Scientific Method
1. STEPS
Problem
Research
Hypothesis
Procedure / Data
Results / Conclusion
2. Hypothesis
Educated guess / a
“prediction” based on your
research
3. Independent Variable
What
“I” control, as the
experimentor
Sometimes called
“Manipulated Variable”
4. Dependent Variable
• Changes “on its own”,
as a RESULT of the
experiment
• “Responding” Variable
• ALWAYS graphed on Yaxis
5. Constants/Controls
►Constants:
what keep the
SAME
►Control: does NOT receive
the I.V. (for COMPARISON)
Effect of Salt on Growth
Effect of Salt on Growth
Growth
DV
0
5
IV
10
% SALT
6. Validity/Reliability
 VALID:
measures what it
says it measures
 RELIABLE: can repeat it &
get the same results
7. DATA
Greatest – Lowest
Mean: Average
Range:
8. Metrics
Mass:
Gram
Volume:
Liter
Distance: Meter
9. Water Structure
+++
Hydrogen +
Bond
+
-_--
+
10. Water Properties
• A POLAR molecule!!
A. Form HYDROGEN bonds,
making water COHESIVE and
ADHESIVE
B. Water ABSORBS heat,
stabilizing land & sea
TEMPERATURES
10. Water Properties
C. Evaporates … rids of
excess HEAT
D. Ice FLOATS, preventing
LAKES from freezing
SOLID
E. Universal SOLVENT (can
DISSOLVE many
11. BONDING
A. IONIC: + to – (ex: Na+Cl- or
salt)
B. COVALENT: share
ELECTRONS (ex: H2O)
C. HYDROGEN: bonds between
MOLECULES, such as WATER
12. Water
DISSOCIATES
into H+ and
OH- ions, measured as pH
H20
H+ + OH-
pH SCALE
Neutral
0
14
7
Acidic
Basic
Neutral = 7
Acidic Ranges = 0 – 6
Basic Ranges = 8 - 14
14. Importance of pH
 Cells
& enzymes only tolerate
SMALL CHANGES in pH…..
 Every cell/enzyme functions
best within a narrow RANGE
 Acidic-loving grows best
between: 0 – 6
 Neutral-loving best at/near: 7
15. CELL MEMBRANE
15. Cell Membrane
 Selective
Permeability = Lets
some things in, not others
 Help maintain HOMEOSTASIS
(term for keeping everything
in BALANCE)
CELL TRANSPORT
 DIFFUSION:
movement of
materials from HIGH conc. To
LOW conc.
 OSMOSIS: WATER (from H L)
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT: uses
ENERGY (can go from L H)
16. ELEMENTS
 Remember
H
N
the “CHNOPS” !!
C
P
O
S
17. ENZYMES
….they serve as
CATALYSTS
….they SPEED UP reactions
without being CHANGED or
USED UP
Enzymes are PROTEINS
(contain C – N bonds)
17. ENZYMES
Active Site: where enzyme
attaches to the substrate
Substrate: molecule that is
changed by the enzyme
Product: RESULT of the
enzyme-substrate reaction
“Lock & Key” = specific
enzyme for a specific substrate
17. ENZYMES
18. MACROMOLECULES
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
PROTEINS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
CARBS: ELEMENTS
 C, H, O
 Sucrose (endings in “ose”)
 Polysaccharides
Carbs: Buiding Blocks
 Repeating
SUGAR units:
Carbs:
Function/Importance
 ENERGY (through Respiration
– ATP)
 STRUCTURE (as Cellulose in
Plant cell walls)
LIPIDS: Elements
 C,
H, O, sometimes P (if in cell
membrane
 Oils
 Waxes
Lipids: Building Blocks
 Glycerol
+ Fatty Acids:
CH2
LIPIDS: Function/Importance
 CELL
MEMBRANES!
 Long-term energy storage
 Insulation
Proteins: Elements
•
•
•
•
C, H, O, and N
Enzymes
Muscles
Cell Structure
Proteins: Building Blocks
 Built
of Repeating AMINO
ACID units
 Also called POLYPEPTIDES
Proteins: Function/Importance
• Structural foundation of ALL
CELLS
• ENZYMES – act as catalysts
Nucleic Acids: Elements
C, H, O, N, P
 DNA
 RNA

Nucleic Acids: Buidling Blocks
 NUCLEOTIDES:
SUGAR + BASE +
Phosphate
Nucleic Acids: Functions
Store genetic information
(DNA)
 Carry instructions to the
ribosomes (mRNA)

20. MICROSCOPES
A. Dissecting
B. Compound Light
C. Electron Scanning
TOTAL MAGNIFICATION =
Obj. Lense X Eyepiece
21. CELL THEORY
A. All living things are made of
cells
B. Cells = basic unit of
structure and function
C. Cells come from preexisting
cells
22. Types of Cells
Prokaryote (no nucleus)
 Eukaryote (have nucleus &
organelles)

EUKARYOTE Cells
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Golgi,
E.R.
Vacuoles, etc.
22. BOTH Cell Types Have:
 DNA
/ RNA
 Cell Membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Ribosomes
 Cytoskeleton
PROKARYOTE Cells:
NO Nucleus
NO Organelles
Bacteria Kingdoms
Cell Organelles



NUCLEUS: control center –
DNA, chromosomes, genes
CELL MEMBRANE: surrounds
cell; bilipid layer; controls in &
out
CYTOPLASM: area between cell
membrane & nucleus
CELL ORGANELLES
• GOLGI APPARATUS:
finishing/packaging of molecules
• CHLOROPLASTS: site of
photosynthesis (green)
• VACUOLES: store/transport
wastes, water, or food
CELL ORGANELLES
 RIBOSOMES:
site of
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS!!!
 MITOCHONDRIA: powerhous
of cell; site of respiration
(ATP)
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(ER): transports; “rough”
has ribosomes
CELL ORGANELLES
CENTRIOLES: assist in cell
division
LYSOSOMES: digestive
enzymes (“suicide sacs”)
NUCLEOLUS: in nucleus;
produces RNA
6 Kingdoms
ARCHAEBACTERIA:
P,U,A,H
EXAMPLES: Halophiles;
hot sulphur springs
bacteria
CHARACTERISTICS: live
in EXTREME environments;
most primitive bacteria
29. CLASSIFICATION
LINNAEUS = scientist
Binomial Nomenclature:
Genus (capitalized) + Species
Example:
Homo sapiens
(Genus species)
30. Phylogenic Trees
 Show
EVOLUTIONARY
relationships (closer together
= closer their relationship)
6 KINGDOMS
Abbreviations Key (bottom):
P
Prokaryote
E
Eukaryote
U
Unicellular
M
Multicellular
A
Autotroph
H
Heterotroph
EUBACTERIA
 P,
U, A, H
 Examples: E. Coli (intestines)
Acidophilis (yogurt) Streptococcus
 Characteristics: common, true
bacteria; diseases; important as
decomposers
PROTISTA
 E,
U or M, A or H
 Examples: Amoeba,
Paramecium, Plankton
 Characteristics: key
producers (aquatic) & basis of
food chain; both plant &
animal “like”
FUNGI
E, M (mostly) or U, H
 Examples: mushrooms, molds,
yeast
 Characteristics: absorb food;
spore-producers; decomposers

PLANTS
 E, all M, all A
 Examples: mosses, ferns,
cone-trees, flowering plants
 Characteristics: producers in
all biomes; food, O2, homes,
maintain environment
ANIMALS
 E,
all M, all H
 Examples: sponge, jellyfish,
frog, bird, mammal
 Characteristics: decomposers,
scavengers, consumers,
predators, commercially imp.
VIRUSES vs. CELLS
 BOTH
have DNA/RNA
 Virus NOT made of cells,
needs a HOST to reproduce
ENERGY PYRAMIDS

Tropic levels
ECOLOGY: Terms
POPULATION: all members
of a single species in same
area
COMMUNITY: several
different species together
ECOSYSTEM: community +
all abiotic factors
ECOLOGY: Terms
• BIOSPHERE: all part of Earth
capable of supporting life
• BIOTIC FACTORS: the LIVING
parts of an environment
• ABIOTIC FACTORS: the
NONLIVING parts (dirt, rocks)
ECOLOGY: Terms
• NORMAL GROWTH: “S” shaped
curve; levels off at carrying capacity
• EXPONENTIAL GROWTH: “J”
shaped; increasing rapidly
ECOLOGY: Terms
 LIMITING
FACTOR: what is
in “shortest supply”
 CARRYING CAPACITY:
maximum population size an
environment can support
ECOLOGY: Terms
 FOOD
CHAIN:
grass
cow
human
 FOOD WEB: show ALL
possible feeding relationships
ECOLOGY: Terms
 SYMBIOSIS:
close relationship
between 2 different species
MUTUALISM: + (gain) & + (gain)
COMMENSALISM: + & “neither”
PARASITISM: + and – (harmed)
ECOLOGY: Terms
• SUCCESSION: orderly
replacement of species
(going from “field” to
“forest”)
• CLIMAX COMMUNITY: LAST
stage of succession; stable,
mature
19. Photosynthesis:
Inputs
Chlorophyll + Sun + CO2 +
Water
19. Respiration: inputs
 SUGAR
+ O2 + Enzymes
19. Products (Photosyn.)
 SUGARS
 OXYGEN
19. Products: Respiration
 ATP
 CO2
 H2O
(energy)
SITE: Photosynthesis
CHLOROPLAST
SITE: Respiration
MITOCHONDRIA
RATE: Photosynthesis
 Amounts of:
Light
CO2
Water
Temperature
RATE: Respiration
 Amounts
of:
Sugar
Oxygen
Enzymes
19.A “Light Reaction” or…
 Photochemical Reaction =
H2O + SUN
H+ + O2
B. “Dark Reaction” or …
Carbon Fixation =
H+ + CO2
SUGARS
19C.
 RESPIRATION:
can be either
 AEROBIC (with oxygen) or
 ANAEROBIC (without
oxygen) -- look for LACTIC
ACID as a product
GENETICS TERMS
 DOMINANT:
the trait that
SHOWS, when present (“A”)
 RECESSIVE: hidden trait
(unless homozygous) (“a”)
 CHROMOSOME: threads of
genetic material (genes)
GENETICS TERMS
 ALLELE:
one gene form (can
be dominant or recessive)
 HOMOZYGOUS: gene forms
are the SAME (“AA”)
 HETEROZYGOUS: gene
forms are DIFFERENT (“Aa”)
GENTICS TERMS
 GENOTYPE:
the gene forms
an organism has
 PHENOTYPE: the way an
organism LOOKS
 PUREBRED: same as
“Homozygous” (same)
GENETICS TERMS
 HYBRID:
same as
“heterozygous” (different)
 KARYOTYPE: charted
arrangement of chromosomes
 MENDEL: founder of Genetics
 CODOMINANCE: BOTH forms
are expressed (“roan”)
GENETICS TERMS
 INCOMPLETE
DOMINANCE:
intermediate form is expressed
(“red” + “white” = pink)
 HAPLOID: half-set of chrom. (sex
cells)
 DIPLOID: double-set of chrom.
(all other cells)
GENETICS TERMS
 CLONING:
make an identical
copy from a single cell
 GAMETE: sex cell (haploid)
 SOMATIC CELL: all BODY
cells (other than sex cells)
24. Punnett Squares
B
B
BB
b
Bb
b
Bb
bb
25. STAGES of Cell Division
A. MITOSIS: 2 identical
daughter cells (each 2n)
25. Cell Division: MEIOSIS
B. MEIOSIS: 4 haploid sex
cells
26. Mitosis V. Meiosis
Mitosis
Meiosis
Cell division
ALL cells
IPMAT once
2 diploid cells
2n 2n + 2n
Cell division
Sex cells only
IPMAT twice
4 haploid cell
2n n+n+n+n
REPRODUCTION
• Sexual: union of male &
female gametes
• Asexual: producing a
copy WITHOUT forming
gametes
26. DNA Structure/Function
 Double-helix
 …chains
of NUCLEOTIDES, …
SUGAR + BASE + PHOSPHATE
 …carry the genetic BLUEPRINTS
26. DNA vs. RNA
DNA
Double-strand
Deoxyribose
(sugar)
A-T, C-G
One form: DNA
Cell’s master code
RNA
Single strand
Ribose
(sugar)
A-U, C-G
mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA
Protein synth.
27. Protein Synthesis
Transcription
27. Protein Synthesis

Translation:
28. EVOLUTION
 Key
scientist: Darwin
A. FOSSIL: earlier, common
ancestors (similar to modern
species)
28. Evolution
B. EMBRYOLOGY: (e.g.
vertebrates) all look nearly the
same at first
….COMMON ANCESTORY!
28. Evolution
C. AMINO ACID SEQUENCES:
fewer differences = more
closely related
28. Evolution
D. SIMILAR STRUCTURES:
Analogous:
Bird/Bat wing
Homologous:
Vert. forelimb
Vestigial:
Appendix
28. Evolution
 NATURAL
SELECTION:
organism BEST SUITED to
environment survives &
leaves more offspring
“Survival of the Fittest!”
31. FOSSIL Dating
(see board)
Which levels are oldest?
Newest? What does this tell
us about prior habitats?
THEORIES of EVOLUTION
• GRADUALISM: species
evolved gradually over long
periods of time
• PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM:
periods of RAPID change,
followed by little or no
change
34. CHESAPEAKE BAY
…
largest ESTUARY in US (where
RIVERS meet OCEAN)
A. … reduced forest cover,
chemicals released into Bay, runoff,
intensive farming, loss of bay
GRASSES
34. CHESAPEAKE BAY
B. …filters / cleans & provides
food & nesting cover
C. …LESS salinity as you go from
Ocean to Bay to marsh to rivers
to creeks
PLANTS
 Nonvascular = NO
ROOT/STEM for transporting
WATER & NUTRIENTS (ex:
Moss, bryophytes)
 Vascular: … XYLEM (water),
PHLOEM (sugars): ferns,
gymnosperms, angiosperms
MONOCOTS
DICOTS
LEAF
1.CUTICLE
2.UPPER EPIDERMIS
3.PALISADE LAYER
4.SPONGY LAYER
VEIN:
5.XYLEM
6.PHLOEM
8.GUARD CELLS
9.STOMATA
7.LOWER EPIDERMIS
FLOWER
INVERTEBRATE Animals
 NO
BACKBONE
 SHELLS, Exoskeletons, …
 SOFT-BODIED
 Sponge, Jellyfish, Worms,
Molluscs, Insects
VERTEBRATE Animals
 ENDOSKELETON
&
BACKBONE
 LARGER, MORE MOBILE
 Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles,
Birds, Mammals
ALL Animals
 HETEROTROPHS
 MULTICELLULAR
 INGEST
their FOOD