CURRICULAR PATHS IN THE SUPERCOMET 2
EXPERIMENTATION IN ITALY
Federico Corni, Marisa Michelini, Lorenzo Santi, Alberto Stefanel, Rossana Viola
ABSTRACT
Supercomet 2 (SUPERCOnductivity Multimedia Educational Tool Phase 2) is a project within the Program
Leonardo da Vinci Phase II of the European Union, involving Universities and Secondary Schools of 15 European
countries. The objectives of this project are the production of a multimedia tool for teaching superconductivity and
the creation of an international community at European level, able to revitalize the teaching of physics in order to
open new international collaborations. Several materials have been developed in this framework: interactive
animations; texts; videos; hands-on materials for demonstrating and measuring phenomena related to
superconductivity and electromagnetism, with an accompanying teacher guide and a teacher seminar. These
materials have been used both in teacher seminars and training and in the classroom experimentation in the partner
schools.
In Italy the University of Udine led and coordinated the experimentation that involved students from several
schools within several Italian regions. The planning of the paths by the teachers involved in the project points out
various curricular proposals concerning approaches, methods and contents. The analysis of these paths gives a
wealth of statements concerning two main ways to look at superconductivity: electric properties and magnetic
properties. A report of the main results of the analysis of these paths will be presented.
KEYWORDS
Superconductivity, Curricular innovation, design and experimentation of curricular path; practitioner research
INTRODUCTION
Topics of modern physics in the curricula of secondary school, and in particular, applications of
quantum physics, offer meaningful occasions of formal thinking development, showing how modern
physics develops knowledge in the atomic world (Pospiech, 1999; Zollman 2000). Classical physics
is regarded as a modern working tool, useful even for scientific exploration of themes developed in the
20th century (Corni et al. 1996). Superconductivity in this sense gives also the chance of explaining and
exploring technological applications that currently have a remarkable social impact, such the NMR, the
Maglev, the supermagnets, or that will likely have in the near future, such the applications in
superconducting electronic elements. The European projects Supercomet 2 (SUPERCOnductivity
Multimedia Educational Tool Phase 2) and MOSEM (Minds-On experimental equipment kits in
Superconductivity and ElectroMagnetism for the continuing vocational training of upper secondary
school physics teachers) are aimed of involving universities and secondary schools of 15 European
Countries (Engstrom et al. 2008). The main materials produced during the first phase of the Supercomet
2 project (SC2 in the following) were various: interactive animations, text, videos, hands-on materials
for demonstrating and measuring phenomena related to superconductivity, electromagnetism and
electrodynamics (Engstrom 2004). These materials (CD-SC in the following) have been used both in
teacher seminars and training, and in the classroom experimentation in the various partner schools. In
Italy the University of Udine led and coordinated one of the wider pilot experimentations within the
cited projects, involving students and teachers from several schools from Sicily to Bolzano and Udine
in the northern Italian regions.
The materials and the general features of the experimentations have been discussed elsewhere
(Michelini, Viola 2008 a,b; Michelini et al. 2008 a,b). Such features will be synthesized here, focusing
on the content choices and on the paths followed. In a perspective of practitioner research, four of the
experimented didactical paths (Rudduck 1989; Elliot, Sarland 1995; Bransford, et al. 1999; Taber 2000;
Dutto, Michelini, Schiavi 2004), will be presented. They allow the various approaches to be outlined.
Finally, the emerging suggestions for a curricular design about superconductivity will be proposed and
discussed.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1
This contribution, that report from the SC2 experimentation in Italy, intends to answer the following
research questions:
RQ1) feasibility of superconductivity paths in secondary school
RQ2) typologies of teacher choices as concerns the disciplinary, methodological plans, as well as of the
strategies and of the working styles; way how superconductivity is integrated into the actual cussicula
RQ3) topics mainly considered relevant by the experimenter teachers
RQ4) assessment of the SC2-CD tool and way of integration with the experiments
SAMPLE AND MONITORING TOOLS OF SC2 EXPERIMENTATION
Table 1 reports a list of the Italian schools coordinated by the University of Udine that participated in
the SC2 project during the two years of materials development. The rich picture that emerges
constitutes a value added to the experimentation, since it documents very different experiences in
geographic context, school level and student age, developed with different working styles, disciplinary
approaches, and didactical choices. In spite of this diversity it was possible to analyze the various
projects according to the following common elements: the experimenter teachers attended the same
training (Michelini et al. 2008 b); the CD-SC proposals were included in all the didactical paths; the
documentation of the experimentations was based on a portfolio composed by six monitoring
worksheets, prepared following the results of a previous research aimed to individualize tools for the
evaluation of didactic innovation (Aiello Nicosia et al 1997). The portfolio worksheets are studied to
collect defined and homogeneous information about each class involved in the experimentations
regarding physics teaching/learning and in particular as concern to:
 Class presentation (previously experimentation carried out, physics contents familiar to the
students, laboratory and computer use, usual methods of teaching, average attitude of the class)
 Departure point for each student (ability, interests, attention, socializing, school performance)
 Board diary of various activities carried out (daily notes: data; activities; time extension; contents;
experiments in lab; section of SC-CD used; homework assigned; problems emerged; qualitative
evaluation of student feedback and teacher satisfaction about work made)
 Final report (text in free form containing evaluation of materials, difficulties met with modules
contained on the SC-CD, reactions of the students, evaluation of the experiment, suggestions)
 Final students evaluation (attention, active involvement, school performance in experimentation)
 Student interview according with a grid (one interview per student group performance).
2005/06
Testing
Schools
2006/07
Partner
Schools
Drago
Web
Partner
Schools
Table 1. Schools participating in the SC2 experimentations. *: classes of the sample
a.s. Type Institute
City
Classes (age)
Liceo Scientifico “M. Grigoletti”
Pordenone
2* (17-18)
ISIS “R. D’Aronco”
Udine
Liceo Scientifico “G. Marinelli”
Udine
2* (15-16)
Liceo Scient.Tecnologico “Malignani” Udine
1* (17-18)
Ist. Istr. Sup “Q. Cataudella”
Scicli (Ragusa)
1*
IST “Carducci” (classic section) Vibo Valentia
1*
Liceo Scientifico “Berto
Comiso (Ragusa) 1*
Liceo Scientifico “E. Torricelli”
Bolzano
3*-1 (17-18)
ITI “E. Fermi”
Modena
1* (15-16)
Liceo Scientifico Statale Tricarico
Tricarico (MT)
1*-2 (17-18)
ITI A. Malignani
Udine
1* (17-18)
ISIS R. D’Aronco
Gemona (UD)
1*-1 (14-16)
IPSIA “Galilei”
ITIS “A. Volta”
Bolzano
Palermo
1*-1 (14-16)
3* (17-18)
Students
19
51
22
8
5
11
36
27
63
21
25
7
53
The monitoring tools are mostly aimed to follow the process of experimentation carrying out, instead of
the student learning. The only systematic data, though indirect, about learning are the evaluations which
the teachers, in free ways, have expressed about the learning of their students at the end of the
2
experimentations. Significant elements, even if not systematic, can be collected also from the board
diaries and from the interviews.
The total number of students involved in the experimentations was 348, with a total of 110 students
between the ages of 14-16 and 238 between the ages of 17-18. The students were from 22 classes in 12
schools in 10 different seats distributed in all Italy. In this paper we will consider only the 17
experimentations, indicated in Table 1 with an asterisk, that produced a complete portfolio of the
monitoring tools.
ANALYSIS METHODS OF THE EXPERIMENTATION PROJECTS
The portfolios were analyzed according to the following criteria: 1) Experimentation typology; 2)
Curricular approach to superconductivity and contents; 3) methodology and performed experiments; 4)
Teaching style and strategy. We will discuss extensively the analysis of points 2 and 3, and synthesize
the other points, as they were object of previous works (Michelini, Viola 2008 a,b; Michelini et al. 2008
a,b).
1- Experimentation typology. The ways in which the experimentations have been planned, prepared,
executed and monitored were conducted by three main perspectives: 1) the SC2 material validation; 2)
the didactical innovation also by means of information and communication technologies; 3) the
research about the teaching/learning processes.
2 - Curricular approach and disciplinary contents. A first level of global analysis is based on the whole
experimented path to identify the guidelines, the elements of feasibility, information about the learning
and the difficulties of the students, and suggestions about the integration of traditional curricula and
innovative proposals. A second level of analysis concerns the macro-subjects, examining which
experimentations considered the various phenomenological as well as conceptual aspects. In such way
it is possible to distinguish who pointed to the phenomenological analysis and who pointed to the use of
models in the discussion of the considered phenomena; who kept the treatment at a qualitative level and
who integrated the SC2 materials on a formal plane.
3- Methodology. The following activities were prevailing in the class activities: teacher conducted
demonstration laboratory and/or student conducted laboratory; simulations; integration of laboratory
and simulation.
4- Teaching style. The main teaching style characterizing the experimentations are: group activity,
dialogued lesson, student presentation.
RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS
In Table 2 the results of the analysis of the SC experimentation sample according to the four selected
plans are summarized. All experimentations have been classified into one of the categories attributed to
each plane, obtaining a multidimensional classification.
The SC experimentations were performed with the following typologies:
 TS-A) research experimentation, with preparation of paths and didactical materials, within: TS-A1)
Scuola di Specializzazione per l’Insegnamento Secondario - Specialization School for Secondary
School Teaching - (SSIS), by teachers in first formation; TS-A2) didactical experimentations
conducted by in service researcher-teachers.
 TS-B) Activity of research-action in a blended mode, from the Drago network schools, where were
also considered presentations prepared and managed by the students (Michelini, Gianino 2007).
One experimentation conducted in presence had analogous characters.
 TS-C) Experimentations for the validation of the SC2 materials, during regular didactical activities
by teachers who attended the formation course provided by the project.
The largest group of experimentations is TS-C, due to the main objective of SC2 materials validation.
For this reason it is particularly meaningful that more than half of the sample (9 of 17) conducted works
with clear research character (TS-A, TSB).
The second section of Table 2 (AC) shows that in the SC2 experimentations, both in the first two years
and in the last three years classes, the approach AC-1 was frequently followed, which introduces the
superconductivity through the magnetic properties of materials. Such choice is motivated by the more
3
simplicity in the observation of the Meissner effect compared to the measurement of the resistivity 
versus temperature T, as provided in AC-2, used in 3 different schools. The other two approaches, AC-3
and AC-4, are meaningful due to their innovativeness, even if used in only one school. Most of the
experimentations (60-10% of the sample) were based on an experimental methodology, often integrated
with the CD-SP, and a style of teaching, which assigns an active role to students: these are the elements
that qualify the Italian SC2 trials (sections ME and SL of Table 2).
TREATED CONTETS
In this section, the disciplinary contents, considered in SC2 experimentations, will be discussed, divided
into six main macro subjects (electrical conduction; magnetic phenomena, generated by magnets and by
electrical currents; electromagnetic induction; superconductivity).
Table 2. Analysis of the experimentations by: typology; curricular approach; working style. N:
number of experimentations; %: percentage over the whole experimentations (N=17).
TS - Typology
N
%
TS - A1. Research experimentation SSIS apprenticeship
3
18
TS - A2. Research experimentation of in-service teachers
3
18
TS - B. Research action – web laboratory/student presentations
3
18
TS - C. SC material validation
8
46
AC – Curricular approach
N
%
AC-1
Ordinary magnetic phenomena, introductory to magnetic properties of
11
65
superconductors
AC-2 From electric conduction to conduction properties of superconductors
3
18
AC-3 Energy transformations to understand superconductivity
2
12
AC-4 Approach to superconductivity through its technological applications
1
6
ME – Didactic methodology
N
%
ME-1 Experimental laboratory (qualitative and quantitative experiments)
5
29
ME-2 CD-SC2 multimedia materials
5
29
ME-3 Integration of CD-SC and of experimental activities
6
35
ME-4 Experimental analysis, motivated by the study of technological applications
1
6
SL: Teaching style
N
%
SL1 – experimental approach conducted by the students
8
47
SL2 – presentations by the students
4
24
SL3 – lectures and/or dialogue lessons, also with experiments
5
29
Electric conduction
In Table 3 the more frequently explored aspects in the CS2 experimentations about electric conduction
are summarized. Most teachers was led to introduce or recall phenomena and concepts related to
electricity, often with experimental approaches. In general, ohmic elements have been considered, and
only in one school non ohmic circuit elements have been analyzed.
Table 3. Electric conduction: aspects explored in the majority of the experimentations; SC: aspect
present in CD-SC; n: number of experimentations and (%) percentage over the whole
experimentation SC2 (N=17)
Aspects explored in the majority of the experimentations
SC N
%
Conduction in general and descriptive quantities
SC 11
65
I-V characteristics of ohmic circuit elements (Ohm law)
SC 12
71
Resistivity – relation with T
SC 10-9 59-53
Drude model for conduction
SC 8
47
Three subsets can be recognized: A) the first one only explored the relation between resistivity  and
temperature T (4/12 experimenters); B) the second subset qualitatively introduced the microscopic
Drude model, without obtaining the consequent relation between  and T (3/12); C) the third one
4
considered both aspects (5/12). The various choices reflect the adopted approaches: purely
phenomenological (A); more oriented to the construction of an interpretative model (B); integration of
the first two (C).
Magnetic phenomena: interaction between magnets and between magnets and ferromagnetic
objects
The aspects related to magnetic phenomena produced by permanent magnets are summarized in Table
4. With the exception of two cases of clear choices of methods and contents, all teachers who developed
this topic considered also the analysis of electric conduction. Two subsets can be recognized, almost
separated: A) the first one, composed by 8 teachers, that preferred to operate with phenomenological
exploration, in various ways, with: the compass, iron filings, magnetic needle arrays, to evidence the
magnetic field as generalization; B) the second subset, more orientated to the construction of
interpretative models, composed by 5 teachers who considered the Weiss model.
Table 4. Magnetic phenomena produced by magnets. SC: aspect present in CD-SC; pi: integrative
proposal; PI: innovative proposal; n: number of experimentations; %: percentage over the whole SC2
experimentations (N=17)
Explorated aspects
SC pi PI n %
Permanent magnets
SC
10 65
Interaction between magnets
PI 10 59
Relation between magnet interaction forces and distance
PI 7 41
Phenomenal
Magnetic properties of materials
SC
9 53
aspects
Compass near a magnet
SC
10 59
Iron filings/rods near a magnet
pi
7 41
Field lines for magnetic field representation
SC
10 59
Magnetization
SC
9 53
concepts
Weiss domains
SC
5 29
Magnetic phenomena produced by and on currents
The section of the magnetic phenomena produced by and on electric currents, summarized in Table 5,
have been considered by more than half of the experimentations, most frequently with
phenomenological explorations. The slant given to discussion about these themes in CD-SC was
presumably in harmony with the choices traditionally performer by teachers. It is important to observe
that the descriptive-qualitative slant that characterized SC-CD was, in particular for this theme, also the
slant prevalently employed by experimenters, proven by the low frequencies in the last section of Table
5.
Concepts Phenomenology
Table 5. Magnetic phenomena produced from and on currents. SC: present in CD-SC; pi: integrative
proposal; n: number of experimentations; %: percentage over the whole SC2 experimentations (N=17).
Explored/considered aspects
SC pi n %
Oersted experiment
SC
9 53
B generated by current across wires (exploration with a compass)
SC
10 59
B generated by a coil/solenoid
SC
10 59
Ampere experiment
SC
9 53
Interaction between coil/solenoids
SC pi 6 35
Pohl experiment
SC
9 53
Biot-Savart law
pi 3 18
Expression of the magnetic field generated by a coil
pi 0 0
Expression of the magnetic field generated by a solenoid
pi 1 6
pi 5 29
Magnetic force on a wire crossed by current: F= i dl  B
Electromagnetic induction
Analyzing the last columns of Table 6, it follows that the aspects of electromagnetic induction have
been treated by more than the half of the sample of experimenters (13 experimenters, 78%). All the
5
experimenters, with the exception of one, are those who followed the AC1 approach and the two ones
who followed the AC3 approach. The explorative part was completed by almost all the experimenters
with the concept of flux of B (11/13) and the law of Faraday-Neuman-Lenz (9/13), as suggested by SCCD. Nevertheless, only two schools considered the role of the flux in the electromagnetic induction, in
spite of that of the relative motion.
Conc. Phenomenology
Table 6. Electromagnetic induction. SC: present in SC-CD; PI: innovative proposal;
experimentations; %: percentage over the whole SC2 experimentations (N=17)
Considered aspects
SC PI
Relative motion of coil and inducting system (magnet or coil)
SC
Current variation in a solenoid into another solenoid
SC
Insertion of a coil into a magnetic field B (Faraday exp.)
SC
P.D. induced by a straight wire moving into a magnetic field
PI
Emf induced between coupled solenoids with air gap and transformer
SC
Induced voltage generators (alternator, dynamo)
SC
Magnet that falls through a coil
PI
Motion of a magnet through a metallic pipe and induced emf
SC
Flux of B and its variation
SC
Faraday-Neumann-Lenz law
SC
n: number of
N
10
10
4
1
7
8
2
13
11
9
%
59
59
24
6
41
47
12
77
65
53
Experiments about the effects of low temperatures over electric resistivity
The two proposed experiments in SC-CD are those of the Thomson wire, explored in 10
experimentations (59% of the sample), and of the LED diode that turns off when immersed into liquid
nitrogen, proposed in 5 experimentations (29%). They have been selected because they are meaningful
in order to join electromagnetism phenomenology and low temperature phenomenology,
superconductivity in particular.
Superconductivity
The aspect considered in each case was the existence of the critical temperature Tc (Table 7).
Table 7. Superconductivity; SC: present in CD-SC; PI: innovative proposal;
experimentations; % percentage over the whole SC2 experimentations (N=17).
Events that led to the discovery of superconductivity
Resistance as a function of T for a superconductor
Levitation of a magnet over a superconductor
Stability of magnetic levitation
Type I and II superconductors
Suspension of a magnet under a superconductor
Phase transition temperature
Meissner effect
Critical current and critical field
Anomalous behaviour during phase transitions of the relevant quantities
Formation and behaviour of Cooper pairs
BCS theory for I type superconductors
Penetration depth
Vortex in II type superconductors and pinning
Circuits with superconductive elements
Josephson junction
Widenes of superconductivity applications
Maglev
MNR
Technologi
cal
Concepts
applicatio
ns
Phenomenology
Considered aspects
6
n: number of
SC
PI n
SC
SC
SC
11
15
16
PI 1
9
4
17
15
7
11
11
7
5
4
2
1
6
PI 4
PI 5
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
%
(N=17)
65
88
94
6
53
24
100
88
41
65
65
41
29
24
12
6
35
24
29
Superconductor bearing
Transport and storage of electric energy
Superconducting components in microelectronics
Superconducting sensors
Supercomputer (computer with superconducting elements)
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
6
4
5
1
2
35
24
29
6
12
The phenomenon of magnetic levitation and the behaviour of the resistivity near the critical
temperature, discussed with simulations and only in two cases experimentally, were largely explored
(94% and 88% respectively). The qualitative slant given in general to the treatment of superconductivity
emerges from the fact that the experimenters who considered the knots of the presence of critical
currents and magnetic fields, the vortex in II species superconductors (4 cases) and pinning (3) are the
minority part of the sample.
The analysis of circuits with superconducting elements was inserted organically only in two cases.
STUDENTS LEARNING
The teacher evaluations about the student learning are summarized in Figure 1 for the students aged 1416 and 17-18. They are asymmetrical distributions with positive and very positive averages. It follows
that the teachers evaluated sufficient 80% learning, i.e. that most of the students overcame the principal
knots of the various paths. The main difference between the two distributions is in the position of the
maxima: very positive (4) for the younger students, positive (3) for the others.
This difference is due presumably to
the fact that the younger student
60
approaches have a more qualitative and
50
descriptive character than those of the
40
17-18 aged students, particularly for
30
what concerns the part devoted to
14-16 Y
20
superconductivity. In addition, it can
17-18 Y
be also considered the great enthusiasm
10
of the young students about the
17-18 Y
0
14-16 Y
surprising aspects of physics. These
1
2
3
data, though indirect, indicate that the
4
proposals designed by the experimenter
teachers are suitable for secondary
Figure 1. Distributions of the teacher evaluations of their school and produce positive attitudes in
students for the two age groups (1- definitely negative, 2- the students, either about participation,
mediocre; 3- positive; 4 – very positive)
or about learning. They confirm the
importance of inserting elements of modern physics into the curricula, integrating them, in particolar,
with aspects more traditionally treated in physics education.
For what concerns the teacher suggestions about the main difficulties encountered by students, the only
critical point concerns the knot of the process of Copper pairs formation. In the experimentations where
this knot has been considered (more than 50%), all students initially encountered difficulties,
subsequently overcome by only part of them (50-60%). Analogous difficulty emerged during the
training workshops for teachers. In about 1/3 of the experimentations some aspect of technological
applications have been considered (Table 7), often in a discursive/descriptive way.
CURRICULAR INDICATIONS FROM THE ANALYSIS OF THE TREATED ARGUMENTS
The choice of the experimental exploration of the Ohm law or of the magnetic phenomena to approach
superconductivity allows the investigation of aspects of classical physics which comprehension supplies
important bases for the exploration and the understanding of modern physics; the analysis of the
classical interpretative limits opens as much as discussion thread about quantum phenomena. In this
perspective, the process of modelling and of construction of formal thinking have an important role.
The more qualifying choice of the experimenting teachers was the combining of experimental activities
7
and simulations. The qualitative character of the SC-CD simulations to develop the adaptability to
different contexts does not have to orientate to a uniquely descriptive approach, as that observed of the
magnetic field produced by currents, or for electromagnetic induction (Galili and Kaplan 1997;
Maloney et al. 2001; Stefanel 2008). For the interpretation of conduction phenomena, especially in
order to introduce superconductivity, the models play an important role.
The challenge is to construct a quantum interpretation, rather than to introduce classical models as the
Drude model, effective on a qualitative plane, but notoriously inadequate for the description of the
simple relation between  and T. The genuinely quantum nature of the processes involved does not
emerge even with semi classical models (Milkman, Halkias 1967; Kittel 1966), which clarify single
phenomenal aspects, but favour the loss of a coherent picture, often causing learning difficulties
(Steinberg et al.1999). A non reductionist approach to phenomena of conduction and superconduction
must be founded on descriptive and interpretative quantum categories. Similar considerations are about
the Weiss model, that is based on the assumption of the existence of an average magnetic field, which
intensity is not compatible with that of a field produced by parallel atomic dipoles. An understanding,
even elementary, of ferromagnetism is given only recognizing the electrostatic nature of the energy
associated with magnetization (Van Vleck 1978). The problem is not of secondary importance due to
the intrinsic interconnection between the superconducting and magnetic properties. The challenge,
obviously, in not the introduction of a difficult formalism into school, even with university
competences, but the elaboration of proposals formally accessible to secondary school students,
coherent with the quantum description of phenomenology.
These considerations are supported by the difficulties encountered by students and teachers to
understand the model for the formation of Cooper pairs in SC2. Such a model, reported in many
textbooks of structure of matter as well as popular texts (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper_pair),
refers to the (local) deformation of the lattice while an electron passes. This deformation, determining a
local excess of positive charge density, leads to the attraction of another electron. In this way the two
electrons form the Cooper pair. Such a mechanistic explanation is not able to answer various questions
(why Cooper pairs are formed in the superconducting state and not in the ordinary conductor state?
Why the process occurs below a certain temperature? Why a pair is stable? Why this mechanism is
effective only for some conductors?). Its main weak point is that it refers to the Newtonian paradigm of
force, while the process, being essentially quantic, requires an analysis from an energetic point of view.
The treatment of the technological applications of superconductivity correspond to a particular need of
students, as emerged from an exploration with students both from Lyceum, and from Technical
Institutes (Disint et al. 2008). An approach, as illustrated in the following, that integrates the exploration
with the understanding of the concepts, brings the didactical potentialities out.
THE PATHS OF THE EXPERIMENTATIONS PERFORMED
In this work, the various approach choices of the performed experimentations will be summarized into
four paths.
“Introduction to superconductivity” - approach through the magnetic properties
The research experimentation has been realized in apprenticeship activity (TS-A1) from a prospective
teacher (M. Braida) during the 2005/06 school year in a terminal class of technical Lyceum – age 17-18
of the ITI Malignani of Udine, with the collaboration of the class teacher and the supervision of one of
us (MM), following an approach to the magnetic properties os superconductors (AC-1), with active role
of the students (ME-1) and activity performed in groups (SL1). The experimentation took in total 10
hours, two hours for the pre-test and the post-test and 8 hours of experimental and simulation activities.
Integrating and qualifying part of the project are the didactical instruments prepared and used in the
experimentation:
 Eight working forms, one per lesson of the path, projected to stimulate a problematic attitude and
collect elements about the learning processes
 One test about the main knots of the path, employed as pre-test and post-test
 One synthesis document about the superconductivity to support individual study of the students.
8
The thread of the contents will be presented with its segments (M1-M8), indicating in parenthesis the
progressive number of the experiments effectively done by the students.
M1 – The interaction of a magnet with various objects made of different materials is explored (Esp. 1a).
The behavior classes are individuated by: 1) iron, or steel, or nickel (ferromagnetic), 2) non metals and
many metallic objects (copper, bronze, aluminium). It is recognized that not all metals exhibit
ferromagnetic properties. The exploration of the interaction is completed with the recognition of the
reciprocity and of the dependence on distance. The ability of the magnet of modifying the space
properties introduces the magnetic field, which is represented by means of field lines constructed using
little compasses, iron filings, single compasses (Esp. 1b). Such representation gains formal meaning
when it is observed that the different superficial density of lines can be correlated to the field intensity.
M2 – The interaction between two magnets is explored (Esp. 2): ring-shaped magnets are piled, by
means of a wood bar, and bar-shaped magnets are faced, being free to rotate. By progressive degrees of
exploration, the following steps are followed: recognition of the bipolar nature of the magnetic field
sources, construction of the relation force-distance between poles of magnetic rods in one direction
(Esp3a) and role of the pair of forces in the interaction (Esp. 3b).
M3 – While rod magnets (or button shaped) in a vertical (or inclined) plastic pipe (or on a guide) fall
with accelerated motion, when they are put into a copper pipe (or guide) very slowly. The recognition
of the role played by the emf and then of the induced currents in the copper pipe-guide leads to the
interpretation of the phenomenon. The field produced by these induced currents, in this case has the
opposite verse of the inducing field and then is responsible for the evident slowing down of the falling
magnet. The experiment, first executed with an integer pipe (Esp. 4a), then with a pipe with
longitudinal cuts (Esp. 4b), can effectively conduce to a quantitative analysis with traditional apparatus.
M4 – The phenomena of electromagnetic induction and of magnetic suspension are reconsidered by
studying the experiment of the Thompson ring, proposed to show the influence of T on  (Esp. 5). The
experiment, repeated with rings of different materials allow to recognize that there i san analogous
behaviour due to the strong field produced by the induced currents, which are as intense as low is the
ring temperature. The evident decrease of resistivity is associated to the decrease of temperature of the
material of the ring.
M5 – By analogy with the Thomson ring, the behaviour of a magnet on a frozen superconductor is
explored (Esp. 6). The levitation of the magnets is compared with the analogous situations observed
before: the experiment of the floating magnets suggests that the magnet must be subjected to an
opposite field; the experiment of the falling magnet into the copper pipe indicates that the effect tends to
auto regulation, i.e. it is produced by an induced field; the fact that the magnet levitates but does not
fall, as the case of the magnet into the copper pipe, indicates that the induced field must be equal to the
inducing field, or that the superconductor behaves as a perfect diamagnet (Meissner effect). The effect
of induction produced by the presence of the magnet does not stop when the magnet is still, (as happens
with an ordinary conductor) then in the superconductor the dissipative effects must be absent, or 0.
M6 – The experimental exploration of the Meissner effect introduces to the view of the main events
leading to the discovery of superconductivity, characterizing the type I and II superconductors
phenomenology, describing the anomalous behaviour of the three quantities which exhibit critical
values in superconductors: magnetic field, current and temperature.
M7 – A short view of the technological applications of superconductors offers the opportunity of
interdisciplinary connections of various types, given the relevance of the use of superconductors in the
electronics and sensors fields (cryoelectronics and superconductor sensors), medical diagnostic (NMR),
and in the advanced physics researches (superconductor magnets).
M8 – The explorations in segments 6 and 7 suggest the discussion the basic elements of the BCS
theory, the only one that accounts for I type superconductors. About this theory, can be discussed the
role played by the lattice in the production of neat attractive effects between electrons, i.e. in the
formation of the Cooper pairs, and the effect of condensation of such pairs, not subjected to the
exclusion principle.
Approach to superconductivity through the exploration of the resistivity
This path has been proposed and experimented by W. Manzon, in service teacher in the fifth year class
(age 18-19 ) of the Liceo Scientifico Statale “M. Grigoletti” in Pordenone. It is an example of validation
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of SC2 materials (TS-A3), following an approach to the electrical conduction properties of
superconductors (AC-2), which integrates the use of SC-CD with experimental activities (ME-3), using
dialogued lessons and demonstration experiments (SL3). It develops in the steps (R1-R5) discussed in
the following, in parenthesis the experiments proposed and realized with students are reported in
parentheses.
R1) Experimental exploration of the I-V relation for ohmic elements, (Esp. 1a): Ohm’s law and
prevision of the behaviour of currents measured in simple resistive circuits (Esp. 1b). From resistance to
resistivity  as electric property of materials and generalized Ohm law (Esp. 1c).
R2) The experimental study of  vs T (Esp. 2) offers the opportunity of discussing the microscopic
model of the Fermi gas to describe the conduction in metals at room temperature.
R3) The problem of studying the behaviour of (T) near 0 K has been posed. The residual resistivity r
= const. due to defects and impurities of metals disappears in superconductors. The focus on the critical
transition, reached in the laboratory for a type II superconductor immersed into liquid nitrogen, allows
the sharp phase transition of the superconductor, responsible of the resistivity fall, to be reconstructed.
R4) The sharp change of conduction properties in a small temperature interval evidences the nature of
phase transition of the process. An interpretative model for such transition is then searched, and the
BCS model for I type superconductors is discussed.
R5) A simulation allows the electric circuits explored in step R1) to be reanalyzed, substituting an
ordinary resistive element with a superconductor (virtual) (Esp 4.). It leads a) to reproduce the
experimental conditions, assigning the values of the resistors employed in the laboratory; b) to
examine, point by point, the resistivity vs temperature, down to the sharp fall at T=Tc, for the
recognition of the qualitative and quantitative change in circuit behavior; c) to analyze the
redistributions of the voltage falls at the extremes of the various circuit elements, recognizing the role
and the function of the superconducting elements.
The energy transformations and superconductivity
The path is planned by the in-service teacher V. Capocchiani and experimented by herself and R.
Sangoi in two second year classes (15-16 age) of the Liceo Scientifico “Marinelli” in Udine for a total
of 32 hours, more than the half dedicated to experimental activities. It is different from the previous
approaches since employs the energy transformations AC 3 as basis for a mostly experimental approach
(ME-1), integrated with the SC-CD modules and with active role of the students (SL-1). It fits
organically to the argument of mechanical energy transformations, typically considered in second year
curricula. The detailed path of the steps is the following (E1-E5).
E1) In the context of mechanical energy transformation into different forms, the electric transformations
in particular are analyzed. It is recognized that there are different ways, static and dynamical, to produce
electric energy (Esp. 1). The electrostatic and magnetostatic fields are explored and compared (Esp. 2).
The experimental exploration of DC circuit, with traditional instruments and on-line sensors (Esp. 3a),
is integrated with the discussion of the SC-CD 4th module. The phenomenology is described through the
first and the second Ohm laws and their limits are discussed considering the I-V characteristic of a
bicycle lamp (esp. 3b), discussing the energetic processes (Joule effect – Esp. 4).
E2) The electric current magnetic effects are introduced with qualitative experiments (Esp.5 and 6) and
the module 1 of SC-CD, integrated with an activity of formalization. The magnetic fields generated by
magnets are visualized by constructing the field lines with iron filings and compasses. The Oersted
experiment (Esp. 7) is completed with the Biot-Savart law for a straight wire. The magnetic fields
produced by currents are deepened in terms of formalization and description with the experimental and
simulated exploration of the Ampère and the Pohl experiments (Esp. 8 e 9).
E3) The description of the magnetic effects of currents is completed analyzing the filed produced by
coils and magnets at first experimentally explored in laboratory (Esp. 10 e 11), then considered using
the module 2 simulations of SC-CD.
E4) The students, in groups, explore the way to produce induced emf (Esp 12). The concept of flux is
introduced and clarified. The transformer (Esp. 13) and the dynamo alternators (Esp. 14) working
behaviours are analyzed as occasion to reinforce the concepts of induction and alternate currents. The
energetic processes involved in the transformers are analyzed.
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E5) In groups, the students explore the interaction between piled magnets (Esp. 15) and various
situations of levitation of a magnet on a superconductor (Esp. 16). With the same strategy previously
adopted, in this module too the experimental exploration and the superconductivity interpretation are
integrated, discussing in particular the formation of the Cooper pairs. A short discussion about the
application of superconductivity completes the path.
Approach to superconductivity starting from the exploration of its applications
The path has been projected by the apprentice teacher M. Gnech, of the SSIS in Bolzano and
experimented with students of the fifth year of scientific lyceum (18-19 age), with the supervision of
one of us (FC) (TS-1), following an approach based on the discussion of the technological applications
of superconductivity (AC-4), using a working method that gives an active role to students in the
laboratory, integrated with the use of videos and simulations, dialogued lessons (ME-3), with alternated
phases conducted by students (SL1) and with frontal activities (SL-3). In the following the thread of the
didactical path.
A preliminary phase recalls the main knowledge about electric conduction. Simple circuits with linear
elements are taken into consideration to reconstruct the Ohm law (Esp. 0a). The relation between
resistivity and temperature is experimentally explored and recognized (Esp.0b). The theme of
superconductivity is introduced with the videos about Maglev, MNR, magnetic bearings,
supercomputers. Such videos motivate the explanatory investigation. The experiment about the
magnetic levitation (Esp.1a), allows the behaviour of a perfect diamagnet to be recognized in a
superconductor: the Meissner effect, that is used for an experimental exploration about the behaviour of
a superconductor with temperature. Tc is recognized and measured (Esp.1b). The extraordinary
behaviour of a superconductor for temperatures lower than Tc leads to explore also the properties of a
superconductor and in particular those of electric conduction. The main elements characterizing the
superconducting phenomenology are discussed: the existence of a critical temperature Tc, of a critical
field and of a critical current; the penetration coefficient. A simple electric circuit employing a
superconductor switch is the context that is proposed for the recognition of the fact that also the
resistance of a superconductor circuit element undergoes a sharp variation around Tc (Esp. 2). The
relation between resistance and temperature for a superconductor around Tc is then experimentally
explored (Esp. 3). With the help of an oscilloscope or on-line sensors, the potential difference at the
extremes of various circuit elements containing at least one superconductor is measured (Esp. 4superconductor switch). The measurement of the current in the various segments of these simple
circuits, in particular in the segment where the superconductor element is present, allows the critical
current, above which the superconductor returns to the ordinary conducting state, to be determined
(Esp. 5). A simple apparatus, consisting in a variation of the experiment 1, allows a Maglev to be
simulated, accounting for its functioning (Exp. 6).
CLOSING REMARKS
The results of the experimentations, comprising the analysis about the student learning, allows us to
assert that the superconductivity can be introduced in secondary school at different levels and with
differentiated approaches (RQ1).
The main objectives of the 17 evaluated experimentations (more than 350 students) show that concepts
considered important by teachers have been learnt by 80% of students. The effectiveness of the
experimentations concerns the following elements: the paths, differentiated by context and age, have
been designed so as to adapt to the classes, the common working methods, the teacher working styles;
the offered materials have shown to be effectively integrable in differentiated approaches; the teachers,
mostly expert and not novice to experimentations, have been able to improve the SC2 proposals with
personal contributions, especially on the experimental part.
The open knot is how to translate the wealth of the SC2 experimentations into different contexts, since,
from the curricular point of view, they offer useful indications for didactical paths. For a Scientific
Lyceum the best choice seems to focus the didactical setting on the field lines, since, in addition to
being naturally integrated with the programs traditionally followed in this kind of school, it results
qualifying for the formation in the students of a formal and cultural thinking in general. In particular, it
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is important that such approach comprises a necessary detail and specification for what concerns the
field representation. For students of the first two years or for those without much deep physics courses,
it seems worth an approach through the resistivity that comprises the use of field lines with an
iconographic representation of the fields (RQ2).
The following topics are particularly significant, since they integrate both with most traditional
programs and with the paths proposed for SC, offering the opportunity to plan effective curricular
renovation: B1. Material characterization (metallic, semiconductor and superconductor or insulating) in
terms of resistivity as a function of temperature. B2. Electrical properties and thermodynamics of
conductors with increasing input power (e.g.: the filament of a lamp with varying of the supply
voltage). B3. Electric and magnetic phase transition related to the carrier concentration. B4.
Microscopic and analogical models of the electric properties of materials – of the conduction (band
model, structure model, free electron crystal model, energy levels model) (RQ3).
The CD – SC presents the various themes with a prevalently qualitative approach, with good
simulations, as recognized by all teachers. The lack of the quantitative part, even if it appears a limit as
to be considered more appropriate for the first two years, has the great advantage of being very
versatile, as observed about the effectiveness of the experimentations (RQ4). The employability in very
differentiated contexts with effective results on the learning paths indicates that the multimedia
instruments have to exhibit a modular structure where it must be:
- different levels of deepening and representing the problem, with photographic reproduction and
consequent schematization; the process/experiment, with the video and the eventual simulation; its
observations, with representation of eventual data and graphs
- different levels of formalization (on one side: construction of categories and clusters of concepts;
iconic representation of properties – on the other side: relevant variable individuation; correlation
recognition; linearization of problems and relation construction).
The experimenter teachers, often spontaneously have found that the best is the use of an integrated
methodology where the simulations support the laboratory, without substituting it.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the teachers who conducted the experimentations G. Bertoni, M. Braida, M. Buganza, V.
Capocchiani, C. Cavallo, F. Ciralli, N. Cutuli, V. De Lillo, C. Distefano, R. Fiore, C. Gianino, M.
Giacobazzi, B. Giardullo, G. Giovanazzi , M. Gnech, D. Gottardi, S. Monfalcon, W. Manzon, R.
Sangoi, F. Zanon, and their head-masters, DIFA and CIRD of the University of Udine for the support
in the experimentations coordination and the responsible of the European projects Vegard Engstrom.
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AFFILIATION AND ADDRESS INFORMATION
Federico Corni
Physics Department,
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
Email: federico.corni@unimore.it
Marisa Michelini
Email: michelini@fisica.uniud.it
Lorenzo Santi
Email: santi@fisica.uniud.it
Alberto Stefanel
Email: stefanel@fisica.uniud.it
Rossana Viola
Email: rossviola@yahoo.it
Physics Education Research Group of the Physics Department
University of Udine
Via delle Scienze 208, 3310 Udine
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