04-TS
Agenda item 6
IFCS
FORUM V
Fifth Session
of the
Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical
Safety
Budapest, Hungary
25 - 29 September 2006
************************************
POVERTY REDUCTION
AND
THE SOUND MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS
A THOUGHT STARTER
Prepared by: Forum Standing Committee Working Group
Secretariat: c/o World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
Tel: +41 (22) 791 3873/3650; Fax: +41 (22) 791 4875; Email: ifcs@who.int; Website: www.ifcs.ch
THOUGHT STARTER
Chemical Safety for Sustainable Development
IFCS/FORUM-V/04-TS
Original: English
3 August 2006
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SUMMARY
3
Framework
3
Links between chemicals and development
3
Challenges
3
Questions to stimulate discussion
4
OBJECTIVES
6
THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK
6
LINKS BETWEEN CHEMICALS AND DEVELOPMENT
8
The role of chemicals in the development agenda
8
Unwanted side-effects of chemicals
9
Systems for sound management of chemicals
13
INTEGRATING THE SOUND MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS IN POVERTY
REDUCTION STRATEGIES
14
Challenges
14
Need for guidance and studies
14
FURTHER ACTION NEEDED
15
Countries
16
Donors and intergovernmental organizations
16
The SAICM secretariat
17
Private sector
17
Communities and NGOs
17
EXAMPLES OF ACTIONS TAKEN OR PLANNED
17
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SUMMARY
The objectives of this paper are to:
o
review how the overarching goal of poverty reduction, as laid down in the United Nations Millennium
Declaration and the associated Millennium Development Goals, is related to the sound management of
chemicals;
o
identify the important challenges to integration of sound management of chemicals in poverty
reduction efforts;
o
stimulate actions to integrate the sound management of chemicals in poverty reduction efforts; and
thus
o
contribute to protecting health and the environment, and thus to human development, especially for the
poor.
Framework
The sound management of chemicals has been recognized as highly important to sustainable development
in many international documents and agreements. It was included as a targeted programme area in Agenda
21 in 1992, and reiterated by the United Nations General Assembly in 1997 and the World Summit on
Sustainable Development in 2002.
The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM), adopted in Dubai in February
2006, underlined the links between sound management of chemicals and the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). These goals, and the Millennium Declaration, which were agreed by the General Assembly
of the United Nations in 2000, are at the forefront of the sustainable development agenda and the priorities
of the donor community. They set goals and targets for human development efforts by the year 2015; the
first MDG is the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger.
Links between chemicals and development
While a substantial use of chemicals is essential for social and economic development, use of and exposure
to chemicals may also threaten sustainable development through significant negative effects on health and
the environment. Some risks may be higher in urban or rural areas, but risks are almost always greater for
poor communities in comparison with more prosperous groups. The potential socioeconomic impact and
cost of toxic chemicals are large and are borne disproportionately by poor communities. Chemicals
management policies thus need to strike a balance between the production and use of chemicals to promote
social and economic development, and the reduction and avoidance of the harmful effects of such
chemicals.
Challenges
Some challenges to the integration of the sound management of chemicals in poverty reduction efforts have
been identified:
o
Development planners and decision-makers outside the area of chemicals management tend to
focus primarily on the indicators established under the Millennium Development Goals, and to
look at one sector at a time.
o
Those working in the area of chemicals management tend to view their activity in isolation, and
often do not identify potential synergies with related areas, such as the agriculture and health
sectors.
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o
There is relatively little practical guidance or data on the economic impact of chemicals
management on poverty.
o
The poor in all societies have little access to decision-making processes, including those related to
chemicals management.
Questions to stimulate discussion
Countries
o
What needs to be done to support countries in seeking synergies between strategies for poverty
reduction and sound management of chemicals?
o
What practical steps should be taken to promote an exchange of insights, knowledge and
experiences between strategic planners and technical experts in chemicals management and those
in other important sectors of sustainable development?
o
What concrete steps can be taken to make sure that social and economic goals and strategies
incorporate the sound management of chemicals?
o
What practical measures and tools can help chemicals management experts to contribute to general
policies and strategies, and to provide sound analysis of aspects of chemicals management that are
crucial to social and economic development?
o
What tools or standard procedures are needed to make sure that the potential positive and negative
impacts of chemicals on poverty reduction efforts in a given country are identified?
Donors and intergovernmental organizations
o
What concrete steps could donors and intergovernmental organizations take to ensure that the
sound management of chemicals is integrated in their development assistance?
o
What elements need to be incorporated into projects and initiatives of the future SAICM Quick
Start Programme to ensure that they are linked to projects and programmes dedicated to reducing
poverty?
o
What tools and procedures would be most effective in assessing the impact of chemicals
management on poverty reduction strategies?
o
What is needed as practical orientation for identifying this impact?
o
How can existing best practices be used?
o
How can the lack of concrete data on the long-term positive and negative economic impact of the
management of chemicals be overcome?
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The SAICM Secretariat
o
What guidance should be provided by the SAICM secretariat?
o
How can partnerships be created to implement such guidance?
o
How should the SAICM secretariat contribute to other initiatives, such as the OECD Framework
for Common Action Around Shared Goals?
The private sector
o
What can be done in countries to ensure that the commitments of the chemical industry to protect
the environment are honoured?
o
What should be done to stimulate the development and use of products and processes that reduce
risks?
o
What steps can be taken to encourage the private sector to engage more fully in development
efforts?
Communities and NGOs
o
How can the role of individuals and their representatives in the development of chemicals
infrastructure and the management of chemicals be strengthened?
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OBJECTIVES
Substantial amounts of chemicals are produced and used in developing countries, as part of their efforts to
achieve sustainable social and economic development. However, many of these chemicals are potentially
harmful to both human health and the environment, requiring either the application of protective measures
or the development of alternative compounds. This paper describes how the sound management of
chemicals is a fundamental component of poverty reduction strategies. 1 It focuses on country efforts and
development assistance in general, and does not attempt to deal with specific instruments of
implementation.
The objectives of this paper are to:
o
review how the overarching goal of poverty reduction, as laid down in the United Nations Millennium
Declaration and the associated Millennium Development Goals, is related to the sound management of
chemicals;
o
identify the important challenges to integration of sound management of chemicals in poverty
reduction efforts,
o
stimulate actions to integrate sound management of chemicals in poverty reduction efforts; and thus
o
contribute to protecting health and the environment, and thus to human development, especially for the
poor.
This paper is presented to the Fifth Session of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (Forum V)
as part of the report on the recommendations on capacity building assistance made at the Fourth Session
(Forum IV).2
THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK
The role of sound management of chemicals in efforts to reduce poverty and stimulate development has
been addressed in numerous international agreements, conventions and publications. Details of some of the
most important international agreements are given in Boxes 1- 4.
1
There are different definitions of poverty. This paper does not restrict itself to one specific definition, but addresses
the phenomenon of poverty in general and in all its aspects.
2 FORUM IV. Fourth Session of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety, Final Report. 2003 (IFCS/FORUM
IV/16w) http://www.who.int/ifcs/documents/forums/forum4/final_report/en/index.html
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Box 1: The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)
The Dubai Declaration on International Chemicals Management, adopted in February 2006, states in its
first paragraph: “The sound management of chemicals is essential if we are to achieve sustainable
development, including the eradication of poverty and disease, the improvement of human health and the
environment and the elevation and maintenance of the standard of living in countries at all levels of
development.” The related Overarching Policy Strategy, also adopted in Dubai, states in paragraph 19 (c)
that financial arrangements for the Strategic Approach include: ”Integration of the Strategic Approach
objectives into multilateral and bilateral development assistance cooperation, including by: (i) Developing
countries and countries with economies in transition, where necessary with the technical support of donors,
considering the integration of Strategic Approach objectives into relevant national documents that
influence development assistance cooperation; (ii) Donors responding to requests by, and working in
partnership with, developing countries and countries with economies in transition by recognizing Strategic
Approach objectives as an important element of bilateral aid agency cooperation in support of sustainable
development”.3
Box 2: The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the WSSD, adopted in 2002, refers to the issues of poverty
reduction and chemicals management in, among others, paragraphs 23 (sound management of chemicals
throughout their life cycle and of hazardous wastes for sustainable development as well as for the
protection of human health and the environment), 25 (achievement of the millennium development goal on
safe drinking water), 40 (increasing food production essentially based on an integrated approach to
sustainable agriculture and rural development), 53 ( need for absence of a high prevalence of debilitating
diseases to achieve the goals of sustainable development and need to address the causes of ill health,
including environmental causes, and their impact on development), 68 (initiatives to assist African
countries in elaborating national chemical profiles etc.), and 81 (implementation of Agenda 21 and the
achievement of the internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium
Declaration).4
3
Report of the International Conference on Chemicals Management on the work of its first session
http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/iccm_sec.htm.
4
For the whole text, see http://www.un.org/jsummit/html/documents/summit_docs.html
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Box 3: Forum IV
At the fourth session of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (Forum IV) in Bangkok 2003, the
following decision was taken:5 “Recognizing the importance of sound management of chemicals in poverty
eradication, Forum IV recommends the promotion of a dialogue with international development assistance
institutions (including UNDP, World Bank) with the goal of integrating chemical safety issues into poverty
reduction strategies and national sustainable development strategies, and relevant project activities.
Forum IV invites all governments to integrate chemicals safety policy into development cooperation
activities, and promote chemical issues in the relevant governing bodies of international and
intergovernmental organizations.
Recognizing the value of the WHO programme on health and sustainable development, Forum IV
encourages all international organizations, including UNEP and the other IOMC partner organizations, to
ensure and/or strengthen the integration of sustainable development and chemicals issues into all relevant
activities, e.g. water, waste management, health, agriculture, trade.
Forum IV invites the private sector and civil society to participate actively in the above effort.”
Box 4: Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Health and environmental goals for sustainable development are given in the eight Millennium
Development Goals, agreed at the United Nations Millennium Summit in September 2000. The goals and
related targets, and their indicators, have been widely accepted as a framework for measuring development
progress, with a specified target date of 2015. The over-arching goal is MDG 1, under which the target is
to reduce poverty and hunger by half.
The following are the eight Millennium Development Goals: 6
Goal 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education
Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women
Goal 4 Reduce child mortality
Goal 5 Improve maternal health
Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Goal 7 Ensure environmental sustainability
Goal 8 Develop a global partnership for development
LINKS BETWEEN CHEMICALS AND DEVELOPMENT
The role of chemicals in the development agenda
The above-mentioned declarations and goals provide perspectives on the fundamental importance of sound
management of chemicals to the general development agenda, and thus to sustainable poverty reduction.
Use of chemicals is an intrinsic part of efforts to reduce poverty. For example, use of fertilizers and
pesticides contributes to improving harvests, which are of special relevance for poor people in rural areas.
On the other hand, misuse of these chemicals can lead to land degradation, acute poisoning, chronic health
effects, and even death. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), unintentional poisoning
accounts for 50 000 deaths of children under 14 years of age each year. 7 In 1999 The International Labour
Organization (ILO) reported that while developing countries consume more than 20 % of the world
5
http://www.who.int/ifcs/documents/forums/forum4/final_report/en/index.html.
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
7
WHO Fact Sheet, No. 272, April 2003; and The World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life, Geneva,
WHO, 2002:186-191 (Annex 2).
6
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production of agrochemicals, approximately 70% of the total number of cases of acute poisoning occurring
in the world occur in developing countries; this corresponds to more than 1.1 million cases. 8. The many
positive effects that chemicals can have on health, the economy and social welfare are thus counterbalanced
by the risks associated with their improper use and management. Hazards from toxic chemicals are often
greatest for people living in poverty, who have little possibility to protect themselves or to avoid exposure.
In addition, poor people are generally unaware of potential hazards, because of a low level of education and
lack of information. Those affected by toxic chemicals often have difficulty accessing timely and effective
medical care. For some groups – such as children in the workforce – the situation is particularly serious.
Sound management of chemicals can reduce these hazards and thus play an important role in achieving the
MDGs, specifically reducing poverty, improving health, reducing child mortality, and ensuring
environmental sustainability.
Much work remains to be done to specify and act upon the links between issues of environment and
sustainable development, and poverty reduction strategies within the general MDG framework. While the
links may seem obvious, in practice the development agenda is currently focused on the MDG indicators,
which are very specific and give little opportunity to incorporate the sound management of chemicals. For
example, the indicators for goal 7 (ensuring environmental sustainability) have led to development efforts
being concentrated on the specified issues, i.e. deforestation, biological diversity, energy use, and carbon
dioxide emissions.
An important initiative in integrating environmental issues into poverty reduction has been the creation of
the Poverty-Environment Partnership (PEP), an informal network of development agencies, which seeks to
improve the coordination of work on poverty reduction and the environment. Members include among
others the Asian Development Bank (ADB),the African Development Bank, the World Bank (WB), the
World Heath Organization (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the European Community (EC), the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
Established in 2001, the group has produced a number of important analyses, and developed management
options, recommendations and best practice reports on the link between poverty and the environment.
Increasing awareness of the links between environmental issues and poverty reduction goals has resulted in
several declarations of intent. One example is the Framework for Common Action Around Shared Goals,
adopted by OECD Development and Environment Ministers in April 2006, which seeks to improve the
coordination and coherence of efforts by development cooperation and environmental agencies. Key
elements of the framework include developing “policies and instruments for better integrating global
environmental objectives into national and local development policies and plans” and “approaches and
instruments to support the integration of issues relating to climate change, biodiversity, desertification and
chemical management, in the context of national or sectoral development strategies.9
Further information on linkages is given in the documents listed in the footnote. 10
Unwanted side-effects of chemicals
Poor people are exposed to many environmental risks, such as pollution of indoor or outdoor air and water,
and hazardous wastes. he level of a specific risk may be higher in urban or rural areas, but is almost always
greater for those living in poverty.11
8
The ILO Programme on Occupational Safety and Health in Agriculture, by Valentina Forastieri, International Labour
Office Geneva, October 1999. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/agriculture/agrivf01.htm#ae
9
Framework for Common Action Around Shared Goals. Paris, OECD, 2006 http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/27/36427017.pdf
10
Massey R. Building a healthy economy: chemicals risk management as a driver of development. Stockholm, Swedish Chemicals
Inspectorate, 2005 http://www.kemi.se/upload/Trycksaker/Pdf/Rapporter/Rapport2_05.pdf; The impact of REACH on the
environment and human health. 2005 (ENV.C.3/SER/2004/0042r;
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/pdf/impact_on_environment_report.pdf; Environment and health. Luxembourg,
European Commission, 2005 (EEA Report No 10/2005;
http://reports.eea.europa.eu/eea_report_2005_10/en/EEA_report_10_2005.pdf ).
11
For more information, see: Investing in environmental wealth for poverty reduction. New York, United Nations Development
Programme, 2005. http://www.povertyenvironment.net/pep/?q=investing_in_environmental_wealth_for_poverty_reduction_0
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Box 5: Metals
Metals that have been associated with toxic effects in humans, including lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, manganese,
and chromium, and their derivatives are naturally found in the earth’s crust. They are used in an array of products,
such as paints and industrial catalysts, and most recently for the manufacture of metallic nanoparticles. Exposure to
sufficiently high levels of these metals can negatively affect health.
Lead. Low-level exposure to lead can affect the intellectual development of children, resulting in significant loss of
productivity and human potential worldwide. The problem is particularly serious in poor communities, where lead
levels are often high and children are malnourished, since a diet low in iron and calcium allows more lead to be
absorbed by the body. Recently, a number of other metals have been found to pose significant health risks throughout
the cycle of use and production (i.e. from mining and smelting, through manufacturing, processing, and use, to waste
disposal). The most serious impacts have resulted from poorly controlled mining and smelting, informal sector work
(such as artisanal gold mining and battery recycling), toxic levels of lead and other metals in consumer products, and
unsafe work and waste disposal practices; these have affected mainly poor communities. Metals in the natural
environment can become hazardous as a result of development activities; one example is the release of mercury from
soil into lakes formed behind dams, contaminating the fish, which is then eaten by the local population.
Manganese in fuel. Metals may be used in fuel additives; examples are tetraethyl lead, which is now being phased out
of gasoline in most countries, and methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT), which, when combusted,
releases manganese into the air. This is particularly an issue for the urban poor, who frequently live, work, and go to
school in areas with high levels of traffic and air pollution. A recent epidemiological study12 suggested that manganese
may be neurotoxic to young children. Shortly after its introduction as a fuel additive in Johannesburg, South Africa, it
was found that manganese levels in the blood of first-grade schoolchildren, and in the soil and dust in schools in the
city, were much higher than those in Cape Town, where MMT was not used. Surprisingly a significant number of
children in both areas – 12.5% in Johannesburg and 4.2% in Cape Town– had levels of manganese in blood at or
above 14 g/l, the upper end of the normal range of exposure as determined by the United States Government. 13
Arsenic in drinking-water. Development efforts in Bangladesh inadvertently increased exposure of poor communities
to arsenic. The efforts began with the best of intentions – to bypass surface waters contaminated with microbes that
were causing life-threatening diseases, by drilling millions of deep tube-wells. While infectious disease rates and
deaths were significantly reduced, a new epidemic of disease and deaths as a result of poisoning with arsenic and other
toxic elements in the groundwater resulted. One study reported that, not only did 48% of water samples from the tubewells contain arsenic at levels above the 0.01 mg/l WHO guideline for drinking-water, but also there were unsafe levels
of manganese, lead, nickel, and chromium. Numerous health effects have been identified among the local populations,
including chronic arsenic poisoning.14
The strong connection between arsenic in drinking-water and cancer is well known. It has been estimated that, in
Bangladesh, arsenic-related disease results in more than 9000 deaths and nearly 175 000 disability-adjusted life years
(DALYs) lost each year among those whose well water has an arsenic level above 50 g/l.15 Research has found
decreased intellectual function among 10-year-old children with high levels of arsenic in their drinking-water.16 It will
not be easy to address this problem. Provision of arsenic-free drinking water is important, but is difficult to achieve in
the absence of cheap and available alternative sources of clean water. 17
12
Takser L, Mergler D, Hellier G, Sahuquillo J, Huel G. Manganese, monoamine metabolite levels at birth, and child psychomotor
development. Neurotoxicology, 2003, 24: 667-674.
13
Rollin H et al.Blood manganese concentrations among first-grade schoolchildren in two South African cities. Environmental
Research, 2005, 97(1): 93-99.
14
Frisbie SH et al. The concentrations of arsenic and other toxic elements in Bangladesh's drinking water. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 2002, 110 (11): 1147-1153.
15
Lokuge KM et al. The effect of arsenic mitigation interventions on disease burden in Bangladesh. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 2004, 112(11): 1172-1177.
16
Wasserman GA et al. Water arsenic exposure and children's intellectual function in Araihazar, Bangladesh. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 2004, 112(13): 1329-1333.
17
Smith AH, Lingas EO, Rahman M. Contamination of drinking-water by arsenic in Bangladesh: a public health emergency. Bulletin
of the World Health Organization, 2000, 78: 1093-1103.
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Box 6: Pesticides
Pesticide poisoning is a significant problem in developing countries, and may result from accidental or
occupational exposure, or exposure to unused and discarded pesticides. Chronic exposure to low levels of
some pesticides can cause adverse health effects, such as impaired development of the nervous system,
compromised immune system, and cancer.
The extent of overexposure of poor agricultural workers around the world is unknown, but data from
Nicaragua give reason for concern that the problem is much more prevalent than is generally recognized.
Nicaragua has a regional pesticide poisoning registry, which in 1988 recorded 1143 cases of pesticide
poisoning. A research team surveyed 633 agricultural workers in the region. A large proportion – 83% –
were currently using pesticides; 25% had had symptoms of pesticide poisoning in the preceding 12 months
(11% in the prior month); and 48% reported ever having been made ill by pesticides. Although 23 of the
workers had received medical attention, only 8 of the cases had been reported to the registry. In all, some
6700 pesticide illnesses were estimated to have occurred in the region, of which 3300 were treated; 2100 of
these were not reported. This is almost two times the number reported. 18
Pesticide poisonings among poor agricultural workers in developing countries are both common and
significantly underestimated, even where reporting systems exist. A number of steps can be taken to prevent
such poisonings, including: (1) restricting the availability of highly hazardous pesticides, which are often
much cheaper than safer alternatives and therefore used more frequently by poor farmers; (2) providing
information and guidance on safer alternatives for pest management; (3) training workers and providing
information about risks and protective measures; and (4) addressing the lack of knowledge, will or
resources for institutional controls, such as protective clothing and equipment, appropriate pesticide
application practices and equipment, and worker re-entry intervals adequate to allow pesticide levels to
dissipate. The FAO International Code of Conduct for the Distribution and Use of Pesticides 19 clearly sets
out the responsibilities of the pesticide industry, governments and others in ensuring safety. However, it
does not provide a framework for implementing such efforts in the context of poverty reduction.
18
Keifer M et al. Estimating underreported pesticide poisonings in Nicaragua. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 1996,
30(2):195-201.
19
http://www.fao.org/waicent/FaoInfo/Agricult/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/p.htm
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Box 7: Persistent organic pollutants(pops)
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that persist in the environment and tend to
accumulate in the body fat of animals and humans. Some are highly toxic at very low concentrations. POPs
include pesticides, such as DDT, industrial chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which
are used, for example, in transformer oil, and by-products of industrial processes, such as dioxins. There is
significant concern that these chemicals could cause long-term health effects, such as reproductive and
neurological disorders.
In Kazakhstan, a former Soviet Union country in Central Asia, the population was found to have unusually
elevated levels of POPs and related health impacts, attributed to defoliants used on cotton, contamination
of fish in the Aral Sea and use of PCBs in industrialized areas as possible sources of exposures. 20 Overall,
beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (beta-HCH) levels were much higher than normal background levels in
Europe, with the highest levels found in rural areas. High levels of p,p′-DDE were also found in the rural
areas, suggesting that DDT had been used after it was banned in this region. Dioxin levels in breast milk in
southern Kazakhstan were also unusually high, with the highest levels being found in women who had
worked as cotton pickers and lived on cotton-growing farms.21 22
Children in Kazakhstan reportedly have high rates of mental impairment and delayed physical
development, as well as elevated rates of many diseases of childhood. Infant mortality is also high.
Respiratory and other infections are responsible for many deaths during infancy. 22 These children are
exposed to toxic chemicals in breast milk and foods, as well as suffering from other poverty-related health
hazards.
Box 8: Waste
Improper waste disposal can result in the release of hazardous chemicals into the environment. Chemicals,
such as PCBs, can seep from waste sites into soil and water. Open burning can release chemicals,
including dioxins, heavy metals and particulate matter, into the environment. These pose a potential risk to
human health, especially to those who live and scavenge in poor areas.
Throughout the world, communities involved in scavenging of wastes have high exposures to toxic
chemicals. At one waste dump in Bangkok, Thailand, approximately 400 people of all ages work on a daily
basis as scavengers. In the surrounding air, elevated levels were found of a number of chemicals, including
toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, xylene, methylene chloride, and methyl chloroform.23 These chemicals have
a variety of toxic effects, including cancer and damage to the nervous system.
Chemical risks can have a direct or indirect impact on poverty. For instance, exposure to lead and several
other compounds has been associated with impaired intellectual development; this, in turn, may be linked
with reduced economic potential and, thus, increased poverty. The protection of children from the adverse
effects of chemicals is particularly important. Their ability to escape hunger and poverty, through education
and work, depends on their health, which can be seriously threatened by exposure to toxic chemicals.
20
Zetterstrom R. Child health and environmental pollution in the Aral Sea region in Kazakhstan. Acta Paediatrica, 1999,
88(Suppl.):49-54.
21
Hooper K et al. Analysis of breast milk to assess exposure to chlorinated contaminants in Kazakstan: high levels of 2,3,7, 8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in agricultural villages of southern Kazakstan. Environmental Health Perspectives, 1998,
106:797-806.
22
Hooper K et al. Analysis of breast milk to assess exposure to chlorinated contaminants in Kazakhstan: sources of 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) exposures in an agricultural region of southern Kazakhstan. Environmental Health Perspectives,
1999, 107:447-457.
23
Kungskulniti N, Pulket C, Miller FD, Smith KR. Solid waste scavenger community: an investigation in Bangkok, Thailand. AsiaPacific Journal of Public Health, 1991, 5:54-65.
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The links between poverty and high contamination levels have been discussed in a report to the World
Bank.24 These links can occur at both the individual and the societal level. For instance, when benzidine
was phased out in developed countries, manufacture of benzidine dye was moved to developing countries. 25
Poor countries often have little choice but to accept such polluting industries, even though the processes
used may be inappropriate and hazardous, because of the economic benefits they bring. More recently,
concern has been expressed about the export of so-called “e-waste”, as a result of the disposal and recycling
of computers and other electronic equipment. Africa is suddenly on the receiving end of “tons of used
computers, fax machines, cell phones, and other electronics”. 26 It has been reported that “up to 75% of the
electronics shipped to Africa is junk”; if improperly dumped or burned, this material will increase
environmental contamination with toxic metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, and POPs, such as
dioxins and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.24
Thus, the potential socioeconomic impact and cost of toxic chemicals to society are large and are borne
disproportionately by poor communities. They include:

threats to indigenous practices;

increased health care costs;

decreased productivity;

environmental degradation and reduction of clean, safe, essential resources (i.e. food, water and
air);

impacts on those at the margins of society; and

impacts on vulnerable parts of the population, especially children, women, and the sick and
undernourished.
Systems for sound management of chemicals
Agenda 21 listed the following basic elements of national systems for the sound management of
chemicals:27
1.
adequate legislation;
2.
information gathering and dissemination;
3.
capacity for risk assessment and interpretation;
4.
establishment of risk management policy;
5.
capacity for implementation and enforcement;
6.
capacity for rehabilitation of contaminated sites and poisoned persons;
7.
effective education programmes;
8.
capacity to respond to emergencies.
Countries need to have the above elements in place in order to reduce risks associated with chemicals, and
thus contribute to reducing poverty. There is, however, no easy way to measure the effect of a chemicals
management initiative, project or programme on poverty. For the foreseeable future, indicators for
evaluation and monitoring will have to reflect the general effectiveness and sustainability of efforts on
24
Goldman L, Tran N. Preventable tragedies: the impact of toxic substances on the poor in developing countries. Washington, DC,
World Bank, 2002.
25
Woodward, R. and E. Clark, Voluntary cessation of manufacture of benzidine dyes. OECD Environmental Health and Safety, Series
on Risk Management, 1997(No. 7): p. 21-26.
26
Schmidt CW. Unfair trade: e-waste in Africa. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2006, 114(4):232-235.
27
Agenda 21: Chapter 19. Environmentally Sound Management Of Toxic Chemicals, Including Prevention Of Illegal International
Traffic In Toxic And Dangerous Products Programme Area E, Strengthening of national capabilities and capacities for management
of chemicals. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21chapter19.htm
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capabilities and capacities for chemicals management, and in the long term, reductions in exposure,
including overexposure and poisoning.
INTEGRATING THE SOUND MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS IN POVERTY
REDUCTION STRATEGIES
Challenges
Strategy and policy planners are generally unaware of, or do not acknowledge, the essential role of the
sound management of chemicals in the fight against poverty, especially in developing countries. In this way,
they neglect the important – negative and positive – potential impact of chemical use on sustainable
development and poverty reduction.
On the other hand, managers in the chemicals sector tend to view their activity in isolation, and often do not
identify potential synergies within different areas of development assistance. In many cases, specialists in
the chemicals sector are unaware of poverty reduction strategies, and have little opportunity to contribute to
their planning and implementation.
Typically, donors do not view chemical management as a stand-alone issue, but rather as an integral part of
environmental issues in general. In recent years, there has been increased recognition of the links between
poverty reduction and environmental protection. However, failure to refer specifically to the sound
management of chemicals means that it is not given the attention it merits. Where projects on chemical
issues are supported, these are generally planned and executed using a monosectoral approach, rather than
being treated as a multisectoral cross-cutting issue.
National planners and politicians tend to look at one sector at a time, often failing to recognize that
chemicals management issues can have an impact over a broad range of sectors. Consequently, they may
also fail to assess the full scope of the situation. Sound chemicals management will help progress towards
national development goals; conversely, poor chemicals management will hinder achievement of national
development goals. The participation of all stakeholders – including the poor communities themselves –is
critical for proper planning; unfortunately, public interest groups and nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) are often not sufficiently involved.
Need for guidance and studies
Countries often have difficulties in assessing the contribution of environmental protection measures in
reducing poverty and fostering progress towards the Millennium Development Goals. 28 Priorities in aid
programmes are usually basic necessities, such as food, water, shelter, medical care, and sustainable
livelihoods; chemical issues are generally not identified or linked with these priorities. Further analysis is
needed to understand the concrete impact of chemicals in different sectors. There are currently few
examples of how the integration of sound management of chemicals can be beneficial to poverty reduction
and development assistance, and more data are needed.
A systematic evaluation of national poverty reduction strategy papers and development assistance strategies,
programmes and projects could identify elements where chemicals management is an issue. The following
are some examples:

Technical assistance for development of hospital infrastructure should include measures to reduce
hospital waste to a minimum and to dispose of remaining waste in an environmentally sound
manner, avoiding, for instance, uncontrolled burning, which can result in high emissions of
dioxins and mercury.
28
See Assessing environment’s contribution to poverty reduction. New York, United Nations Development Programme, 2005.
http://www.povertyenvironment.net/pep/?q=assessing_environment_s_contribution_to_poverty_reduction
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
Strategies to improve food security and modern agricultural techniques often involve use of
pesticides and fertilizers; these strategies need to incorporate measures to reduce the hazards
associated with these chemicals. As noted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD), sustainable agriculture programmes should be assisted, promoted and developed within
national agricultural development programmes.

Policies aimed at liberalizing input supply markets should also contain elements to prevent the
proliferation of illicit pesticides and other hazardous substances that pose a health risk.

New chemical industrial infrastructure needs to incorporate measures to prevent and control
environmental pollution, to avoid unintentional chemical releases, to protect workers involved in
the manufacture and use of chemicals, and to minimize hazards associated with production and
disposal of wastes. Community participation, with involvement of representatives of the poor and
of NGOs should be an integral part of the planning process for such decisions. This is in line with
Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development that “each individual shall
have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public
authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and
the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes”.29

Environmental impact studies should be carried out for all new chemical facilities, consistent with
the statement in Chapter 8 of Agenda 21, that environmental considerations should be integrated
into decision-making.30
Analysis of the life-cycle of chemicals involved in the implementation of other sector policies, strategies or
programmes could identify other relevant areas for intervention.
Possible synergies in the implementation of different multilateral environmental agreements could be
systematically identified and documented in project proposals, e.g. strengthening of import/export control
of chemicals, to include all chemicals and toxic wastes and not just those specified in the Rotterdam
Convention. This would support the build-up of a comprehensive border control and registration scheme
for all toxic substances.
Box 9: Grassroots experiences in sustainable and alternative farming practices
In Bangladesh, Nayakrishi Andolon (New Agriculture Movement) promotes community-based organic
farming. The movement evolved from grassroots experiences of worsening health and environmental
impacts from use of agrochemicals (particularly pesticides) and other aspects of modern agriculture.
Farmers collaborated to experiment with alternatives to agrochemicals, using traditional and locally
available materials. Integral to the movement are the ”village workers”, mostly women farmers, who
mobilize and train other farmers in their villages. This approach not only responds to the potential hazards
of agricultural chemicals but also empowers rural communities and enhances social relations. More than
200 000 farmers are currently participating in Nayakrishi Andolon.31
FURTHER ACTION NEEDED
Over the years, much experience has accumulated on how to integrate the goals and actions of poverty
reduction with sustainable development strategies. There is a general understanding that such integration
results in beneficial synergies; conversely, non-integration increases the risk of not achieving the goals.
Countries should therefore benefit from "mainstreaming" chemicals management issues in poverty
reduction strategies and programmes.
29
Rio Declaration On Environment And Development http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm
Agenda 21: Chapter 8. Integrating Environment And Development In Decision-Making
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21chapter8.htm
31
K. Prabhakar (editor), Past Roots, Future of Foods: Ecological Farming Experiences and Innovations in Four Asian Countries,
PAN AP, Penang, Malaysia, March 2003, pages 39 ff.
30
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In general, links are still weak. Developing countries, donors, intergovernmental organizations and the
private sector have a shared responsibility to promote integration. All these actors need to increase their
efforts to improve the management of chemicals in the context of reducing poverty and hunger.
The questions raised in the following sections are intended to stimulate discussions on what can and should
be done to overcome the current weaknesses.
Countries
Developing countries need to have “ownership” of the processes of planning, updating and implementing
strategies for poverty reduction or the sound management of chemicals.
o
What needs to be done to support countries in seeking synergies between the two areas?
o
What practical steps should be taken to promote an exchange of insights, knowledge and
experiences between strategic planners and technical experts in chemicals management and those
in other important sectors of sustainable development?
o
What concrete steps can be taken to make sure that social and economic goals and strategies
incorporate the sound management of chemicals?
National experts in chemicals management need a better understanding of poverty reduction policies and
the possible impact of chemicals management on these policies and interventions.
o
What practical measures and tools can help chemicals management experts to contribute to general
policies and strategies, and to provide sound analysis of aspects of chemicals management that are
crucial to social and economic development?
o
What tools or standard procedures are needed to make sure that the potential positive and negative
impacts of chemicals on poverty reduction efforts in a given country are identified?
Donors and intergovernmental organizations
The existing multilateral agreements and declarations on management of chemicals, including the SAICM,
represent a commitment by donors and intergovernmental organizations to integrate the sound management
of chemicals in their development assistance.
o
What further concrete steps could donors and intergovernmental organizations take to ensure that
this is done?
o
What elements need to be incorporated into projects and initiatives of the SAICM Quick Start
Programme 32 to ensure that they are linked to projects and programmes dedicated to reducing
poverty?
Tools and procedures are needed to identify the possible positive and negative impacts of chemicals
management in the context of poverty reduction strategies.
32
o
What tools and procedures would be most effective?
o
What is needed as practical orientation for identifying this impact?
o
How can existing best practices be used?
o
How can the lack of concrete data on the long-term positive and negative economic impact of the
management of chemicals be overcome?
http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/qsp.htm
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The SAICM secretariat
The SAICM secretariat supports the implementation of the sound management of chemicals in developing
countries (Overarching Policy Strategy, Section VII: Implementation and Taking Stock of Progress 33). The
secretariat will provide guidance on how to implement SAICM in development cooperation, especially as
part of poverty reduction strategies.
o
What other guidance should be provided by the SAICM secretariat?
o
How can partnerships be created to implement such guidance?
o
How should the SAICM secretariat contribute to other initiatives, such as the OECD Framework
for Common Action Around Shared Goals?
Private sector
The private sector has a pivotal role in economic development and is an important actor for improving the
management of chemicals. As a consequence, it is an important stakeholder in national strategies to fight
poverty.
At the global level, the International Chemical Council Association's Responsible Care© programme34 sets
out a voluntary framework for promotion of sustainability within the chemical industry. This includes a
number of clear expectations regarding the environmental behaviour of chemical companies in developing
countries, and requirements for ensuring responsible product stewardship along the chemical supply chain.
The framework is a clear indication of the industry’s commitments.
o
What can be done in countries to ensure that these commitments are honoured?
o
What should be done to stimulate the development and use of products and processes that reduce
risks?
As the private sector assumes increasing importance in donor strategies, it is evident that both parties need
to determine how to maximize the benefits of private sector engagement in technical assistance strategies in
the area of chemicals management and poverty reduction.
o
What steps can be taken to encourage the private sector to engage more fully in development
efforts?
Communities and NGOs
Individuals and communities can play a critical role in developing safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals;
they need to be empowered to participate in decision-making processes and to become more informed
about chemicals in general. In particular, poor and marginalized groups, and their representatives, should
play an important role in decisions on chemical management, since they suffer disproportionately from any
associated hazards.
o
How can the role of individuals and their representatives in the development of chemicals
infrastructure and the management of chemicals be strengthened?
EXAMPLES OF ACTIONS TAKEN OR PLANNED
There have already been some efforts to prepare guidance on how to link the sound management of
chemicals to poverty reduction and development assistance in general.
33
Report of the International Conference on Chemicals Management on the work of its first session
http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/iccm_sec.htm .
34
http://www.icca-chem.org/section02a.html
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o
Following the adoption of the Framework for Common Action Around Shared Goals, the OECD is
publishing Guidelines for Applying Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) to Development Cooperation. 35 The paper gives guidance on integrating environmental issues into sustainable
development work. It also addresses chemicals issues, although the sound management of chemicals is
not dealt with in detail.
o
Recently, the World Bank published an information paper, Opportunities for integrating sound
chemicals management into development planning 36 . This document comprehensively analyses the
background of integrating these issues and gives detailed information and recommendations for
planning.
o
UNDP is developing guidelines for country teams on integrating the sound management of chemicals
in the development agenda. The guidelines are expected by the end of 2006.
These examples demonstrate that efforts are under way for a better linkage of chemicals management and
poverty reduction. Nevertheless, more and comprehensive efforts are needed in order to clarify further the
role of chemicals in poverty reduction.
35
The guidelines are currently in press. A brochure, Applying strategic environmental assessment in development cooperation, which
summarizes the key messages, has already been published.
http://www.oecd.org/department/0,2688,en_2649_34421_1_1_1_1_1,00.html
36
Opportunities for integrating sound chemicals management into development planning - An Information Paper, The World Bank,
Washington, USA, January 2006
18