Essays
Chapter 1 ( Prologue questions are at the end)
1. When your best friend hears that you are taking a psychology course, she asserts that
psychology is simply common sense. Explain why your awareness of both the limits of
everyday reasoning and the methods of psychological research would lead you to disagree
with your friend's assertion.
2. The table below lists the scores of eight subjects on a test to measure anxiety, as well as the
typical number of cigarettes each person smokes daily. Scores on the anxiety test can range
anywhere from a low of 0 (indicating very low anxiety) to a high of 30 (indicating very high
anxiety).
Anxiety
Cigarettes
Subject
Test Score
Smoked Daily
1
8
11
2
9
3
3
15
11
4
14
16
5
21
26
6
12
10
7
22
24
8
17
18
Construct a scatterplot to represent the correlation between smoking and anxiety. Describe
the direction of the correlation and give two possible explanations for it.
3. Speaking at a college graduation ceremony, Professor Robson compared college graduates
with adults who are less educated. She correctly noted that college graduates pay more taxes,
vote more frequently, engage in more volunteer activities in their communities, and are less
likely to go to jail than less-educated adults. The professor concluded that colleges obviously
do great things for society. How might you reasonably challenge the way the professor reached
her conclusion?
4. Design an experiment to test whether alcohol consumption influences people's tendency to
become socially aggressive. Be sure to specify your experimental hypothesis and identify your
dependent and independent variables, as well as your experimental and control conditions.
Identify any experimental procedures that would help to ensure the validity of your research.
5. Five students received the following test scores: 7, 11, 5, 6, and 11. Calculate the mode,
median, mean, and range of this distribution of scores. Which measure of central tendency
would change the most if an additional test score of 2 was included in the distribution?
Chapter 2
6. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates believed that four basic body fluids (blood, black bile,
yellow bile, and phlegm) influenced human behavior, emotions, and personality. Use your
understanding of the body's rapid and slower chemical communication systems to support or
refute Hippocrates's theory.
7. Over the last few weeks, Mr. Klein has been bothered by nausea, frequent fainting spells, and
severe headaches. Describe two ways a physician might seek to determine whether Mr. Klein's
symptoms result from a brain disorder or injury.
8. After a mild stroke, Mr. McGeorge showed some signs of aphasia. What pattern of symptoms
would lead you to believe the damage occurred primarily in (a) Broca's area, (b) Wernicke's
area, (c) the angular gyrus?
9. After Jordan brilliantly performed a challenging and emotionally vibrant violin concerto, the
orchestra conductor proudly proclaimed that Jordan was obviously a right-brained
personality.What type of explanation is the conductor giving for Jordan's artistic skills? What's
wrong with his statement? Provide an alternative reason for Jordan's talent.
Chapter 3
10. Many would consider it ironic that men are more likely than women to feel comfortable about
having casual sex with multiple partners and yet at the same time more likely to feel jealous
rage over a mate's having sex with someone else. How would an evolutionary psychologist
explain these gender differences? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this evolutionary
explanation?
11. Describe one of your personality traits that you believe to be highly heritable and another trait
that seems to be much less so. Provide evidence to support your answer, and explain why you
would expect genetics to exert a much greater impact on some personality traits than on
others.
12. Mr. Firkin is a shy and reserved person who often feels tense and nervous. In therapy, he
recalled that he had an unhappy childhood, feeling that he did not receive enough attention
from his mother and resenting the conservative family discipline and life style enforced by his
father. He blames both parents for his current anxiety, unhappiness, and loneliness. In light of
your understanding of the interactive influences of nature and nurture, explain why Mr.
Firkin's complaints about his parents may be somewhat unfair and unhelpful.
13. Describe ways in which our society might change in the future--in the home, school, and
workplace, for example--if all children were raised in families that discouraged traditional
gender-typing and distinct gender roles. Consider the advantages or disadvantages of such
changes while you develop an argument as to whether you would or would not recommend
the development of that kind of society.
Chapter 4
14. Three-year-old Ivan frequently takes other children's toys from them, showing little concern
for their feelings, even when they cry. When he does this, his mother tells him to “imagine how
other kids feel when they lose their toys.” Use your understanding of cognitive development to
explain Ivan's antisocial behavior. Why is his mother's comment unlikely to influence his
behavior? How would you encourage Ivan to stop behaving this way?
15. Mrs. Karina spends a lot of time stroking, cuddling, and rocking her infant son and seems to be
highly aware of the baby's actions and needs. Mr. Karina worries that his wife's interactions
with the baby may eventually lead the child to (a) cry easily when frustrated, (b) fearfully cling
to his mother, (c) become unfriendly toward other people, and (d) become withdrawn and
uninterested in his surroundings. Describe research on social development that supports or
refutes each of the father's concerns.
16. Mr. and Mrs. McDonald believe in the importance of stern discipline; they impose strict rules
which they expect their children to obey without question. They penalize misbehavior harshly,
frequently with a spanking. Mr. and Mrs. Reynolds use milder forms of punishment to enforce
their rules. They also have regular family meetings in which their children help them to
establish household rules and penalties for breaking them. What do you see as the advantages
and disadvantages of these two disciplinary approaches? Explain the reasons for your answer.
17. Thirteen-year-old Philip has begun to challenge many of his parents' values and to express his
own set of highly idealistic standards. Compare and contrast the explanations for Philip's
behavior that would be given by Kohlberg and by Erikson.
18. As Brianna begins experiencing symptoms of menopause, she worries about the loss of (a)
health and vitality, (b) intellectual capacity, and (c) life satisfaction. Describe research that
would serve to justify or minimize each of Brianna's concerns.
Chapter 5
19. Use your understanding of absolute thresholds, sensory adaptation, and pain control to argue
that sensation is often influenced by our motives, expectations, and psychological states of
mind.
20. You are the president of a corporation that owns several large department stores. A board
member has a plan for preventing shoplifting: In each store play musical soundtracks
containing subaudible and consciously imperceptible verbal messages such as “don't steal” and
“shoplifting is a crime.” Carefully discuss your reasons for supporting or rejecting this proposal
to engage in subliminal persuasion.
21. In what sense is there a correspondence between the experiences of hue and pitch? Discuss
how the Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision and the place theory of pitch perception are
conceptually similar or different.
22. A friend believes that the five human senses--seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling-are distinct and independent. Explain what is wrong with your friend's belief.
Chapter 6
23. You have been asked to paint a picture that includes buildings, fields, a river, and a mountain.
Describe how you would use at least five monocular cues to give your painting a sense of
depth.
24. The moon typically appears larger near the horizon than when high in the sky. The height of
the Gateway Arch in St. Louis typically appears greater than its width. Explain these two
perceptual illusions and show how your explanations for both illusions are similar.
25. Explain how research on size constancy, restored vision, perceptual adaptation, and perceptual
sets serves to support and/or refute John Locke's emphasis on the importance of learning in
perception.
26. Last night one of your mother's best friends had a car accident. Your mother feels guilty
because three days ago she dreamt of such an accident but failed to warn her friend. How
would you explain your mother's experience? What advice would you give her?
Chapter 7
27. Because he has difficulty falling asleep at night, Professor Hogan doesn't go to bed until very
late. Before he retires, he tries to wear himself out by running around the block several times.
Then he treats himself to a beer and perhaps a pizza while preparing his lecture for the next
day's early morning classes. What specific advice would you give the professor to help him fall
asleep?
28. Franco studied all evening for a chemistry test the following morning. That night he dreamt
that he copied test answers from a female classmate sitting nearby. Compare and contrast a
Freudian and an information-processing explanation of Franco's dream.
29. A good friend of yours hopes that hypnosis will improve his memory and help him study longer
and more effectively. He worries, however, that he might not be easily hypnotized. Your
mother hopes that hypnosis will help relieve her arthritis pain but fears that under hypnosis
she might do something embarrassing. Discuss the extent to which the hopes and fears of your
friend and your mother are realistic. Where appropriate, use research evidence to support
your conclusions.
30. A classmate believes that alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine all have similar effects on behavior
and that therefore all three drugs ought to be legalized. Carefully evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of your classmate's position.
Chapter 8
31. (a) How would you classically condition an adventuresome 2-year-old to be more fearful of
running across a busy street near her house? (b) How would you classically condition a
preschool child who is afraid of dogs to enjoy playing with a neighbor's friendly dog? Be sure to
identify the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR in both answers.
32. (a) Several days after drinking an excessive amount of alcohol, Karen becomes nauseated
simply by the smell of liquor. The sight of the half-empty liquor bottle from which she drank
does not, however, upset her. What does Karen's pattern of response indicate about the limits
of associative learning? (b) If George is spanked immediately after his baby sister cries, he is
likely to become fearful every time she cries. If Ken is spanked immediately before his baby
sister cries, he is not likely to become fearful when she cries. What do the different reactions
of George and Ken suggest about the role of cognitive processes in associative learning?
33. Mr. Byrne can't understand why scolding his seventhgrade students for disruptive classroom
behaviors makes them more unruly. Explain Mr. Byrne's predicament in terms of operant
conditioning principles. Show how he could use operant conditioning techniques to (a) reduce
disruptive behaviors and (b) increase cooperative behaviors.
34. For Vina, cigarettes reduce feelings of tension and anxiety. Because of her heavy smoking,
however, she has a bad morning cough and breathing difficulties.How can the principles of
operant conditioning help to explain the development and continuation of Vina's self-defeating
smoking habit? Explain the extent to which the reinforcement for Vina's habit is positive or
negative, primary or conditioned, immediate or delayed, partial or continuous.
35. Although Mr. Wright often tells his children about the importance of donating time and
money to charitable causes, he rarely does so himself. He believes that this hypocrisy will not
rub off on his children, however, as long as he has plausible excuses for his lack of charity. Use
your understanding of learning processes to explain how Mr. Wright's children are likely to be
affected by their father's behavior. What advice would you give to Mr. Wright?
Chapter 9
36. A friend claims that the faster you read, the more you remember. Use your knowledge of
effortful processing and effective encoding strategies to refute your friend's claim.
37. Describe three mnemonic devices that would enable you to remember the following list of
grocery items: milk, eggs, margarine, oranges, rhubarb, ice cream, eggplant, and sausage.
Explain why each would be effective.
38. Although you genuinely enjoyed studying hard for a biology exam, during the test you are
feeling frustrated and irritable because you can't recall the answer to a series of fairly easy
factual questions. What techniques could you use to effectively remember the information
previously learned?
39. Professor Markus is a brilliant mathematician who is 70 years old and still enjoys teaching.
Over the past few years she has experienced increasing difficulty remembering the names of
her students. Suggest several possible explanations for the professor's increasing memory
failure.
40. During the process of psychotherapy, Elaine accurately recovered some long-forgotten and
painful memories from her childhood. This experience led her to conclude that these
memories must have been repressed for many years. Use your understanding of the nature of
memory to refute Elaine's conclusion.
Chapter 10
41. Describe several heuristics that you might use or that you have used when deciding whether
you should (a) study especially hard for a test and (b) ask someone for a date (or accept a
date). Under what circumstances are these heuristics likely to contribute to poor decision
making?
42. You are the commissioner of a state lottery system that sponsors daily and weekly drawings.
Lottery tickets have not been selling well over the past few months. Describe four ways you
could take advantage of people's use of the availability heuristic in order to boost sales. Explain
why you would judge your tactics to be fair or unfair to your customers.
43. Heike's older brother has suffered from chronic depression for several years. Unfortunately,
Heike has been incorrectly informed by her parents that there is a 40 percent chance she will
also suffer from depression. Explain how the availability heuristic, framing, the confirmation
bias, and belief perseverance might lead Heike to conclude that she will definitely be a victim
of a severe depressive disorder.
44. After returning from a shopping trip with his mother, little Tommy reported, “I goed to the
store and eated candy.” Why might a behaviorist such as B. F. Skinner have had some difficulty
explaining Tommy's incorrect grammatical construction? What does his error suggest about
the process of language acquisition?
Chapter 11
45. You have been hired by a large public school system to construct a musical aptitude test.
Describe how you would standardize your test and assess its reliability and validity. Explain
why it might be more difficult to develop a valid musical aptitude test than a reliable one.
46. Although Susan is a brilliant pianist and highly acclaimed ballet dancer, her high school
intelligence test scores were only average. What does Susan's experience suggest regarding (a)
the reliability and validity of intelligence tests, (b) the nature of intelligence, and (c) the
desirability of currently popular “gifted child” education programs?
47. A classmate makes the following claim: “Despite numerous federally funded Head Start
programs and nationwide efforts to desegregate public schools, Blacks continue to lag behind
their White counterparts in intelligence and academic achievement. Clearly, Black Americans
must be genetically inferior to White Americans.” Use research evidence and logical arguments
to intelligently refute your classmate's statement.
48. Juan is the oldest son of Mexican parents who immigrated to the United States less than five
years ago. Juan's high school teachers perceive him to be fairly intelligent, but his SAT scores
are low and he is having trouble getting into college. Juan's mother angrily claims that
“intelligence tests are biased against Hispanics.” Juan's father sadly counters, “It's not the tests
that are biased; it's American education that is biased.” Carefully explain why you would agree
or disagree with the comments made by each of the parents.
Chapter 12
49. Abraham Maslow suggested that “a person who is lacking food, love, and self-esteem would
most likely hunger for food more strongly than anything else.” Conversely, the novelist
Dostoyevski wrote, “without a firm idea of himself and the purpose of his life, man cannot live
even if surrounded with bread.” Give evidence that would lead you to support both
statements.
50. Although Jan appears to be underweight, she is afraid of becoming fat and consistently
restricts her food intake. Although Gene appears to be overweight, he enjoys eating and
always eats as much as he wants. Explain how their different reactions to food might result
from (a) differences in their inner bodily states and (b) differences in their reactions to external
incentives.
51. The rate of teenage pregnancy in the United States has risen sharply in the last 40 years,
despite the increased availability of contraceptives. Suggest how parents, teachers, religious
leaders, government officials, and teenagers themselves could help remedy this situation.
Include at least one concrete suggestion for each of these groups.
52. People often refer to homosexuals as persons rather than referring to homosexual behavior as
something persons do. In fact, those who experience homosexual desires or engage in
homosexual practices are often assumed to be gay or lesbian in the same sense that they are
male or female. Describe the potential advantages and disadvantages of this assumption, and
critically evaluate how it might influence research on the origins of differing sexual
orientations.
53. Describe the contrasting effects of directive management and participative management on
employee morale. Discuss these differences in terms of Maslow's hierarchy of motives. Explain
why the effectiveness of each style would depend on the personality traits and cultural
background of the employees.
Chapter 13
54. Tranquilizing drugs that inhibit sympathetic nervous system activity often effectively reduce
people's subjective experience of intense fear and anxiety. Use one of the major theories of
emotion to account for the emotionreducing effects of such tranquilizers. Which theory of
emotion would have the greatest difficulty explaining these effects? Why?
55. A newspaper advice columnist suggests that thinking can be voluntarily controlled and
changed, but emotions are gut-level, biological reactions that can't be voluntarily controlled or
modified. Use your knowledge of emotion research and theory to either support or refute the
columnist's claim.
56. Idaliza is furious because her steady boyfriend spent half an hour talking with his former
girlfriend at last night's school dance. A friend suggests that Idaliza ought to get the anger out
of her system by repeatedly pounding her pillow while she imagines that she is hitting her
boyfriend. Explain why this might be an ineffective way for Idaliza to reduce her anger. Suggest
better ways.
57. Jim, a 42-year-old engineer, is unhappy about his yearly salary although it is the highest salary
he has ever earned. His wife, Carla, suggests that he vividly recall how little he earned at the
age of 32. She also recommends that he watch a TV program about famine victims in Africa.
Use your understanding of psychological principles to explain why Carla's suggestions might
help to increase Jim's feelings of economic satisfaction.
Chapter 14
58. There's a dramatic increase in the likelihood of a person becoming ill or dying during a brief
period following the death of a spouse. Describe some of the specific biological and
psychological processes that may contribute to this effect.
59. A classmate argues that “the best way to handle stress is to work harder and meet life's
challenges head-on.” Evaluate both the strengths and the weaknesses of your classmate's
position.
60. Trevor, a college student, has tried to quit smoking on two different occasions. In each case,
however, he relapsed into his old habit during the last few weeks of the school year. Explain
the possible reasons for this relapse pattern and describe what Trevor can do to avoid
repeated failure in his efforts to stop smoking.
61. Kate, who is 50 pounds overweight, has tried a variety of diets. Although she often loses some
weight under each diet, she eventually gains it all back. Explain why Kate most likely has
difficulty maintaining her weight losses. What are the advantages and disadvantages of her
continued efforts to lose weight?
Chapter 15
62. During a heated argument with his father, 15-year-old Jason developed a paralysis of his right
arm. Medical examinations can find no physical cause for the paralysis. Use the psychoanalytic
perspective to explain how the paralysis may be Jason's attempt to deal with an unconscious
conflict between his id and superego.
63. According to a number of distinguished psychologists, a major purpose of the defense
mechanisms described by Freud is the protection of self-esteem. Give an example of how
repression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, and displacement could each be
used to protect or even enhance a positive self-image.
64. The behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner emphasized that people are largely controlled by
forces outside themselves. Critique the practical implications of personally accepting Skinner's
position in light of contemporary research on locus of control and learned helplessness.
65. Andy, a high school sophomore, lacks self-discipline, fails to plan ahead, and is excessively
anxious. He is quickly frustrated by challenging tasks and frequently becomes overly critical of
others. Use the psychoanalytic, humanistic, and social-cognitive perspectives to give three
contrasting explanations of Andy's behavior.
66. Carl Rogers believes that most people consider themselves worthless and unlovable. Reinhold
Niebuhr, on the other hand, claims that most people suffer from excessive self-love and selfpride. What do you consider to be the strengths or weaknesses of each of these contrasting
positions? Use psychological research findings to support your arguments.
67. Explain how differences between individualist and collectivist views of self contribute to
differences in marital expectations and political views. How do pro-choice and pro-life
positions regarding the issue of abortion differ with respect to the ideals of individualism and
collectivism?
Chapter 16
68. A newspaper editorialist argues that the use of DSM-IV diagnostic labels is destructively
antidemocratic, because it enables an elite corps of mental health professionals to subtly
control the values and life-styles of the rest of society. First give reasons supporting this
argument, then defend the continued use of diagnostic labels.
69. June is so preoccupied with keeping her house absolutely spotless that she has no time to do
anything but clean. After each family meal she not only washes the dishes, she also thoroughly
cleans and polishes the kitchen table, chairs, floor, and cupboards. Although these cleaning
rituals irritate her family, June is unable to discontinue them without experiencing intense
feelings of discomfort. Use the learning and biological perspectives to explain June's behavior.
70. A guest on a TV talk show claims that “major depressive disorder is not a psychological
problem; it's a disease that can be medically treated.” Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses
of this claim.
71. Differentiate between antisocial personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder, and
schizophrenia. What relationships might exist between each disorder and insanity?
Chapter 17
72. Geraldo, a college sophomore, is so fearful of asking a woman out that he hasn't had a date in
over three years. He has recently contacted a psychotherapist for help in overcoming his fear.
Describe how a behavior therapist would treat Geraldo's problem differently from the way a
psychoanalyst would.
73. Describe how a therapist might use both aversive conditioning and operant conditioning
techniques in order to help a client overcome a compulsive habit of smoking more than three
packs of cigarettes a day. Be clear about the exact procedures that would be used.
74. One of your best friends feels that he fails at everything he does and that his life isn't worth
living. When you suggest that he talk to a psychotherapist, your friend responds, “Talking
won't help. The more I talk about myself, the more I think about my problems. The more I
think about my problems, the more depressed I get.” Explain why your friend's comment
illustrates his need for cognitive therapy. What procedures would a cognitive therapist use to
help your friend overcome his negative feelings?
75. Isaiah performed miserably on his first psychology test, even though he had carefully prepared
written notes on each assigned chapter of his textbook. In an effort to improve his
performance, Isaiah subsequently engaged in daily meditation exercises and discontinued his
normal practice of textbook note-taking. To his delight, he performed somewhat better on his
second psychology test. Give Isaiah some helpful advice regarding any conclusions he might
draw about the reasons for his improved performance on the second test.
76. Mr. Andrews suffers from frequent episodes of extreme depression. When a friend suggests
that he might be helped by drug therapy, Mr. Andrews responds, “Drugs are just a crutch for
people who lack self-discipline and who want to hide from their problems. Besides, I'm not
about to hand over control of my life to some psychiatrist and his magic pills.” Explain why Mr.
Andrews' ideas about drug therapy are inaccurate.
Chapter 18
77. David's history teacher asked him why so many German people complied with Hitler's orders
to systematically slaughter millions of innocent Jews. David suggested that the atrocities were
committed because the Germans had become unusually cruel, sadistic people with abnormal
and twisted personalities. Use your knowledge of the fundamental attribution error and
Milgram's research on obedience to highlight the weaknesses of David's explanation.
78. Latitia, a college sophomore, reported: “Although I was not at all sure that I really loved my
boyfriend, he coaxed me into sleeping with him. After that, I convinced myself that I really did
love him.” Use your understanding of cognitive dissonance theory to explain why Latitia
developed such positive feelings for her boyfriend. What could Latitia do in the future to
ensure that her sexual behaviors are guided by her own true attitudes and desires?
79. Jill, a female employee at Acme Industries, recently complained that she had been sexually
harassed by one of her male supervisors. Upon hearing of this complaint, Luis, a fellow
employee, commented, “If the women around here would stop some of their flirting, they'd be
left alone.” Jason, another coworker, quickly added, “If the women in this country stopped
trying to act like men, they'd all be treated with more respect.” Explain how these insensitive
remarks illustrate some of the social, emotional, and cognitive roots of prejudice.
80. Research indicates that we often form more positive impressions of beautiful people than of
those who are physically unattractive. Explain how advertisements, movies, and children's fairy
tales might encourage this tendency. Use your knowledge of the factors that facilitate
interpersonal attraction to suggest how people could be influenced to feel more positively
about those who are physically unattractive.
81. While walking through a busy city park, Mr. Cruz experiences sharp chest pains that indicate to
him the onset of a heart attack. Describe several things Mr. Cruz should do to increase the
chances that someone will come to his aid and quickly provide him with appropriate medical
attention. Explain the rationale for your advice in light of research on altruism and the
decision-making process underlying bystander intervention.
Prologue
82. Tom believes that children are born with neither good nor bad thoughts, desires, or character
traits. He suggests, instead, that parents and culture shape individual minds and hearts in
virtuous or harmful directions. For Plato, John Locke, and Charles Darwin, note whether that
philosopher would agree or disagree with Tom's claims; in each case, explain why they would
agree or disagree with Tom. Explain also why you would agree or disagree with Tom.
83. Julie, a physics major, has difficulty believing that psychology is a science, because people
cannot observe other people's thoughts and sensations. Explain how Wilhelm Wundt and John
Watson would have responded to Julie's skepticism regarding psychology's scientific status.
84. Jack is a second-grade student. He seems to have no interest in learning, often daydreaming in
class and frequently disrupting the class by throwing objects at other students. Using the major
theoretical perspectives employed by psychologists, give three alternative explanations for
Jack's classroom behavior. In light of these explanations, what steps could be taken to reduce
Jack's disruptive behavior?
85. Kathy does not want to become a psychologist because she has no interest in analyzing
emotionally disturbed people. Use your knowledge of psychology's subfields and perspectives
to expand Kathy's limited understanding of career opportunities for psychologists.