), South Korea (1100 ug/gm), Philippines (540 ug/gm), Japan (450
ug/gm), Iran (310 ug/gm), Australia (110 ug/gm), New Zealand (32 ug/gm) and
China (14 ug/gm), as well is in Africa, North and South America and Europe
(figures are averages for the country for Endosulfan sulphate).294 295
206. Residues of Endosulfan, resulting from atmospheric deposition, were
measured in moss in Singapore, geometric mean values 0 to 6.52 ng/g. 296
Food and drink
207. Endosulfan contamination of vegetables and fruit is widespread. Endosulfan
and DDT were the most commonly detected residues in an analysis of the 5000
most widely consumed foods in the USA.297
291
Klemens JA, Wieland ML, Flanagin VJ, Frick JA, Harper RG. 2003. A cross-taxa survey of
organochlorine pesticide contamination in a Costa Rican wildland. Environ Poll 122(2):245-51.
292
Martinez-Lopez E, Romero D, Maria-Mojica P, Martinez JE, Calvo JF, Garcia-Fernandez AJ. 2009.
Changes in blood pesticide levels in booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) associated with agricultural land
practices. Ecotox Environ Saf 72(1):45-50.
293
Sichilongo K, Torto N. 2006. Determination of endocrine disruptors in Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche
kafuensis) samples from the Lochinvar National Park of Zambia. Environ Int 32:718-23.
294
Simonich SL, Hites RA. 1995. Global distribution of persistent organochlorine compounds. Science
269(5232):1851-4.
295
Simonich SL, Hites RA. 1997. Relationships between socioeconomic indicators and concentrations of
organochlorine pesticides in tree bark. Environ Sci Technol 31(4):999-1003.
296
Lim TB, Xu R, Tan B, Obbard JP. 2006. Persistent organic pollutants in moss as bioindicators of
atmospheric pollution in Singapore. Chemosphere 64(4):596-602.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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208. In New Zealand 32% of tomatoes sampled contained Endosulfan with levels
up to 972 ug/kg. It has also been found in capsicum, courgette, cucumber, pears,
vegetable oil, salad dressing, peanuts and peanut butter.298
209. In India, all of 39 samples of cauliflower, brinjal and okra taken at Ranchi,
Jharkhand were found to contain Endosulfan (0.002 - 2.47 mg/kg).299 Seventy six
percent of 25 summer vegetable samples, and 92% of 25 winter vegetable
samples taken in Agra contained residues of Endosulfan with the highest
concentrations being, in summer, 9.02 ppb in spinach and, in winter, 12.42 ppb in
cabbage.300 One hundred percent of 28 samples of a complete daily vegetarian
diet (tea, milk, breakfast, lunch, snacks, dinner, sweet dish), taken in Hisar city,
were contaminated with Endosulfan, with residues levels ranging from 0.026 to
0.354 ppm, and daily intake was estimated to exceed the Acceptable Daily Intake
in 4 samples.301
210. In Ghana, 36% of lettuces sampled contained Endosulfan at levels up to 1.3
mg/kg (mean 0.4 mg/kg).302
211. Alpha-Endosulfan was found in pekmez, the traditional grape molasses of
Turkey (mean 0.3 ng/g, max 1.3 ng/g).303
212. Endosulfan was measured in 27% of 325 samples of cows' milk taken in the
Bundelkhand region of India. Of these, 65% were above the MRL, with the
maximum level being 0.3748 mg/kg whole milk.304
213. Butter (45) and ghee (25) samples were collected from rural and urban
areas of the cotton growing belt of Haryana, India. Residues of endosulfan
297
Campoy C, Jimenz M, Olea-Serrano MF, Moreno-Frias M, Canabate F, Olea N, Bayes R, Molina-Font
JA. 2001. Analysis of organochlorine pesticides in human milk: preliminary results. Early Hum Devel
65(s2):S183-90.
298
NZFSA. 2007. Food Residue Surveillance Programme June 2007. New Zealand Food Safety Authority.
Wellington. http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/science/research-projects/food-residues-surveillanceprogramme/results/2007/index.htm.
299
Shahi DK, Nisha K, Sharma A. 2005. Monitoring of pesticide residues in market vegetables at Ranchi,
Jharkhand (India). J Environ Sci Eng 47(4):322-5.
300
Bhanti M, Taneja A. 2005. Monitoring of organochlorine pesticide residues in summer and winter
vegetables from Agra, India – a case study. Environ Monit Assess 110(1-3):341-6.
301
Kumari B, Kathpal TS. 2008. Monitoring of pesticide residues in vegetarian diet. Environ Monit Assess
[Epub April 2].
302
Amoah P, Drechsel P, Abaidoo RC, Ntow WJ. 2006. Pesticide and pathogen contamination of
vegetables in Ghana's urban markets. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 50(1):1-6.
303
Erdogrul O. 2008. Pesticide residues in liquid pekmez (grape molasses). Environ Monit Assess 144(13):323-8.
304
Nag SK, Raikwar MK. 2008. Organochlorine pesticide residues in bovine milk. Bull Environ Contam
Toxicol 80(1):5-9.
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exceeded the MRL in 11% of butter (max = 1.668 ug/g total Endosulfan), and
20% of ghee samples (max = 2.975 ug/g total Endosulfan) above the MRL.305
214. Endosulfan was found in New Zealand beef at 0.5 ppm as a result of
external application of the insecticide to cattle to control parasites, 306 and in
Australian beef as a result of spray drift from cotton fields.307
215. Endosulfan was found in honey samples from Kahramanmaras, Turkey
(alpha-Endosulfan - mean 0.09 and max 0.34 ng/g; beta-Endosulfan - mean 0.27
and max 0.46 ng/g).308 It was found in 23.4% of 47 beeswax samples taken from
apiaries in 5 sites located in continental France, with the mean concentration of
88.8 ug/kg and a maximum of 243.1 mg/kg.309
216. Sampling in Korea, of herbal medicinal drugs, found 0.349 mg/kg of
Endosulfan (MRL = 0.2) in Polygalae radix imported from China.310
217. Endosulfan residues were found in 5 of 25 samples of commercial milkbased infant formula in Spain, with the following concentration range: alphaEndosulfan 1.6-5.03 ug/kg, and beta-Endosulfan 1.18-2.70 ug/kg.311
218. Residues of Endosulfan were found throughout tea ecosystems in the
Dooars and Hill regions of West Bengal, India, sampled in April and again in
November, with the highest levels in fresh tea leaves. Beta-Endosulfan was
found in 100% of fresh tea leaves and ‘made tea’ from Dooars and 40% from Hill
region. Maximum levels of beta-Endosulfan found were: fresh tea leaves (0.9238
ppm), ‘made tea’ (0.2858 ppm), the soil (0.7601 ppm) and water bodies (0.0022
ppm). Lower levels of alpha-Endosulfan and Endosulfan sulphate were also
found in all samples with the exception of the sulphate in water.312
219. Endosulfan residues were found in every village bore well and open well
sampled in the Thiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu, India. Alpha-Endosulfan levels
305
Kumari B, Singh J, Singh S, Kathpal TS. 2005. Monitoring of butter and ghee (clarified butter fat) for
pesticidal contamination from cotton belt of Haryana, India. Environ Monit Assess 105(1-3):111-20.
306
NZFSA. 2007. Endosulfan: the story unfolds. Food Focus August. New Zealand Food Safety Authority,
Wellington. http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/publications/food-focus/2007-08/page-13.htm.
307
NRA. 2000. Media Release - NRA Gets Tough on Endosulfan to Protect Australian Beef. National
Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals. 30 June.
http://www.apvma.gov.au/media/mr0007.shtml.
308
Erdogrul O. 2007. Levels of selected pesticides in honey samples from Kahramanmaras, Turkey. Food
Control 18:866-71.
309
Chauzat MP, Faucon JP. 2007. Pesticide residues in beeswax samples collected from honey bee colonies
(Apis mellifera L.) in France. Pest Manag Sci 63(11):1100-6.
310
Oh CH. 2007. Multi residual pesticide monitoring in commercial herbal crude drug materials in South
Korea. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 78(5):314-8.
311
Mezcua M, Repetti MR, Aguera A, Ferrer C, Garcia-Reyes JF, Fernandez-Alba AR. 2007.
Determination of pesticides in milk-based infant formulas by pressurised liquid extraction followed by gas
chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 55(26):10548-56.
312
Bishnu A, Chakrabarti K, Chakraborty A, Saha T. 2008. Pesticide residue level in tea ecosystems of Hill
and Dooars regions of West Bengal, India. Environ Monit Asses [Epub February 20].
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
ranged from 0.1 to 4.5 ug/l, beta-Endosulfan from 0.2 to 13 ug/l and Endosulfan
sulphate from 1.1 to 19.2 ug/l. Maximum total Endosulfan level was 32.1 ug/l.313
220. All samples from 28 domestic well supplies in the city of Hyderabad, India
contained alpha- and beta-Endosulfan, with the maximum level found being 11.3
ug/l.314
221. Levels of 1.85 ug/l of Endosulfan were found, in 2003, in water samples
from the Selangor River in Malaysia, which is used for drinking purposes.315
- as a result of long-range environmental transport
Air
For evidence of exposure to residues in air through long-range environmental
transport, see under: How are chemical/physical properties and persistence
linked to environmental transport, transfer within and between
environmental compartments, degradation and transformation to other
chemicals?
Snow
222. In a study of contaminants in Arctic snow collected over northwest Alaskan
sea ice of the Beaufort and Chukchi seas in 1995-6, alpha-Endosulfan was
consistently present, in nearly every sample, with beta-Endosulfan detected in
some samples from one site. The levels found were higher than for DDT and any
of the other POPS pesticides, with the exception of Chlordane which had similar
levels.316
223. Endosulfan sulfate has been found in an ice core sample from the Antarctic
region at a concentration of 300 ng/l.317
313
Jayashree R, Vasudevan N. 2007. Organochlorine pesticide residues in ground water of Thiruvallur
district, India. Environ Monit Assess 128(1-3):209-15.
314
Shukla G, Kumar A, Bhanti M, Joseph PE, Taneja A. 2006. Organochlorine pesticide contamination of
ground water in the city of Hyderabad. Environ Int 32(2):244-47.
315
Leong KH, Tan LL, Mustafa AM. 2007. Contamination levels of selected organochlorine and
organophosphate pesticides in the Selangor River, Malaysia between 2002 and 2003. Chemosphere
66(6):1153-59.
316
Garbarino JR, Synder-Conn E, Leiker T, Hoffman GL. 2002. Contaminants in Arctic snow collected
over northwest Alaskan sea ice. Water Air Soil Poll 139:183-214.
317
Deger AB, Gremm TJ, Frimmel FH, Mendez L. 2003. Optimization and application of SPME for the
gas chromatographic determination of endosulfan and its major metabolites in the ngL -1 range in aqueous
solutions. Anal Bioanal Chem 376:61-8.
Annex E information on ENDOSULFAN
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224. In 2002-03 Endosulfan residues were amongst the most frequently detected
in snowpack in seven national parks in arctic, sub-arctic and alpine regions of the
US. The highest concentration was 1500 ng/m 3 at Sequoia National Park.
Residues in the Arctic region (peaking at 170 ng/m 3) were regarded as the result
of long-range transport.318
225. Alpha- and beta-Endosulfan were consistently detected in snowpack near
Lake Superior in 1999-2000, at concentrations ranging up to 0.181 ng/l alphaEndosulfan, plus 0.035 ng/l beta-Endosulfan.319
226. Alpha-Endosulfan was one of the most frequently detected pesticides in
snow in the Rocky Mountain and Glacier National Parks in the Western US,
found at levels up to 2.5 ng/l.320
227. Alpha-Endosulfan was found in 100% of samples of snow taken from the
Punta Indren glacier in the Italian Alps at concentrations ranging from 0.05 to
0.168 ng/l.321
Marine sediments and seawater
228. Endosulfan contamination of Arctic seawater has been observed since early
1993, 322 and is now so widespread in the surface water that it has been
described as ubiquitous.323
229. A study evaluating concentrations of endosulfan in Arctic seawater
demonstrated: “Surface seawater concentrations for alpha- and beta-endosulfan
ranged from <0.1-8.8 (mean 2.3) pg/L and 0.1-7.8 (mean 1.5) pg/L. …
Geographical distributions for alpha-endosulfan revealed the highest
318
Hageman KJ, Simonich SL, Campbell DH, Wilson GR, Landers DH. 2006. Atmospheric deposition of
current-use and historic-use pesticides in snow at national parks in the western United States. Environ Sci
Technol 40:3174-80.
319
Burniston DA, Strachan WJM, Wania F. 2007. Changes in surface area and concentrations of
semivolatile organic contaminants in aging snow. Environ Sci Technol 42:4932-37.
320
Mast MA, Foreman WT, Skaates SV. 2007. Current-use pesticides and organochlorine compounds in
precipitation and lake sediment from two high-elevation national parks in the western United States. Arch
Environ Contam Toxicol 52:294-305.
321
Herbert BMJ, Halsall CJ, Fitzpatrick L, Villa S, Jones KC, Thomas GO. 2004. Use and validation of
novel snow samplers for hydrophobic, semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). Chemosphere 56:22735.
322
Jantunen LMM, Bidleman TF. 1998. Organochlorine pesticides and enantiomers of chiral pesticides in
Arctic Ocean water. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 35:218–28.
323
Bidleman T, Macdonald R, Stow J. 2003. Canadian Arctic Contaminants Assessment Report II:
Sources, Occurrence, Trends and Pathways in the Physical Environment. Northern Contaminants
Programme, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. http://www.aincinac.gc.ca/nth/ct/ncp/pubs/phy/phy-eng.pdf.
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concentrations in the western Arctic, specifically the Bering and Chukchi
Seas.” [emphasis added]324
Dust
230. Monitoring in the Caribbean, at the Virgin Islands and Trinidad, identified
Endosulfan at all sites, and it was shown to have blown there in dust from Mali in
the African Sahara/Sahel region.325
Animals
231. A North Pacific Research Board report published in 2008 reported alphaand beta-Endosulfan in common murre eggs of the North Pacific. Levels in murre
eggs measured in 2003 at St. Lazuria Island for beta-Endosulfan ranged from
3.04 to 11.2 ng/g (mean 5.89 ng/g) and for alpha-Endosulfan from 0.116 to 0.428
ng/g (mean 0.236 ng/g). At Middleton Island in the Gulf of Alaska, measured
levels in 2004 in murre eggs for beta-Endosulfan ranged up to 11.8 ng/g (mean
of 6.74 ng/g). Alpha- and beta-Endosulfan were also found in common murre
eggs at East Anatuli Island, Duck Island, Gull Island, Cape Denbigh, Cape
Pierce, Sledge Island, Bluff and Bogoslov Island.326
232. The Cook Inlet, Alaska, Contaminants Study found the following Endosulfan
levels in Chinook and sockeye salmon:327
Table 7: Endosulfan residues in salmon, Cook Inlet Alaska (ng/kg)
Maximum
Minimum
Average
Chinook
780
308
544
Sockeye
1610
252
664
No of samples
2
4
233. Braune et al. (2005) reported that over 20 years monitoring of POPs in the
Canadian Arctic, there was a 3-fold increase in age-adjusted concentrations of
Endosulfan sulfate in beluga at the same time as most other POPs were
324
Weber J, Halsall CJ, Muir DCG, Teixeira C, Burniston DA, Strachan WMJ, Hung H, Mackay N, Arnold
D, Kylin H. 2006. Endosulfan and γ-HCH in the Arctic: an assessment of surface seawater concentrations
and air-sea exchange. Environ Sci Technol 40:7570-6.
325
Garrison VH, Foreman WT, Genualdi S, Griffin DW, Kellogg CA, Majewski MS, Mohammed A,
Ramsubhag A, Shinn EA, Simonich SL, Smith GW. 2006. Saharan dust – a carrier of persistent organic
pollutants, metals and microbes to the Caribbean? Rev Biol Trop 54(Suppl 3):9-21.
326
Roseneau DG, Becker PR, Vander Pol SS, Day RD, Point D, Simac KS, Moors AJ, Ellisor MB, Pugh
RS, York GS. 2008. Expanding the Seabird Tissue Archival and Monitoring Project (STAMP) in the North
Pacific: Geographic Patterns in Contaminant Residues in Seabird Eggs Used in Rural Subsistence Diets.
North Pacific Research Board Project Final Report (NPRB Project 0534).
http://doc.nprb.org/web/05_prjs/534_Final%20Report%20(Mar%202008)%20(2).pdf
327
Survey of Chemical Contaminants in Fish, Invertebrates, and Plants Collected in the Vicinity of Tyonek,
Seldovia, Port Graham, and Nanwalek in Cook Inlet, Alaska. December 2003. Prepared by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Region 10 Office of Environmental Assessment (EPA 910-R-01-003).
http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/oea.nsf/Risk+Assessment/Cook+Inlet+Seafood+Study.
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UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
declining.328
234. Stern & Ikonomou (2003) reported a 3.2-fold increase of Endosulfan sulfate
measured in Cumberland Sound beluga blubber over the 20-year time period
from 1982-2002.329
235. Similarly, Evans et al. (2005) reported increasing residues of Endosulfan in
the freshwater fish char—they were 2.2 times higher in 2002 than 1992.330
236. The geographic trend of increasing concentrations of Endosulfan in
seawater of the western Arctic, specifically the Chukchi and Bering Seas,
corresponds to levels of alpha-Endosulfan found in ringed seals, with the highest
levels found in the western Arctic off Barrow, Alaska (geometric mean in ringed
seal blubber combined males and females of 22.6 ng/g alpha-Endosulfan with
the upper concentration at 43.39 ng/g).331
237. Endosulfan was measured in the blubber of beluga at 15 sites in the
Canadian arctic between 1993 and 2001, at levels reaching 94 ug/kg.332
238. Bentzenen et al. (2008) found alpha-Endosulfan in the fat, but not the blood,
of polar bears sampled along the Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast in spring, 2003.
The levels measured were: mean 2 and range <0.1-21 ng/g wet weight fat, and
mean 4 and range <0.1-36 ng/g lipid weight.333
239. Vorkamp et al. (2004) found residues of Endosulfan in every species they
tested in Greenland. In the following results, the values are all for total
Endosulfan, ng/g live weight, and are the highest median and maximum for
various tissues and locations per species. In terrestrial species the residues were
ptarmigan (median 1.9 and max 3.0 in liver), hare (median 0.55 and max 0.64 in
liver), lamb (median n.d. and max 0.65 in liver), caribou (median 0.17 and max
328
Braune BM, Outridge PM, Fisk AT, Muir DCG, Helm PA, Hobbs K, Hoekstra PF, Kuzyk ZA, Kwan M,
Letcher RJ, Lockhart WL, Norstrom RJ, Stern GA, Stirling I. 2005. Persistent organic pollutants and
mercury in marine biota of the Canadian Arctic: an overview of spatial and temporal trends. Sci Total
Environ 351-352: 4-56.
329
Stern GA, Ikonomou MG. 2003. Temporal trends of OC contaminants in south eastern Baffin
(Pangnirtung) beluga. Synopsis of research conducted under the 2001-2003 Northern Contaminants
Program. Ottawa: Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. p 181-90. http://www.aincinac.gc.ca/nth/ct/ncp/pub-eng.asp
330
Evans MS, Muir D, Lockhart WL, Stern G, Ryan M, Roach P. 2005. Persistent organic pollutants and
metals in the freshwater biota of the Canadian Subarctic and Arctic: an overview. Sci Total Environ 351352:94-147.
331
Mackay N, Arnold D. 2005. Evaluation and Interpretation of Environmental Data on Endosulfan in
Arctic Regions. Draft Report for Bayer CropScience Report Number CEA.107.
332
Stern GA, Macdonald CR, Armstrong D, Dunn B, Fuchs C, Harwood L, Muir DCG, Rosenburg B.
2005. Spatial trends and factors affecting variation of organochlorine contaminants levels in Canadian
Arctic beluga (Delphinapterus leucas). Sci Total Environ 351-352:344-68.
333
Bentzen TW, Muir DCG, Amstrup SC, O’Hara TM. 2008. Organohalogen concentrations in blood and
adipose tissue of Southern Beaufort Sea polar bears. Sci Total Environ 406:352-67.
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UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/4
0.39 in muscle), muskox (median 0.016 and max 1.8 in blubber). In freshwater
fish, Arctic char they found residues at all 3 locations sampled, with the highest
residues being at Ittoqortoormiit (median 21 and max 92 in muscle tissue). In
marine invertebrates they measured residues in shrimp (median 3 and max 5.2 in
muscle), snow crab (median 19 in muscle and max 95 in liver), and Iceland
scallop (median 0.36 and max 1.6 in muscle). In marine fish they measured
residues in Atlantic cod, redfish, Atlantic salmon, Greenland halibut, wolfish,
capelin, shorthorn sculpin, with the highest median value being in the muscle of
capelin sampled at Nuuk (50 ng/g), and the highest single measurement being in
the muscle of Atlantic cod also sampled at Nuuk (780 ng/g). In seabirds they
measured residues in common eider (median 4.9 and max 8.6 in liver), king eider
(median 3.7 in liver and max 10 in muscle), kittiwake (median 62 and max 130 in
muscle), thick-billed murre (median 8.8 and max 15 in liver). In marine mammals
they measured residues in ringed seal (median 5.6 in liver at Qeqertarsuaq and
max 25 in muscle at Ittoqqortoomiit), harp seal (median 12 and max 45 in
blubber), minke whale (median 12 and max 29), beluga (median 45 and max 83
in skin), and narwhal (median 81 and max 120 in skin).334
240. Contamination is also occurring in Antarctica: both alpha-Endosulfan and
Endosulfan sulphate have been found in blubber of elephant seals in Antarctica
with significantly higher relative proportions in pups compared with adults,
thought to be due to maternal transfer. The levels found (median 3.02 and 2.68
ug/kg lipid for adult males and females) are similar to those found in
Greenland.335
241. Alpha-Endosulfan was found in 40% of samples of Antarctic krill (Euphausia
superba) taken from 12 sites between 300 and 800E (60-700S) in 2006. “Antarctic
krill (Euphausia superba) is a keystone species in the Antarctic with the majority
of Antarctic predators feeding either exclusively or opportunistically on the krill
swarms that form during the austral summer.” The geometric mean level
detected was 418 pg/g lw, the maximum was 451 pg/g lw.336
Plants
242. In measurements conducted in five western US national parks, including
Denali National Park in Alaska, Endosulfan sulphate accumulated preferentially
334
Vorkamp K, Riget F, Glasius M, Pecseli M, Lebeuf M, Muir D. 2004. Chlorobenzenes, chlorinated
pesticides, coplanar chlorobiphenyls and other organochlorine compounds in Greenland biota. Sci Total
Environ 331(1-3):157-75.
335
Miranda-Filho KC, Metcalfe TL, Metcalfe CD, Robaldo RB, Muelbert MMC, Colares EP, Martinez PE,
Bianchini A. 2007. Residues of persistent organochlorine contaminants in southern elephant seals
(Mirounga leonina) from Elephant Island, Antarctica. Environ Sci Technol 41:3829-35.
336
Bengston Nash SM, Poulsen AH, Kawaguchi S, Vetter W, Schlabach M. 2008. Persistent
organohalogen contaminant burdens in Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) from the eastern Antarctic
sector: A baseline study. Sci Total Environ 407(1):304-14.
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in lichen when compared with other media including conifer needles, passive air
samplers, and snow.337
243. In a study measuring residues of persistent organic contaminants in
Himalayan spruce needles in central Himalayas (Zhangmu-Nyalam), alphaEndosulfan was found to be one of the 3 most ubiquitous contaminants, in more
than 95% of samples, with levels increasing with altitude.338
244. Endosulfan was measured in grasses in the Himalayas, in the Mt.
Qomolangma (Everest) region of the Tibetan Plateau: alpha-Endosulfan (range
0.29-3.14 ng/g) and beta-Endosulfan (range 0.10-1.54 ng/g). There were no
detectable residues in the soil, indicating that the source of the residues in plants
was deposition from the air.339
245. Endosulfan was measured in lichen in the mountains of western Canada. Of
the three forms, Endosulfan sulphate was present in the highest quantities (range
1,621-15,399 pg/g dry weight), with alpha- (range 403-1,678 pg/g) and betaEndosulfan (range 694-4,632 pg/g) also present in all samples.340
246. In a study of orographic cold-trapping of POPs by vegetation, specifically in
conifer needles, in the mountain areas of Alberta and British Columbia, Canada,
Endosulfan was found in conifer needles at levels of 11-2930 pg/g dry weight,
with the level increasing with altitude.341
Modelling data
- information regarding bio-availability
(f) National and international risk evaluations,
assessments or profiles and labelling information and
hazard classifications, as available (provide summary information
and relevant references)
337
Schrlau J. 2007. Comparison between Lichen, Conifer Needles, Resin-Based Passive Air Sampling
Devices (PASDs), and Snow to Monitor Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds(SOCs) in the Atmosphere.
Masters Thesis, Oregon State University. http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/dspace/handle/1957/7442.
338
Wang XP, Yao TD, Cong ZY, Yan XL, Kang SC, Zhang Y. 2006. Gradient distribution of persistent
organic contaminants along northern slope of central-Himalayas, China. Sci Total Environ 372:193-202.
339
Wang XP, Yao TD, Cong ZY, Yan XL, Kang SC, Zhang Y. 2007. Distribution of persistent organic
pollutants in soil and grasses around Mt. Qomolangma, China. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 52(2):153062.
340
Daly GL, Lei YD, Teixeira C, Muir DCG, Wania F. 2007. Pesticides in western Canadian mountain air
and soil. Environ Sci Technol 41:6020-5.
341
Davidson DA, Wilkinson AC, Blais JM. 2003. Orographic cold-trapping of persistent organic pollutants
by vegetation in mountains of western Canada. Environ Sci Technol 37(2):209-15.
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247. The recent decision, by New Zealand’s Environmental Risk Management
Authority, to revoke the registration of Endosulfan contains the following
statements about risk:342
“Based on their hazardous properties and their lifecycles and use patterns,
endosulfan and endosulfan formulations have the potential to cause adverse
effects to:
 workers involved in the manufacture of the substances;
 workers and bystanders should an incident occur in transportation or
storage of the substances;
 users of the substances;
 the public from spray drift;
 the public who use any sports grounds, golf courses or bowling greens
that have been treated;
 the public through exposure to residues in food;
 the public through long range transport, through food residues, leading to
breast milk and fat tissue residues;
 the environment from spillage, seepage, runoff or long range transport;
 the relationship of Maori [indigenous people of New Zealand] to the
environment through exposure of water, soil and native flora and fauna to
the substances.”
“There is a high acute and chronic risk to aquatic species (fish and
invertebrates) from all current uses of endosulfan in New Zealand.”
“The Committee considers there are significant risks to Maori cultural
wellbeing, society and the community and to New Zealand’s international
relationships.”
“The Committee considers that there are no significant benefits associated
with the availability of endosulfan and endosulfan formulations.”
“Taking into account, the approach to risk, the precautionary approach and
the effects of the substances being unavailable, the Committee considers that
the high level of adverse effects (risks and costs) to the environment, human
health, the relationship of Maori to the environment and New Zealand’s
international relationships outweigh any positive effects (benefits) associated
with the availability of endosulfan and endosulfan formulations in New
Zealand.”
(g) Status of the chemical under international
conventions
342
ERMANZ. 2008. Environmental Risk Management Authority Decision. Application Code HRC07003.
10 December 2008. http://www.ermanz.govt.nz/search/registers.html?id=23290.
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