Chemical Safety for Sustainable Development
25 - 29 September 2006
Budapest, Hungary
ABSTRACTS
Health and environmental concerns associated with
heavy metals; global needs for further action?
Side-event on heavy metals
23 September 2006
Organized by: Switzerland
ROOM DOCUMENT
Document will be available in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish
Switzerland will organize a full-day side event on 23 September 2006 on heavy metals.
The outcome of the side event will be brought forward to Forum V plenary (agenda item
# 8). A discussion in Forum V plenary will provide an additional important opportunity to
further examine the issues and problems. The output may be a compilation of the items
identified for which the Forum V may wish to provide guidance on what to do on the
field of heavy metals in the immediate future. This would help to support countries who
are eager to start implementing SAICM and follow up on the heavy metals priorities.
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ABSTRACTS
List of Contents

Overview presentation: setting the scene
Supply side & demand side issues; product emissions
Ravi Agarwal (Toxics Link)

Ongoing efforts at EU on mercury legislation
Stina Andersson (EC) and,
Hungarian aspects regarding restrictions of mercury in products
Kristof Kozak (Hungary)

Management of health and environmental effects of artisinal gold mining
from a developing country perspective
Jules de Kom (Suriname)

Health and Environmental Risk Assessment Among Mother and Child Residents Living Near an
Abandoned Mercury Mine: A Toxic Legacy
Ethelyn P. Nieto (Philippines)

Case studies: Occupational exposures and solutions
Bjorn Erikson (ICTFU)

Heavy metal pollution in different environmental media
in Africa: problems and prospects (with a case study from Nigeria)
Abiola Olanipekun and Alo Babajidi (Nigeria)

Global Partnerships for Mercury Reduction Progress Presentation
Charlie Auer and John Shoaff (USA)

Prospects for sound chemicals management of cadmium, lead and mercury - an industry perspective
John Atherton (ICMM)

Mercury and Other Metals Programme Activities
Maged Younes (UNEP)

WHO Programmes and Activities on Mercury, Lead and Cadmium
Jenny Pronczuk (WHO)

UNIDO Activities
Pablo Huidobro (UNIDO)

The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution ((LRTAP Convention):
Ongoing work on Heavy Metals at the UNECE
Brinda Wachs (UNECE)
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Overview presentation: setting the scene.
Supply side & demand side issues; product emissions.
Ravi Agarwal, Toxics Link, India
Abstract:
This overview presentation outlines the information and issues relating to global demand (including chief
uses) and supply trends of three heavy metals: lead, cadmium and mercury. It also highlights the emission
and releases from products or processes containing or using these metals. Finally, a very brief perspective of
a civil society perspective for the way ahead is provided.
These three heavy metals, as well as their alloys and compounds, have been used in a variety of products and
processes over time, as part of the global industrial economy. They are still internationally traded, and their
prices reflect a demand and supply relationship. However, of late there is increasing concern about their
impacts on human health and the environment.
The main sources of all three heavy metals are natural, through mining, as they are present as salts or
minerals in rock and soil. There are several such mines, operating in several different parts of the world.
Supply sources are separate for mercury, but lead and cadmium can occur together. Secondary supply
sources are from recycling and stockpiles, and are a significant contributor to the global supply.
There are a very wide variety of products currently in use, in sectors like energy, health care, electronics,
toys, and chemicals etc., which contain one or more of these heavy metals. Almost all of them have
commercially viable alternatives today. These products are globally traded. The infrastructure as well as
policy frameworks present for dealing with their health and environmental effect, varies widely in different
countries though.
Several industrial processes, such as chlor alkali production (which uses mercury), thermal power generation
etc, use or emit these heavy metals as by- product emissions to air and water, and are a major concern.
In the recent past, especially over the past decade, the use of these heavy metals, as well as emissions have
either reduced significantly, or their rates of increase have come down in developed countries. There are
however rising trends in rapidly industrializing countries like India and China. Sectors such as coal based
power generation, urban transportation and waste disposal are contributing to the new releases.
Global airborne transport of these metals is another concern. While mercury has been demonstrated to
globally transport, even lead and cadmium may be so transported, as ice samples studies in Greenland have
revealed.
Specific Heavy Metals:
Lead:
Demand: Global use of refined lead rose by 2.8% to 6.98 mt in 2004 and further to 7.13 mt in 2005. The
United States is the largest consumer of lead, but its demand is steady. China’s usage increased by more than
8% over 2004-5, and has doubled since 2000 owing to use in batteries. Demand rises are forecast in
Germany and Czech Republic as well as India, but are declining in the UK and France.
Sources and supply: Significant sources of lead are based in the United States Alaska, Australia, Canada,
China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru and Portugal totaling over 1.5 billion tons.
Uses: The demand for lead is mostly for use in automobile and back up power batteries (71%). Other uses
include rolled extruded sheets for construction (7%); special use pipes such as in for chemical transport,
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cable sheathing (3%), stained glass windows, as weights, lead-clad steel, powder for plastisisers, specialized
corrosion resistant paints and ammunition (6%)
Lead alloys include batteries (lead-antimony), solder (lead-tin) and radioactive shielding. Lead compounds
include petrol anti-knock additives, stabilizers for PVC, crystal glass, ceramic glazes, pigments (12%)- red,
yellow (lead chromate), and orange (lead molybdate. Use of lead in petrol has been largely discontinued and
being phased out where it still exists.
Cadmium:
Demand and Uses: 77% of the global cadmium use is for NiCd batteries, while 11% is used for pigments,
8% for coatings and the remaining 4% for misc. uses. The use of this metal is shrinking in developed
countries or regions like the EU, however there could be rising demand from China and India.
Supply: Globally the main supply is from Asia (41%), the Americas (16%), Europe (15%) and Australia
(3%). The remaining 25% is recovered from recycling and stockpiles.
Emissions and releases: Neither cadmium or lead have a global distribution as gaseous atmospheric
pollutants. But both are attached to particulates and thus primarily have a local and regional distribution.
Long-range transport of cadmium and lead by air is nevertheless reflected in ice core samples from
Greenland.
Cadmium is not degradable and once released to the environment, stays in circulation. New releases add to
the already existing deposits of cadmium in the environment. Cadmium and cadmium compounds are
relatively water-soluble. They are therefore also more mobile in e.g. soil, generally more bio available and
tend to bioaccumulation.
Mercury:
Demand and uses: Globally mercury consumption was as follows: Batteries, chlor alkali, small scale gold
and silver mining, dental amalgam, measuring and control, electrical control and switching, lighting, and
other uses.
Supply: The main sources of mercury are from Spain and Kyrgyzstan, while Algiers was a supplier till some
time ago. The situation in China is less clear, and recent reports show increasing use in VCM production and
in batteries. Secondary mercury is obtained from Finland and Peru besides others. In-use mercury worldwide
can exceed 24000 to 30,000 mt in Chlor Alkali facilities alone, with half of this in the EU. Recoverable
mercury in waste and products could exceed 20000 to 30,000 mt. The EU and the US are net exporters of
mercury, while small-scale mining accounts for 650 to 1000 tonnes consumed annually.
Emissions: Point sources. Combustion of coal is today deemed the single largest global source of
atmospheric mercury emissions. Mercury is also emitted to air from metal production plants, crematoria,
mercury-cell chlor-alkali plants, waste incinerators and other point sources.
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The EU Mercury Strategy
Stina Andersson, European Commission, DG Environment
The EU Mercury Strategy1 takes actions to further reduce the emissions and uses of mercury. A key aim is to
reduce mercury levels in the environment and human exposure, especially from methylmercury in fish. It is
an overall Strategy containing twenty actions, seven of which support and promote international actions.
One key element is the export ban of mercury from the EU by 2011. The EU is the major exporters of
mercury and a continued unrestricted supply is a significant driver for use of mercury and hinders the
innovation of mercury-free products and processes.
A safe storage solution is needed for surplus mercury; if not handled in a safe and sustainable way it will
cause considerable environmental damage. The phase-out of mercury cells in the chlor-alkali industry will
give approximately 12000 tons of surplus mercury and different storage possibilities are being investigated
in order to find a safe solution.
Further restrictions for mercury in products are proposed. One mercury product group not covered by
legislation is measuring and control equipment, e.g. thermometers and barometers. There is good availability
of substitutes and marketing restrictions have recently been proposed by the Commission2. Also, a study
looking at all remaining uses of mercury will be carried out to find out where further actions would be
appropriate.
Coal combustion is the largest source of mercury in the EU (and globally), accounting for about 50% of
remaining EU emissions today. Existing legislation3 and changes in coal use should bring about some
reduction in emissions. However, further measures are needed, i.e. there is still no legislation in place for
small-scale combustion installations, which are also significant mercury sources. The Commission is
investigating options to reduce mercury emissions from small-scale coal combustion.
To solve the mercury problem global action is needed. Measures need to be taken to phase out globally the
production of new mercury from cinnabar, and to prevent mercury surpluses going back to the market. Cooperation with developing countries is planned and the EU is also supporting international initiatives, such as
the UNEP Global Mercury Programme.
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament – Community Strategy Concerning
Mercury. COM(2005) 20 final
2
Proposal amending Council Directive 76/769/EEC relating to restrictions on the marketing of certain measuring
devices containing mercury. COM(2006) 69 final
3
Directive 96/61/EC on integrated pollution prevention control (IPPC Directive) and the Directive 2001/80/EC on large
combustion plants (LCP Directive)
1
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Hungarian aspects regarding restrictions of mercury in products
Kristóf Kozák, Chief Counselor
Waste Management and Technology, Ministry of Environment and Water, Hungary
Hungary shares the concerns regarding the harmful effects of mercury on man and the environment and
endorses the policy actions as outlined in the Community’s Strategy4. On the other hand, the national opinion
on the planned restrictive measures5 respects the variety of products containing mercury, currently produced,
marketed and used in Hungary. This presentation is aimed at giving examples on such products along with
the impacts of the restrictive provisions.
Fluorescent lamps and light tubes containing mercury are produced in Hungary both for domestic use and
for export. These types of products fall under the scope of the RoHS directive6 which is already transposed
by the Hungarian law7. The manufacturers are obliged to meet strict limit values from the deadline, which
needs the development of the products. Their achievements are discussed in the presentation.
Fever thermometers containing mercury are widely used by households as well as in hospitals and other
medical facilities. Althouh digital devices are commercially available, the conventional devices are still
preferred due to their low cost and high precision. The presentation highlights the expected outcome of the
planned regulation.
Sphygmomanometers are prevailingly used in the healthcare sector. Devices containing mercury are
preferred in contrast with non-mercury alternatives. The draft rules enable the use of mercury based devices
by healthcare professionals, and the change to alternative products shall take time. The presentation deals
with the pros and cons of mercury based sphygmomanometers and their envisaged replacement.
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament – Community Strategy Concerning
Mercury. COM(2005) 20 final
4
5
Proposal amending Council Directive 76/769/EEC relating to restrictions on the marketing of certain measuring
devices containing mercury. COM(2006) 69 final
6
Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic
equipment (RoHS directive)
7
Decree 16/2004. (X. 8.) KvVM on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and
electronic equipments
7
Management of Health and Environmental Effects of Artisanal Gold Mining
from a Developing Country Perspective
Jules de Kom, Ph.D.
Toxicology Focal Point, Ministry of Public Health, Paramaribo, Suriname
Abstract
In the 1990s in Suriname, a revival of artisinal gold mining activities took place, a second boom after a
decline in the beginning of the 20th century. These mining activities are located in the tropical rainforest and
for the extraction of the gold mainly mercury is used. The informal and often illegal character of the mining
activities hampers a reliable estimate of the number of miners involved and production figures. At the
moment it is estimated that at least 12,000 workers are active in the sector with Brazilian workers
outnumbering local workers. The total production estimates range from 10,000 to 20,000 kilograms annually.
The mining activities are located near traditional Maroon and Amerindian communities and have an impact
on the environment, occupational health of the gold miners and the health of the local communities. While
these broad risks associated with this type of gold mining are generally recognized, there is limited
comprehensive and reliable information about the actual situation on which to base interventions to rectify
the identified problems. Exceptions are the project activities of recent years which focus on improving
mining techniques and the abatement or recycling of mercury.
In the presentation the obstacles identified and possible approaches to manage the environmental health
aspects and related problems will be discussed from a developing country perspective. In the approaches
discussed attention will be given to regional and international collaboration.
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Health and Environmental Risk Assessment Among Mother and Child
Residents Living Near an Abandoned Mercury Mine: A Toxic Legacy
Presented By
ETHELYN P. NIETO, M.D., M.P.H., M.H.A.
Undersecretary of Health, Department of Health-Philippines
IFCS Vice-President for Asia-Pacific
in behalf of the research team
Nelia P.C. Maramba1, Jose Paciano Reyes1, Ana Trinidad Francisco-Rivera2, Lynn Crisanta R. Panganiban1, Carissa Dioquino1, Nerissa Dando1,
Rene Timbang2 , Hirokatsu Akagi3 , Ma. Teresa Castillo4, Carmela Quitoriano4, Maredith Afuang4, Akito Matsuyama3, Tomomi Eguchi 3 and Youko
Fuchigami 3
1
National Poison Control and Information Service, University of the Philippines-Manila, e-mail: npcis@pacific.net.ph
2
Environmental and Occupational Health Office, National Center for Disease Prevention
and Control, Department of Health, Manila, Philippines e-mail:rivera_attf@yahoo.com
3
National Institute for Minamata Disease, Japan, e-mail:hiroakagi@nimd.go.jp
4
Center for Health Development for MIMAROPA, Department of Health
5
Batangas Regional Hospital-Department of Health
Abstract:
Abandoned mines is an important global concern that continue to pose real or potential threat to
human safety and health including environmental damage/s. Generally, abandoned or inactive mines are sites
where advanced exploration, mining or mine production ceased without rehabilitation. In the early days,
land used for mining was left without any remediation effort whenever mine extraction activities were
completed, and without a full understanding of the environmental impacts and before environmental
regulations existed. Very few countries have government mine regulation and reclamation policies until the
latter part of the century where legal, financial and technical procedures were required for existing mining
operations.
In Hg mining, secondary mercury phases form and accumulate in mine wastes. These phases are more
soluble in cinnabar, the primary ore mineral. Release and transport of Hg from mine waste occur particularly
as Hg-enriched particles and colloids. Conversion of relatively stable inorganic Hg compounds to
bioavailable organic mercury compounds such as methylmercury is a potential hazard around these mercury
mines. Abandoned mercury mines has been identified as a major concern because of its significant longterm environmental problem.
Recognizing that the developing nervous system is especially vulnerable to effects of Me-Hg exposure
with fetuses and neonates as the most sensitive subpopulation, the National Research Council and the
Environmental Protection Agency has recently recommended a reference dose (RfD) of 0.1 ug/kgbw/day
level for maternal-fetal pairs. These guidelines aims to protect children from delays and deficits in
neurological development secondary to exposure to MeHg in utero. At present the effects of THg combined
with Me-Hg consumption remain an important issue especially those of low-dose and continuous uptake.
However, information on the effects of low and prolonged exposure of THg and MeHg to offspring
throughout their prenatal and postnatal periods have been limited. This study compares possible health risks
of lower level at chronic exposure to THg and MeHg in communities situated near a former mercury mine
and a control group with minimal or limited exposure.
The abandoned mercury mine located southeast of Manila was in operation from 1955 to 1976 and
produced about 140,000 kg of mercury yearly. Approximately 2,000,000 tons of mine-waste calcines
(retorted ore) were produced during mining and roughly 1,000,000 tons of these calcines were dumped into
nearby Honda Bay to construct a jetty to facilitate mine operations where about 2,000 people reside in the
nearby three barangays . Most of the mine tailings were dumped into the nearby sea until and artificial
peninsula 600 meters long and 50 meters wide was created. There are now an estimated 300-400 people who
live in this Sitio Honda Bay which juts into the eastern portion of Palawan. Possible pathways of mercury
exposure that can affect human populations in these communities can be due to direct inhalation of Hg-
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containing particulates/dusts, ingestion of mercury via the hand to mouth activity among children,
consumption of mercury contaminated food such as fish consumed by people who depend on riverine
products for food sources and agricultural products.Thus, most of the communities near the abandoned mines
and possibly the general population would be at risk of exposure to toxic levels of mercury especially those
whose diet included consumption of marine/aquatic products.
In this study, results study showed that four (4) species of fish namely ibis, tabas, lapu-lapu and
torsillo had exceeded the recommended total mercury and methylmercury levels in fish (NV>0.5 ug/g fw,
NV>0.3 ug/g fw, respectively.) Saging and kanuping also exceeded the permissible levels for
methylmercury. Total and methylmercury in canned fish, total mercury in rice, ambient air and drinking
water were within the recommended levels, however, additional mercury load from these sources may
contribute to the over-all body burden of mercury among residents in the area . Surface water quality at the
mining area, Honda Bay and during some monitoring periods at Palawan Bay exceeded total mercury
standards (NV>0.002 ng/ml). Soil samples in two sites namely Tagburos and Honda Bay exceeded the EPA
Region 9 Primary Remediation Goal recommended values for total mercury for residential purposes.
(NV>23 mg/kg). The hand to mouth activity among infants and children is another significant route for
mercury exposure. Statistically significant results were obtained for infants when comparing the
methylmercury levels in hair for both exposed and control sub-groups. Likewise, comparing the initial and
final hair methylmercury levels among pregnant women/mothers in the exposed group showed statistically
significant (p<0.05) results. Comparing the exposed and control sub-groups’ mercury hair levels per subgroup showed statistically significant results among the following; (a) initial and final total mercury hair
levels among children, (b) initial and final methylmercury hair levels among children , (c) final total mercury
hair levels among pregnant women, (d) initial and final total mercury hair levels among mothers, and (e)
initial and final methyl hair levels among mothers.
It was recommended that clean-up and remediation measures should be given a priority since the
abandoned mercury mine will continue to have an impact on both the health and environment in the long
term, unless good mine closure practices are implemented. Other measures recommended were as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Policy recommendation to the government on the issue of abandoned mines.
Conduct regular monitoring and surveillance activities of the environment and health of the
community.
Conduct intensive information and education awareness campaign through the issuance of
regular fish advisory especially for pregnant and lactating women, women of reproductive
age and children.
Provide technical data to the local government units for policy, planning and development
purposes.
Provide medical intervention to the affected residents as may be deemed necessary by
clinical toxicologists.
Plant sufficient mangroves to serve as natural filter for particulate contaminants in the area.
Keywords: Mercury, methylmercury, mercury mining, health effects
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Case studies: Occupational exposures and solutions
Bjørn Erikson, International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
(Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions)
Mercury:
 Mercury was used by hat makers and caused serious poisoning. Solution: Change of
fashion (top hats are not so common now) and of techniques has solved the problem.
 Mercury has been used in chlorine-alkali factories for the production of chlorine for
bleaching, amongst others for paper and pulp industry. Solution: Change to other bleaching
techniques, for example using ozone.
 Mercury poisoning of dentist assistants because of the use of copper amalgam has recently
been disclosed in reports. Solution: Change to other dental filling materials. Obstacles:
Less persistent, more expensive and demands more sophisticated technology
 Mercury was a major workplace pollutant in crematories. Solution: Better incineration
techniques together with improved ventialtion.
 Mercury in instruments, medical and technical, causes both working environmental and
general environmental problems – mostly because of spill and as waste. Solution: Change
of technology.
Lead:
 Production of batteries caused birth defects and lead poisoning. Solution: In some cases
birth defects were avoided by demanding sterilization of female workers or employment
contracts forbidding the workers to have children. Change of technology to other types of
batteries for consumers. Obstacle: Car- and submarine batteries are still often/usually lead
batteries, so they should be recycled.
 Plumbers were poisoned by metallic lead during the installation of pipes (soils) etc.
Solution: Change to other techniques and materials.
 White paints with lead compounds as pigments caused poisoning of painters. Solution:
ILO Convention , No.13 (1921) prohibits the use of such paints. Obstacle: The Convention
doesn’t protect workers until the country ratifies it.
Cadmium:
 Cadmium as red dye printed on plastic bags. Solution: A national ban for this use.
 Cadmium used in battery factories is causing serious occupational diseases, for example in
China. It is not known if it also causes environmental damage around the factories, but used
batteries might cause environmental damage elsewhere. Solution: Pressure on the producer,
Gold Peak Industries, from ICFTU to improve working environment and preventative
measures for the workers. As for the environment in China? Elsewhere used batteries
should be recycled. Obstacle: So far the company has not responded.
Asbestos:
 In Norway we first had a ban on the use of asbestos at workplaces. It was not effective
because marketing was allowed for private use, but also because of illegal import. Solution:
A national ban on marketing and import. Obstacle: EU and industry claimed it constituted a
trade barrier and was illegal when the ban was introduced, but not now any more.
 Internationally the trade union movement is working for a global ban. Solution: National
bans, ILO resolution banning asbestos, WHO taking a clear position for a ban. Obstacle: It
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will affect jobs – especially mining of asbestos; parts of industry are against a ban. Some
countries and parts of industry claim that their asbestos (chrysotile) is harmless.
Conclusion:
 A substance usually was seen to cause a particular problem, but later it was seen that it
caused several problems. So tackling the first problem wasn’t really solving the problem.
 Many of the substances causing working environment problems, also causes general
environment problems.
 There should be a more holistic evaluation of a “problem substance” when it is discovered
that it leads to a specific problem for either the environment in general or for the working
environment.
 There seems to be a common ground for environmentalists and trade unionists working with
hazardous chemicals, or???
12
Heavy Metal Pollution in different environmental media
in Africa:
Problems and Prospects (with case studies from Nigeria)
by
Babajide I. Alo, Ph.D. FCSN, FIPAN, FNES and Abiola OLANIPEKUN, B.Sc., M.Sc.
FMEnv/Univ of Lagos Centre for Environmental Human Resources Development
Department of Chemistry, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria and Pollution Control Dept,
Federal Ministry of Environment, Abuja, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Unlike other pollutants like petroleum hydrocarbons and domestic and municipal litter which may visibly
build up in the environment, trace metals in the environment may accumulate unnoticed to toxic levels.
Generally, human health problems associated with trace metal contamination have been well-highlighted in
the literature.
In spite of the relatively low level of industrial activity in less developed regions such as Africa, there is
nevertheless a high potential of toxic heavy metal pollution. In Africa in the last decade, increases in both
industrial activities and urbanisation have led to huge increases in the amount of various waste (solid, liquid
and gaseous of vapour) including heavy metals inputs into the environment in all parts of the continent
leading to potential increases in the focused metals: mercury, cadmium and lead.
In most countries in Africa, mining activities are important sources of heavy metal input to the environment,
for example, mercury in Algeria, arsenic in Namibia and South Africa, tin in Nigeria and Zaire and copper in
the Zambia. These lead to undue deposition of metal-rich mine tailings, metal smelting etc, Other sources in
the region which contaminate the environment with large amounts of toxic metals include activities such as
leather tanning, electroplating, emission from vehicular traffic gas exhausts, energy and fuel production,
downwash from power lines, intensive agriculture and sludge dumping. For most trace metals, especially the
focussed three viz : mercury, cadmium and lead, anthropogenic emissions are more than or equal to natural
emissions. For instance, the combustion of leaded petrol in automobiles is responsible for the continued
widespread distribution of lead in the continent’s environment. For mercury however, a yawning gap still
exists on its status. In this presentation, full attention will be drawn to the exposure sources known so far. In
many African countries, the toll on human health from heavy metal pollution is huge.
CASE STUDIES FROM NIGERIA
Studies on the occurrence, exposure sources and distribution of metals in Nigeria conducted in all the
environmental matrices (water, sediment, fauna and flora and air) but with more emphasis on water and
sediment. (Alo et.al., 2004, 2005, 2006) will be presented towards providing solutions and suggestions on
how to prevent exposure.
Reports of studies on heavy metal pollution from each of the environmental media will be presented.
Examples of results of lead and other metals in the atmosphere, water bodies, soils and vegetation will be
discussed. Cadmium, Mercury, and chromium have been sparsely studied. Some recent data on the high
concentrations of Cadmium in street dust samples in high density, high traffic areas as well as data on heavy
metals in biological species- plants, fish etc. will be shown. What has worked and what was not successful
and lessons learnt will be covered.
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OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION STUDIES IN AFRICA
a. In general, studies in the levels and distributions of contaminants especially heavy metals in Africa have
unfortunately focussed on the environmental media in urban and industrial areas only. Yet large proportions
of the populace reside in the rural areas where they also have their land, air and water courses badly polluted
from effluents and emissions from the urban industrial infrastructure. Studies need to be extended to
determine the status of heavy metal pollution in rural areas.
Also the focused metals: mercury, cadmium and lead have not received due attention for studies even in the
face of their well-known negative effects on humans.
In cases where the studies have even been done, some of the data are non-robust and unreliable due to the
low sophistication of analytical equipment and techniques.
b. Preliminary studies have shown that inland and coastal waters and sediments are polluted by continuous
loading of heavy metals from land-based sources. Also, the concentrations in the sediments are much higher
than values for unpolluted sediments from developing nations, thus seemingly indicating that the pollution is
anthropogenic.
These challenges amongst others posed by heavy metals on human health in Africa are issues that need
robust studies and appropriate policy responses.
CONCLUSIONS
With the increases in urbanisation and socio-economic activities in Africa, the intent of this presentation is to
catalyze discussions and possible global policy responses for a concerted global effort to assist Africa with
an upfront programme of action on Heavy Metals in the Environment with view to reduce Africa’s
contribution to global levels of harmful heavy metals. The initial focus of the assistance should be to identify
the sources and quantify the discharge of heavy metals into the three main environmental media and address
negative human and environmental impacts from exposure to heavy metals in specific settings.
Very few studies have been carried out in Africa on Mercury and Cadmium as confirmed by the UNEP
Global Mercury Assessment document. This yawning gap still requires filling.
The proposed Africa programme shall include modules or strategies towards formulating workable pollution
control measures in the countries which should cover legislation, standards and criteria, waste minimisation,
effluent treatment, training, education and public awareness.
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Abstract for Global Partnerships for Mercury Reduction Progress Presentation
Charlie Auer and John Shoaff, Environmental Protection Agency, USA
Mercury, because of its highly mobile nature, has become more than a local, national or even
regional issue. Mercury is a multi-environmental media, transcontinental issue. Mercury released
to the air may fall to land or water close to the emission source or far from the source as a result of
global atmospheric transport and cycling.
A number of key international emission sources contribute to global cycling and deposition of
mercury via air pathways, including: coal-fired combustion sources; mining and metals production,
such as smelting; mercury-cell chlor-alkali manufacturing facilities; and combustion or incineration
of waste products containing mercury. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
estimates that the total global emissions of mercury (anthropogenic and natural to the atmosphere)
range from 4400 to 7500 metric tons per year.
In 2005, the UNEP Governing Council agreed to the development and implementation of mercury
partnerships as an approach to reducing the risks to human health and the environment from the
release of mercury and its compounds to the environment. The Governing Council urged
Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations and the private sector to
develop and implement these partnerships in a clear, transparent and accountable manner. The
partnership approach allows for immediate international efforts to take place to begin addressing
mercury exposure and mercury pollution reduction. The goal of these multi-stakeholder
collaborative mercury partnerships is to achieve a cumulative effect on mercury reductions which
will subsequently take the UNEP Mercury Program to a more dynamic level.
Currently, there are five Global Partnerships for Mercury Reduction in the implementation stage.
The partnerships are leveraging resources, technical expertise, technology transfer, and information
exchanges to provide immediate, effective actions that will result in tangible reductions of mercury
use and emissions. Briefly, these partnerships are:





Chlor-alkali factories: Some older chlor-alkali plants, which produce chlorine and caustic soda,
use mercury-cell technologies. Significant mercury use and emissions reductions can be
achieved though the sharing of best management practices at these facilities, while non-mercury
technologies can eliminate the need for mercury in this sector over time.
Coal combustion: By sharing information and demonstrating various approaches for mercury
emissions reduction from utility and industrial boilers, countries will be better able to tailor
cost-effective approaches to their specific national needs.
Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold mining: Small-scale gold mining results in direct occupational
exposures to mercury and significant releases to the environment. Simple management
practices can reduce these exposures and releases.
Products: Mercury is used in many products, including household appliances, switches, batteries,
thermometers, fungicides, and paints. Where there are efficacious and cost-effective alternatives
available to mercury components, reducing mercury use will be highly beneficial in preventing
releases in manufacturing and waste combustion.
International mercury fate and transport research: Over the last few years, the global
community has learned a great deal about how mercury cycles and deposits globally.
Additional understanding is needed on the global cycling dynamics of mercury to better target
efforts to reduce mercury’s health and environmental effects.
15
The partnerships are making excellent progress in a short amount of time and this progress will
continue to gain momentum. The presentation will describe progress made through these
partnerships. For example:





By 2007, the Chlor-alkali Partnership plans to achieve at least 10 % reduction in tons consumed
and released annually at each pilot facility from at least three mercury cell chlor-alkali facilities
in developing countries;
By 2007, the Gold Mining Partnership plans to quantitatively increase the number of small-scale
mining communities that have adopted improved technologies and best practices for mercury
amalgamation which will result in use and release reductions;
The Products Partnership is focusing on a number of areas including products used in hospitals
and the development of product inventories;
The Coal combustion partnership hosted a workshop in China in December 2005 where
governments and utilities came from all over Asia to learn about how to improve existing
control technologies at coal fired utilities; and,
Italy is leading the International Mercury Fate and Transport Partnership, and the United States,
Canada, and Japan are active partners in this effort. A focus of this partnership is transport of
mercury in China.
16
Prospects for sound chemicals management of cadmium, lead and mercury –
an industry perspective.
Abstract
Dr John Atherton
International Council on Mining and Metals
The health and environmental effects associated with metals such as cadmium, lead and mercury are well
known and increasingly documented among the scientific community. In the developed world, measures to
mitigate adverse exposures have been increasing in number since the middle of the nineteenth century.
Similarly, traditional end-of-pipe controls and broad-based regulatory policies have led to significant
reductions in emissions of metals of concern to the environment and corresponding reductions in exposure
and adverse effects within surrounding ecosystems.
Differences in the level of industrialization and other socio-economic factors have determined that these
generalizations are less applicable to the developing world. While many of the metals related problems faced
by nation states may be common globally, the route and means to a solution can differ significantly between
developed and developing countries often requiring tailored, local and regional specific policy responses.
Based around the topics addressed in this side event, this presentation will assess the challenges and
prospective solutions to the sound management of the metals of concern. The presentation will begin with
an overview of patterns of global production and use of minerals and implications for current and future
sources of emissions and exposures to the metals of concern. Issues relating to trade and the potential
resurgence of metals as strategic materials for nation states will be considered briefly.
The challenge of responding to the health and environmental impacts of metal emissions from artisanal and
small scale mining operations, abandoned mines and more general occupational exposures will be considered
from the perspective of industry and other commentators. The arguments presented will suggest that the
required policy responses are far broader than chemicals management and require an integrated policy
approach.
This paper will assert that whilst sound chemicals management of cadmium, lead and mercury may be a
globally recognized objective it is best achieved when applied locally. Varying circumstances such as
location, communities, environment, commodities, markets and scale mean that local solutions must be
found to ensure a sound and sustainable outcome to many of the issues raised in the context of this side event.
17
UNEP CHEMICALS BRANCH/DTIE
MERCURY AND OTHER METALS PROGRAMME ACTIVITIES
Dr Maged Younes, Head, Chemicals Branch, UNEP
Background and mandate for the activities
This activity started in 2001, when the UNEP Governing Council (GC), through decision 21/5, invited
UNEP to undertake a global assessment of mercury. The Global Mercury Assessment (GMA) report,
presented to the GC in 2003, confirms that mercury is persistent and cycles globally. Because of its long
range transport, even nations with minimal releases and other areas remote from industrial activity may be
adversely affected. It also emphasizes that, as uses and releases of mercury have been decreasing in the
developed world in recent years, due to the substantial reduction measures that have been implemented in
these regions, issues associated with mercury pollution may now becoming gradually more problematic in
developing regions.
It also confirms that many of the uses that are being phased out in developed countries are still ongoing in
less-developed countries. To mention only a few - mercury containing batteries and lamps are still produced
and used in both Africa and Asia, skin-lightening creams containing mercury (although sometimes illegally)
are still readily available in a number of countries, mercury containing paints and pesticides are still
produced and used in a number of countries in Africa. Very few developing countries have well developed
waste treatment facilities, let alone hazardous waste treatment facilities where waste mercury can be
deposited in an appropriate manner. Finally, artisanal gold mining using mercury is on the increase, with an
increasing number of countries reporting such activities – and although there are still large uncertainties on
the actual amounts of mercury being released and their impacts – they are causing serious damage to workers
involved in such activities and their families. The report is available at http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/ in
English, French, and Spanish.
Based on the key findings of the report, the GC concluded that there was sufficient evidence of significant
global adverse impacts from mercury and its compounds on humans and wildlife to warrant further
international action to reduce the risks to human health and environment. The GC decided, through decision
22/4 V, that national, regional and global actions, both immediate and long-term, should be initiated as soon
as possible. In response to this request, UNEP established a mercury programme in the Chemicals Branch of
its Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE). During 2004/2005, seven regional awareness
raising workshops were conducted aimed at promoting exchange of information on problems and solutions
to facilitate immediate action and early risk reduction.
Continuing discussions at its 23rd session in February 2005, the GC adopted an omnibus decision on
chemicals management, decision 23/9, which among other reinforced the aim of ensuring full cooperation
between the chemicals related Conventions, set out the process for successful adoption of the strategic
approach to international chemicals management (SAICM) and made provision for activities to support
developing countries and countries with economies in transition in implementing SAICM, taking into
account the Bali Strategic Plan for Technology Support and Capacity-building. In addition, it called for
UNEP to develop scientific reviews on lead and cadmium, in order to inform future discussions of the GC on
the need for global action in relation to lead and cadmium.
Priorities of the mercury programme in 2006/2007
GC decision23/9 IV reiterated its previous decision from 2003 and encouraged Governments, the private
sector and international organizations to take immediate actions to reduce the risks to human health and the
environment posed on a global scale by mercury in products and production processes. It also requested
UNEP to develop a report on the supply, trade and demand for mercury on the global market for
consideration at the 24th session of the GC.
Partnership activities of the mercury programme – The decision also calls for implementation of
partnerships in a clear, transparent and accountable manner, between Governments and other stakeholders as
18
an approach to reducing risks to human health and the environment. As a new initiative, development of
pilot partnerships between Governments and other stakeholders was called for to reduce mercury pollution,
for example, from coal fired power stations and chlor-alkali plants. The partnerships may also focus on
mercury wastes/stockpiles and improving understanding of how mercury moves around the planet. Under
the partnerships, Governments may make experts and information on environmentally-friendly techniques
available to those countries and industries requesting assistance. UNEP has also established a dedicated website for posting of information on mercury partnerships as activities are developed and implemented. More
detailed
information
on
the
partnership
activities
can
be
found
at
http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/partnerships/.
Capacity bulding - An important priority within the mercury programme is providing technical assistance
and capacity-building activities to support efforts of countries, especially developing countries and countries
with economies in transition, to take action on mercury pollution. Priority areas include, among other:
Developing national inventories for mercury use and release; Developing strategies for enhanced outreach
and risk communication activities to reach populations at risk; Increasing public awareness and promotion of
mercury-free products, technologies and processes; Promoting application and sharing of information on best
available techniques and measures to reduce mercury emissions from point sources; Promoting reduction of
risk of exposure related to mercury in products and production processes; Increasing awareness of
environmentally sound recycling practices and promoting the development of environmentally sound waste
management, disposal and remediation practices; Developing national implementation plans to reduce
mercury uses and releases.
UNEP has , through its fund raising activities, limited funding available that will be used to support
partnerships, projects and activities. To facilitate requests from countries for financial support for country
based activities, UNEP has developed a simplified project proposal format and guidance on priorities that is
now available on the mercury website at http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/support.htm.
The new Quick-Start Programme (QSP) under the recently adopted Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management (SAICM) may also provide opportunities for countries to seek funding for mercury
and metals activities and partnerships. Arrangements for the programme are under development. Details are
available at http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/qsp.htm.
Guidance materials on mercury - A pilot draft of the “Toolkit for identification and quantification of
mercury releases” has been completed and is being translated to the 6 UN languages, with assistance from
the UNEP Regional Offices and the Basel Convention Regional Centres. Pilot testing at national level with
selected
countries
is
under
planning.
The
pilot
draft
can
be
downloaded
at
http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/Toolkit/default.htm
Following GC 23/9 IV urging UNEP to improve communication of risks of mercury to vulnerable groups,
UNEP has also been working on a guidance document on identifying populations at risk due to exposures to
mercury. However, the document needs careful coordination with FAO and WHO, and must also await the
ongoing FAO/WHO JECFA work on further refining the recommended “safe” levels of exposure to
methylmercury.
Lead and Cadmium activities
With regard to lead and cadmium, decision 23/9 III calls for UNEP to undertake a review of scientific
information on lead and cadmium, focusing especially on the issue of long-range environmental transport.
As the process followed in developing the GMA report in 2002 proved to be successful, ensuring a
transparent process and broad ownership of its results and recommendations, Governments, intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental organizations were invited to submit information relevant
to the scientific reviews and nominate member(s) to a Working Group on lead and cadmium that would
participate in the drafting process. As of 12 May 2006, a total of 60 nominations from 53 Governments, 3
IGOs and 4 NGOs have been received. Members of the Working Group will assist in the finalization of the
scientific reviews, first through two comment rounds by mail, then through a meeting of the Working Group,
tentatively scheduled for 18 to 22 September 2006. During that meeting, in order to inform future
discussions of the Governing Council on the need for global action in relation to lead and cadmium, the
Working Group will endeavor to draw conclusions as to how these two heavy metals move through the
19
atmosphere, seas and rivers, in order to establish whether the adverse impacts of lead and cadmium are of
global concern. The scientific reviews will be put forward to the GC in February 2007 for consideration.
Further information on these activities can be found at http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/.
Reporting to the 24th session of the GC
The GC will again consider progress and assess, at its 24th session scheduled to take place 5-9 February 2007,
the need for further action on mercury, lead and cadmium. The meeting documentation to be submitted to
the GC will, among other things, include a progress report on implementation of GC decisions 23/9 III and
IV (including information on progress in the implementation of partnerships to reduce mercury pollution), a
report on mercury trade, supply and demand, as well as the scientific reviews on lead and cadmium. The
meeting documents for GC are expected to be drafted by the UNEP Chemicals Branch during October 2006.
Further details on UNEPs mercury and other metals programme activities can be obtained by
contacting :
Mercury and other metals programme
UNEP Chemicals Branch
11-13, Chemin de Anémones
CH-1219 Châtelaine, Geneva, Switzerland
Fax : +41 22 797 34 60
Email : mercury@unepchemicals.ch
E-mail: metals@unepchemicals.ch
Website: http://www.chem.unep.ch/
20
WHO PROGRAMMES AND ACTIVITIES ON MERCURY, LEAD AND
CADMIUM
Dr. J. Pronczuk
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
Exposure to metals through contaminated air, food, drinking water, beverages or soil may represent a threat
to human health and development. Although some of the major health hazards linked to metals such as
mercury, lead and cadmium have been known for centuries, a growing body of evidence is nowadays linking
these (and other) metals to a number of adverse health effects, developmental problems and aging processes.
In the last decades certain metals have been recognized as agents capable of inducing subtle but significant
detrimental effects. New study methodologies are nowadays allowing the identification of previously
unrecognized immune, nephrotoxic, neurodevelopmental, genotoxic and other effects. In the last decade,
concern has increased about the special susceptibility of the fetus and small children to lead, mercury and
cadmium, during the "critical windows of vulnerability" and as a result of their special behaviours and
dynamic physiology that may predispose them to higher environmental exposures and adverse effects.
The World Health Organization (WHO) is the international agency within the United Nations system
responsible for health. WHO experts produce health guidelines and standards, help countries to address
public health issues and also support and promote health research. Public health and a wide variety of other
professionals work for WHO in 147 country offices, six regional offices and at the headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland. Different programmes within WHO address the threats posed by environmental pollutants,
including heavy metals, providing technical assistance, guidelines, and information for risk assessment and
management, for preventing human exposure and improving the diagnosis, treatment and surveillance of
health effects.
The Department on Public Health and Environment (PHE) is committed to helping member states to achieve
safe, sustainable and health-enhancing human environments, protected from biological, chemical and
physical hazards, and secure from the adverse effects of global and local environmental threats. Its recent
publication Preventing disease through healthy environments: Towards an estimate of the
environmental burden of disease refers to how much disease could be prevented through better
management of our environment, and highlights the impact of lead exposure in children: in the year 2000,
about 800 000 children were affected by lead exposure, leading to lower IQ and potential mild mental
retardation. These and other similar findings have important policy implications and represent a renewed
expanded effort for preventive actions.
Some of the numerous past and ongoing activities carried out by WHO in relation to lead,
mercury/methylmercury and cadmium are described, with special emphasis on the:





Publications and activities of the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), including:
Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) Monographs, Concise International Chemical Assessment
Documents (CICADS), International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSCs), Poisons Information
Monographs (PIMs) as well as different guidelines on the prevention and management of human
exposure to specific metals.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) that establishes the Provisional
Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWIs)
Preparation of Drinking Water Quality Guidelines, Air Quality Guidelines and fact sheet on
Mercury in Health Care.
Publication on Lead: Assessing the environmental burden of disease at national and local levels
Training Modules on the diagnosis, prevention, assessment and management of children's exposure to
lead, mercury and methylmercury. Includes preparatory work on Fetal/Environmental Origins of
Disease and on the Risk Assessment of Children's Exposure to Chemicals addressing exposure to
lead, mercury and cadmium early in life.
21



Regional specific information and educational publications and technical workshops organized by WHO
regional offices.
IARC Monographs prepared by the International Agency for Registry of Cancer (a WHO agency
established in Lyon, France) that have classified inorganic and organic lead compounds, methylmercury,
metallic mercury and inorganic mercury and cadmium and cadmium compounds according to the
evidence for carcinogenicity.
Response to specific requests from Member States for technical assistance on how to address human and
environmental health issues related to lead, mercury and cadmium exposures.
The programmes and publications listed above represent just a few examples of the different activities that
WHO and some of its specialized units are developing in order to protect human health from adverse
environmental metal exposures. The work undertaken by different WHO sectors in the areas of risk
assessment, study methodologies, capacity building, prevention of exposure and response to specific
country/regional problems related to lead, mercury and cadmium has resulted in a remarkable wealth of
knowledge and experience and in a network of experts. In fact, the professional groups established for the
preparation and peer-review of guidelines or training materials, for assessing risks to human health or for
responding to concrete incidents due to contaminated environments provides strong scientific support for the
work of the organization as well as a network with great potential for international efforts.
WHO's cooperative research efforts, where scientists from developing and industrialized countries may share
common interests and work using commonly agreed protocols enhances the chances for finding solutions for
health problems in their national and global contexts. These and other collaborative activities also result in
technology transfer and improved capacities, and in the build-up of a network of trained scientific
collaborators throughout the developing world.
The presence of WHO in a large number of countries and its close contacts with specialized centres and
scientific bodies (e.g. professional associations, NGOs,…) creates a strong network or system for the
dissemination and collection of relevant public health and environmental information, for the implementation
of activities and for improving the response to international agreements and conventions.
On the basis of the work undertaken and the experience gained, a number of issues that should be addressed
for future work have been identified, such as:
(i) periodically updating guidance documents on the basis of new information available,
(ii) strengthening collaborative and cross sectoral training, information and capacity building efforts,
(iii) promoting cooperative research efforts (e.g. on biomarkers of exposure, effect and susceptibility to lead,
mercury and cadmium
In addressing these issues, it is of outmost importance to strengthen interactions with other organizations and
sectors (e.g. environment, trade, education, industry and other) in order to accelerate actions, for example on
the implementation of existing policies and international agreements.
Fulfilling these and other needs will enhance the potential for protecting human health -, and especially the
more vulnerable groups - from the effects of lead, mercury and cadmium and contribute to sustainable
development through healthy people in healthy environments.
22
UNIDO ACTIVITIES
Pablo Huidobro
MAH, Global Mercury Project
Chief, Water Management Unit
Programme Development and Technical Cooperation Division
UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION
I. The Global Mercury Project: Solutions for Artisanal Miners
When we scrutinize the source of mercury pollution from artisanal gold mining, we see that in fact there are
two sources: there is the point source where mercury is used to create amalgam and distributed to the
environment through tailings and through vapour; and at the same time, there are all of the conditions which
lead a man, or a woman, and in too many cases, a child, to be kneeling in a stream with mercury in his hands
or inhaling mercury in the process of separating the gold from the amalgam (by heating) inside his home or
directly upwind from where he stands.
This particular kind of mercury pollution is created by abysmal social and economic deterioration, and
because its real sources are rooted so deeply in global economic forces, solutions easily seem too limited to
feel legitimately effective.
But the last three years of work on the GEF/UNIDO Global Mercury Project (GMP) have confirmed what
everybody who works on global mercury pollution issues hoped for: It is possible to remove the barriers
which make it so difficult to reduce mercury emissions from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASM).
The GMP is the first coordinated global effort to introduce solutions specifically for problems arising from
the use of mercury in ASM. During the lifetime of the Project, we have evaluated the environmental and
health consequences of persistent mercury use by artisanal miners, observing widespread toxification of
people and ecosystems. Through this process, we have established that certain experiences – such as
mercury vapour inhalation from burning amalgam, severe pollution of transboundary waterways, inefficient
mining practices, child labour, and extreme poverty – are endemic to ASM communities, regardless of
country or continent.
The existence of the GMP has also elevated awareness internationally about the danger of mercury
contamination from ASM. Within international mercury policy discussions, ASM is now recognized as the
second biggest point source of global mercury pollution, next to by-product emissions from coal-fired power
plants. And this awareness is not only rising at a policy level, but within countries where small-scale gold
mining is prevalent. As a result of GMP demonstration projects, we are seeing changes in the way miners
extract gold and handle amalgam, and witnessing communities working to protect themselves, their food and
water supplies, and their children.
Growing awareness is generating greater interest, and the GMP is being sought out by governments,
companies, NGOs, and other intergovernmental agencies wanting to form partnerships. In addition to the six
countries where the GMP started working in 2002 –Indonesia, Laos, Sudan, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Brazil
– we have introduced programs in Mozambique and Venezuela, and are evaluating projects for numerous
other countries. We are also supported, by the United States, Canadian, Brazilian, Dutch, and German
governments, by direct financing of parallel projects, to expand the reach of the GMP, and are engaging
mining companies to develop ways for them to work more closely and avoid conflict with artisanal gold
miners. Some of our most effective work is happening in the form of collaborations with NGOs, including
the Blacksmith Institute, New York. Increasingly, we are building relationships with NGOs whose roots in
civil society expand our ability to reach out to communities. And, finally we are discussing ways of sharing
expertise and networks with other UN agencies.
23
II. The Biggest Gold Rush in World History
Even as we observe evidence of progress in the way the world is addressing mercury pollution from smallscale gold mining, it is also true that ASM is among the fastest growing industries in the world, and one of
the chief sources of global mercury pollution, producing 1000 tons of mercury per year, or 30 percent of
global anthropogenic mercury emissions.
Artisanal gold mining is what Eritreans refer to as “drought-driven work.” As the 2002 Mining, Minerals,
and Sustainable Development (MMSD) report observes: “…ASM activities will continue for at least as long
as poverty drives them”. Mercury pollution from ASM occurs in the context of a global economic recession
where one billion people live on less than a dollar a day. This means that for a person living in extreme
poverty, artisanal gold mining is on average three-times more profitable than other forms of work. The
reality is that in many countries, ASM is economic diversification.
There are already 10-15 million artisanal gold miners, 100 million people economically connected to the
industry, and every reason to believe ASM is poised for even greater expansion, including rising gold prices,
failing economies, global insecurity, and extreme environmental conditions. Each one of these causal factors
is growing, leading to projections that Zimbabwe and parts of Southern Africa will see the number of miners
triple in the next ten years (MMSD, p. 316). First-hand accounts from one region in Indonesia observe the
number of mining dredges has quadrupled from 2000 to 8000 in the last two years.
While the previous five years of policymaking on ASM have led to a consensus that global solutions are
needed, there are still essentially two competing views on how to address the issue comprehensively. One
school argues artisanal mining needs to be viewed as an inevitable part of the economic landscape; while
miners may be encouraged to adopt more environmentally sound practices, it is overly optimistic to presume
people will leave mining behind. Meanwhile, there is a second school which maintains that small-scale
miners must, over the long run, be introduced to alternative forms of work which are more sustainable for the
environment and for the people involved in ASM.
For the most part, the current work of the Global Mercury Project falls into this first school: the intervention
provides primarily technical training, without addressing deeper economic sources contributing to the steep
upward curve of the number of people turning towards ASM. Without denigrating the importance of
introducing technical solutions, the limitations of this methodology are also clear: exclusively technical
responses frequently arrive on the scene after the environment is already contaminated, and after people are
suffering from mercury exposure. Without a simultaneous effort to alleviate conditions of extreme poverty,
small-scale gold mining will remain a desirable economic choice, interventions will forever be too little, too
late, and progress will never be sustainable. Indeed, the MMSD report reminds us that focus on “definitional,
legal, and technical issues” needs to be complimented by policy approaches where ASM is treated as part of
“overall strategies for poverty alleviation and building sustainable livelihoods” .
By continuing to work towards short-term mercury emissions reductions through Transportable
Demonstration Units (TDU), and adding a second dimension of the intervention which addresses long-term
solutions, the GMP can mitigate the immediate impact of ASM on the environment and public health, while
at the same time working toward a wide-range of policy strategies leading to a decline in the overall need for
artisanal gold mining in the developing world. In short, the two schools of intervention need not be mutually
exclusive.
24
The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP
Convention):
Ongoing work on Heavy Metals
at the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
Brinda Wachs
Environmental Affairs Officer
UNECE, Environment, Housing and Land Management Division
Pollution Prevention Team and
Secretary, Task Force on Heavy Metals
1.
Introduction of the LRTAP Convention and its 1998 Protocol on Heavy Metals
The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution:




Sets out general principles of cooperation for air pollution abatement
Creates institutional framework for collaborative research
Provides interface of science and policy to combat air pollution
Operates by consensus among Parties to the Convention and its 8 Protocols
The Convention’s Protocol on Heavy Metals, signed at Aarhus in1998:



2.
Covers the three priority metals under the Convention: cadmium, lead and mercury.
Entered into force in December 2003.
Has been ratified by 28 Parties to the Convention.
The objective of the 1998 Heavy Metals Protocol and the review process
A. Aim of the Protocol
The aim of the Protocol is to control emissions of heavy metals caused by anthropogenic activities that are
subject to long-range transboundary atmospheric transport and are likely to have significant adverse effects
on human health or the environment. Parties that sign the HMs Protocol are obligated to reduce their total
annual emissions into the atmosphere of cadmium, lead and mercury over the base year chosen upon
ratification, by taking effective measures. They also have to apply, according to a set timescale, best
Available Techniques (BAT) and emission limit values (ELVs) for new and existing stationary sources, and
apply product control and product management measures.
B. Basic obligations of Parties
The Protocol also requires Parties to develop national policies, programmes and measures to fulfill these
obligations, and to report on these on a biannual basis to the secretariat. Information on the strategies and
policies of Parties in abating and controlling heavy metal emissions is made available on the website of the
Convention every two years and published in a major review every four years.
C. Sufficiency and effectiveness review of the Protocol
The Protocol requires Parties to carry out a review of its sufficiency and effectiveness and this has been the
major work of the Task Force on Heavy Metals. Set up by the Executive Body to the Convention, the Task
Force operates under the leadership of Germany, and is charged with reviewing the Protocol by the end of
2007. The review process evaluates progress toward meeting the objectives of the Protocol, evaluates
25
whether emission reductions have been achieved and takes into account the extent to which a satisfactory
basis exists for the application of an effects-based approach.
Based on the conclusions of the review, the Parties to the Protocol will develop further steps to reduce
emission into the atmosphere of cadmium, mercury and lead.
Work on critical loads for heavy metal effects on health and ecosystems is also carried out under the
Convention’s International Cooperative Programme on Modelling and Mapping.
While the Protocol provides guidance in the event of future amendments to add other metals to the
Convention, there is currently no impetus or support from Parties for additional metals. Nonetheless, the
Convention’s emission database includes information on six additional metals: arsenic, chromium, copper,
nickel, selenium and zinc.
3.
The policy process under the Convention and future work on Heavy Metals

The Convention’s Working Group on Strategies and Review and its role in the review process:
revision of the Protocol and possible re-negotiation

International collaboration (UNEP, European Commission, etc.) and possible synergies toward a
global agreement on Mercury

Other international aspects of strategies and policies for heavy metal abatement, product control and
management measures and emission inventories and projections
26