Syntax
Slide
Chapter 5 Exx: 2, 3, 4, 9, 11 (Give surface and deep structure for
11 – no trees)
Problem Set 4
Goals for syntax chapter
 Not responsible for Section 4 (Verb raising) or how to do passive
sentences
 You should know how to do the following:
 identify the lexical/syntactic category of word
 construct phrases and simple sentences and sentences with embedded
sentences (draw trees for these structures)
 apply different movement operations to derive surface structure forms
from deep structure
Syntax
Slide 1
Syntax
 The part of the grammar that combines words into sentences
 The study of the system of rules and categories that underlies sentence
formation.
The goal of syntax is to come up with universal principles (Universal
Grammar) that describes all languages phrase formation procedures
Syntax is responsible for the hierarchical structure of phrases and their
creation
Syntax
Slide 2
Syntax
 Syntactic Categories
 Lexical categories: Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Preposition (P) and
Adverb (Adv)
 Nonlexical Categories: Determiner (Det); Auxiliary Verb (Aux) - Modal and
Nonmodal; Conjunction (Con); Degree word (Deg)
 Table 5.1, p. 153
 Harder to define nonlexical words (the or so compared to hill or book)
 Some words can belong to more than one category - examples? like/fond
Syntax
Slide 3
Syntax
Syntax
Slide 4
Syntax
Lexical:
words that have semantic content
words that can be inflected
an open class to which new
members can be added
includes nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs and prepositions
Nonlexical:
words that have gramatical function
words that do not have morphology
words that resist change
a closed class to which new
members are not added
includes determiners, auxiliary
verbs, degree words, qualifiers,
pronouns, conjunctions,
complementizers, and particles
Syntax
Slide 5
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category - MEANING
Noun = person, place or thing (Jeff, classroom, book)
Verb = action, sensation, state of being (run, loves, sees, be)
Adjective = describes a noun (green, ugly)
Adverb = describes a verb (quickly, slowly)
Preposition = describes physical location (to, for, from, on, in)
Syntax
Slide 6
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – INFLECTION TEST
Only certain inflectional suffixes attach to certain lexical categories
There are some words that belong to these syntactic categories that do not
take these suffixes (*funner, *intelligenter)
Category
Inflectional Affix
Examples
N (Noun)
plural -s
books, chairs, doctors
possessive -’s
John’s, (the) man’s
past tense -ed
arrived, melted, hopped
progressive -ing
arriving, melting, hopping
3rd person sing. -s
arrives, melts, hops
comparative -er
taller, faster, smarter
superlative -est
tallest, fastest, smartest
V (Verb)
A (Adjective)
Syntax
Slide 7
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – DISTRIBUTION - SPECIFIERS
Determiner = specifies a noun (the, a, these, that)
Adverbs = specifies a verb (always, often, never)
Degree = specifies an adjective or preposition (very, quite, really)
So you can tell a N if it can occur after a Det
A V can occur with an Aux verb
An Adjective with a degree word
Syntax
Slide 8
Syntax
Noun phrases (NP)
presidents - contains only the head noun
the presidents - contains a specifier and head noun
presidents of the USA - contains the head N and a complement
prepositional phrase
the presidents of the USA - contains a specifier, head N, complement PP
The complement PP of the USA contains the head P of and a complement
NP. The NP the USA contains the specifier and head N
Syntax
Slide 9
Syntax
Verb Phrases (VP)
sings - contains only the head verb
often sings - contains a specifier and head verb
sings a ballad - contains the head V and a complement NP
often sings a ballad - contains a specifier, head V, complement NP
The complement NP a ballad contains the head N ballad and specifier a.
Syntax
Slide 10
Syntax
Adjective Phrases (AP)
happy - contains only the head adjective (A)
very happy - contains a specifier and head A
happy with the results - contains the head A and a complement PP
very happy with the results - contains a specifier, head A, complement PP
The complement PP with the results contains the head P and complement
NP the results. The NP contains specifier and head N.
Syntax
Slide 11
Syntax
Prepositional Phrases (PP)
in - contains only the head preposition (P)
almost in - contains a specifier and head P
in the car - contains the head P and a complement NP
almost in the car - contains a specifier, head P, complement NP
The complement NP the car contains the head N and specifier.
Syntax
Slide 12
Syntax
Phrase structure rules
The preceding examples show that any given phrase can be composed of a
mandatory head and optional complement and optional specifier. This is
written as:
XP  (Spec) X (Comp)
The optional components are written in ()s.
From previous examples we have the following:
NP  (Det) N (PP)
AP  (Deg) A (PP)
VP  (Adv) V (NP)
PP  (Deg) P (NP)
Can you think of any other possibilities?
Syntax
Slide 13
Syntax
 Phrase Structure - units of words, but not sentences = phrases
 Each phrase consists of the head, a specifier and a complement
 The way the book groups phrases is called X' (X bar) where X stands for
whatever category you’re dealing with (Noun, Verb, etc)
XP
X'
(Specifier)
X
head
(Complement)
Syntax
Slide 14
Syntax
 Phrase Structure
 The heads of a phrase are mandatory
NP
N′
N
dog
Syntax
Slide 15
Syntax
 Phrase Structure
 Specifiers can occur before the head (in English) and are optional
NP
N′
Det
N
the
dog
Syntax
Slide 16
Syntax
 Phrase Structure
 Complements can occur after the head (in English) and are optional
NP
N′
Det
N
PP
the
dog
in the house
s are only used when it is not necessary
to show the internal structure of that phrase.
Assume that it is NOT OK to use s.
Syntax
Slide 17
Syntax
 Phrase Structure Rules
 XP  (specifier) X (complement)*
NP
N′
Det
N
PP
the
dog
in the house
Syntax
Slide 18
Syntax
 Phrase Structure Rules
 AP  Deg A
AP
A′
Deg
A
quite
happy
Syntax
Slide 19
Syntax
 Phrase Structure Rules
 VP  Adv V
VP
V′
Adv
V
always
eats
Syntax
Slide 20
Syntax
 Phrase Structure Rules
 PP  P NP
PP
P′
P
on
NP
Det
N'
the
N
couch
Syntax
Slide 21
VP
Syntax
V′
Adv
V
always
eats
 VP  Deg V PP; PP  P NP
PP
P′
MERGE
P
on
NP
Det
N'
the
N
couch
Syntax
Slide 22
VP
Syntax
 VP  Deg V PP; PP  P NP
V'
Adv
V
always
eats
PP
P'
P
on
NP
Det
N'
the
N
couch
Syntax
Slide 23
Simple sentences
The sentence or IP is the highest level in the sentence structure.
These elements are mandatory for an English Sentence.
IP  NP (subject ) I’ (inflection)
I’  I VP (predicate)
I  + or - Past and/or a Modal
Lines will never intersect
NP to the left
VP to the right
Syntax
Slide 24
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 1 - assign each word to the appropriate category.
Syntax
Slide 25
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 2 – working from right to left (for English), write the
appropriate phrasal structure. Specifiers go directly to XP level.
Syntax
Slide 26
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 3 – There is no complement for the NP that man so move on to the
previous VP. The NP is a complement for the VP so attach the NP to V′
Syntax
Slide 27
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 4 – The VP is not a complement of the NP. Draw the final
NP.
Syntax
Slide 28
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
• Step 5 – Connect the predicate VP and the subject NP as the
complement and specifier (respectively) of IP
Syntax
Slide 29
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students hated the book
Det
N
The
students
V
Det
N
hated the textbook
Syntax
Slide 30
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students hated the book
NP
N'
Det
N
The
students
V
Det
N
hated the textbook
Syntax
Slide 31
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students hated the book
VP
V'
NP
N'
Det
N
The
students
V
Det
N
hated the textbook
Syntax
Slide 32
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students hated the book
IP
I'
VP
V'
NP
N'
Det
N
The
students
I
+Pst
V
Det
N
hated the textbook
Syntax
Slide 33
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students hated the book
IP
I'
NP
VP
N'
V'
NP
N'
Det
N
The
students
I
+Pst
V
Det
N
hated the textbook
Syntax
Slide 34
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The students will hate the book
IP
I'
NP
VP
N'
V'
NP
N'
Det
The
I
- Pst
V
students will
hate
N
Det
N
the textbook
Syntax
Slide 35
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The housewives kept the secrets
IP
I'
NP
VP
N'
V'
NP
N'
Det
N
The housewives
I
+Pst
V
Det
kept
the
N
secrets
Syntax
Slide 36
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection)
with VP as a complement: The housewives can keep the secrets
IP
I'
NP
VP
N'
V'
NP
N'
Det
N
I
- Pst
The housewives can
V
keep
Det
N
the secrets
Syntax
Slide 37
Subcategorization
Fancy term for what complements any XP can or must take
Verbs that can take a complement are transitive (eat, read, look) She read a book
Verbs that do not are intransitive (sleep, lie, laugh) He slept
See Table 5.5, p. 163 for what complements certain verbs can take
Syntax
Slide 38
Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Think about this sentence
I wonder if she will take the test.
How do we incorporate the second sentence: she will take the test?
This second sentence (called a complement clause or CP) is serving as the
complement of the V wonder
Like all other syntactic structures, CPs consist of: CP  C ' and C '  C IP
Words such as that, whether and if are known as complementizers (C).
The specifier position is open for Move operations (discussed later)
Matrix clauses are the largest clause that contain the CP(s)
[I wonder [if she will take the test.]]
Syntax
Slide 39
Example of a complement clause
Syntax
Slide 40
Example of a complement clause
Syntax
Slide 41
A Bit Theoretically Bizarre
If we want to keep the structures the same
for the theory, then it is posited that all
IPs are actually CPs with or without a
C (like we have I whether or not it
actually gets filled with a surface
form).
Syntax
Slide 42
Questions?
Following our rules for sentence structure how do we
account for questions?
Is the man intelligent?
Can you come to dinner?
In the first example, there is no NP to the left of the IP
and in the second, the modal is before the subject.
To explain this we will use the theory of:
Deep Structure.
Syntax
Slide 43
Deep Structure
Accounting for sentences such as questions and passives with
a new set of rules would be messy.
Transformational grammar accounts for the differences with
transformations (move). All sentences in deep structure
(before the move) will follow our previous phrasal rules.
How do we know deep structure exists?
Syntax
Slide 44
Arguments for Deep Structure
What will you say?
In this sentence What is functioning as the object of the
sentence.
This can be demonstrated by trying to add an object after the
verb.
* What will you say goodbye.
In this sentence, the verb requires an object, so omitting it in
the non-question form does not work
* You will say
Syntax
Slide 45
Arguments for Deep Structure
Deep structure for this sentence is
You will say what?
To arrive at deep structure
Merge -> Deep Structure
Deep Structure -> Move
Surface structure
Surface structure trees must show traces of units original
position.
Syntax
Slide 46
D-Structure and S-Structure
Syntax
Slide 47
Movement
2 types of movement:
Inversion (yes/no question)
That guy should eat an apple  Should that guy t eat an apple?
Wh- Movement + Inversion
the students should read what for class  What should the students t read t for class?
Syntax
Slide 48
Movement - Inversion
CP
C'
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
VP
V'
N'
Det
that
I
N
-pst
student should
V
study
Syntax
Slide 49
Movement - Inversion
CP
C'
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
VP
V'
N'
I
-pst
Det
should that
I
N
-pst
V
student
t
study
Syntax
Slide 50
Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
CP
C'
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
VP
V'
N'
Det
that
I
N
+pst
student
did
V
studied
study
Syntax
Slide 51
Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
CP
C'
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
VP
V'
N'
I
+pst
Det
did that
I
N
+pst
V
student
t
study
Syntax
Slide 52
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
C'
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
VP
V'
N'
Det
that
I
N
-pst
V
student should study
NP
N'
N
syntax
Syntax
Slide 53
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
C'
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
VP
V'
N'
I
-pst
Det
should that
I
N
-pst
V
NP
student
t
study
N'
N
syntax
Syntax
Slide 54
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
C'
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
VP
V'
N'
I
-pst
Det
should that
I
N
-pst
V
student
t
study
NP
N'
N
what
Syntax
Slide 55
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
CP
C'
NP
C
IP
+Q
I'
NP
N'
what
V'
N'
I
N
VP
-pst
Det
should that
I
N
-pst
V
student
t
study
NP
N'
N
t
Syntax
Slide 56
Practice Identifying D-Structure & S-Structure
In order to get the deep structure from the surface structure, follow these steps:
YOU SEE:
YOU THINK:
YOU DO:
A modal auxiliary verb
ahead of the subject.
Inversion has taken
place.
Put the modal aux back into its deep
structure position in I.
A wh word or phrase.
Wh Movement had
taken place.
Examine each verb in the sentence.
Determine if a verb is missing either
subject or an object, and put the wh
word or phrase into that position.
Examine each preposition in the
sentence. Determine if a preposition
is missing an object. Put the wh word
or phrase into that position.
Syntax
Slide 57
Structural Ambiguity
We have been presenting different phrase structure trees to show the
hierarchy and relationship of the different phrases in a sentence. What
happens when the difference in the relationship of these phrases also
causes a difference in the meaning/interpretation of a sentence?
When there are two or more interpretations of one sentence with the exact
same words in the exact same order, we call this structural ambiguity
(discussed in your text in Chapter 6, section 3.2).
Syntax
Slide 58
Structural Ambiguity
For example: Sam ate the cake in the kitchen. (See handout for answers)
What are the 2 meanings? What is the relationship between the phrases
in the sentence (what modifies what?)
Interpretation 1: Sam ate the cake that was in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the N cake
Interpretation 2: Sam was eating the cake in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the V ate
Syntax
Practice 1
Syntax Practice
For each of the following phrases, determine the head of the phrase, any
specifiers, and any complements.
Head
Specifier Complement
the rat
rat
the
in the barn
in
very small
small
very
awfully cute
cute
awfully
swept the floor
swept
the poem about love
poem
the barn
the floor
the
about love
Syntax
Practice 2
Syntax Practice

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Draw phrase structure trees for the following:
the rat
men
in the barn
really mean
ran
ran into the shed
rather boring
hate those pancakes
the denial of the accusation
Syntax
Practice 3
Syntax Practice
Simple sentences
Practice drawing trees for the following sentences
•
Dogs should always go for a walk.
•
Those monsters were hiding under the bed.
•
Abner concealed the document.
•
Marge usually watches the sunset.
•
The children are playing with a dinosaur.
Syntax
Practice 4
Syntax Practice
Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Identify the CP (Complement Phrase) in the following matrix sentences. Put a
bracket around the CP.
1.) The teacher hopes [that the students will study hard].
2.) The janitor wondered [if the floor would stay clean].
3.) The floor knew [that it would not stay clean].
Syntax
Practice 5
Syntax Practice
Practice Drawing D-Structure & S-Structure
Can a dog bark?
Will the students be bored?
Will the trip be enjoyable?
Who can see the shore?
Syntax
Practice 6
Syntax Practice
Deep structure  Surface structure
Can a dog bark?
a dog can bark  can a dog t bark
Will the students be bored?
the students will be bored  will the students t be bored
Will the trip be enjoyable?
the trip will be enjoyable  will the trip t be enjoyable
Who can see the shore?
who can see the shore  who t can see the shore