EMOTIONAL HEALTH AND PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH
CELEBRITIES
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Social Work
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
by
Megan Marie Daniel
SPRING
2012
© 2012
Megan Marie Daniel
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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EMOTIONAL HEALTH AND PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH
CELEBRITIES
A Project
by
Megan Marie Daniel
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Maria Dinis Ph.D., MSW
____________________________
Date
iii
Student: Megan Marie Daniel
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the Project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Dale Russell, Ed.D., LCSW
Division of Social Work
iv
________________
Date
Abstract
of
EMOTIONAL HEALTH AND PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH
CELEBRITIES
by
Megan Marie Daniel
Many people who struggle with emotional health utilize media as a coping method. This
study explored emotional health (loneliness) and parasocial relationships with celebrities
and other media figures. An exploratory quantitative survey research design was used to
gather information from 46 college students. The sampling method was a non-probability
convenience sample.
Statistically significant relationships were found in chi-square
analyses between gender and frequency of celebrity encounters. Most respondents
reported increased parasocial activity in presence of unmet relational needs. Respondents
who identified as not white also reported increased parasocial interaction. Findings
suggest that the presence of unmet relational needs may play a role in the propensity to
engage in parasocial behavior. Future research is important to understanding parasocial
interaction with respect to age, race and emotional health. Implications for multi-level
social work practice are discussed.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Maria Dinis Ph.D., MSW
_______________________
Date
v
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this project to my Grandmother, Martha J. Morgan who has
inspired me to push myself even when I was ready to give up. Without you I would
never have made it this far. Because you were, I am. Thank you for making me better
every single day. I love you.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................... 4
Statement of the Research Problem....................................................................... 7
Purpose of the Study.............................................................................................. 8
Research Question ................................................................................................. 9
Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................... 9
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................. 13
Assumptions ........................................................................................................ 13
Justification ......................................................................................................... 14
Delimitations ....................................................................................................... 15
Summary ............................................................................................................. 16
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .............................................................................. 17
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 17
Historical Background ......................................................................................... 18
Loneliness and the Need to Belong: An Overview ............................................. 21
vii
Parasocial Relationships and Imaginary Social Worlds ...................................... 23
Characteristics of People Involved in Parasocial Relationships ......................... 27
Identification ....................................................................................................... 28
Attachment Theory Explained: A Theoretical Connection ................................ 31
Attachment, Parasocial Relationships and Loneliness ........................................ 35
Gaps in the Literature .......................................................................................... 39
Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 41
3. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 42
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 42
Research Question ............................................................................................... 42
Research Design .................................................................................................. 42
Variables .............................................................................................................. 45
Study Population ................................................................................................. 45
Sample Population ............................................................................................... 46
Instrumentation .................................................................................................... 46
Data Gathering Procedures .................................................................................. 48
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 49
Protection of Human Subjects ............................................................................. 49
Summary ............................................................................................................. 50
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4. DATA ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................... 52
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 52
Research Question ............................................................................................... 52
Survey Respondents ............................................................................................ 52
Dependent Variable ............................................................................................. 53
Independent Variables ......................................................................................... 53
Summary ............................................................................................................. 63
5. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................... 65
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 65
Summary ............................................................................................................. 65
Discussion ........................................................................................................... 66
Limitations........................................................................................................... 70
Implications for Social Work Practice and Policy .............................................. 71
Recommendations ............................................................................................... 73
Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 75
Appendix A. Consent to Participate in Research .............................................................. 77
Appendix B. Survey Instrument ....................................................................................... 80
References ......................................................................................................................... 84
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Table 4.1 Age and comfort with celebrities .................................................................. 54
2. Table 4.2 Gender and frequency of celebrity encounters ............................................. 55
3. Table 4.3 Race and making remarks to celebrities on television .................................. 57
4. Table 4.4 Feeling “in tune” and feeling a part of a celebrities world ........................... 58
5. Table 4.5 Feeling alone and feeling a part of a celebrity’s world ................................. 59
6. Table 4.6 Feeling close to people and celebrity emotionality ...................................... 61
7. Table 4.7 Having people in one’s life and frequency of celebrity encounters ............. 63
8. Table 4.8 Companionship and making remarks to celebrities on television ................ 64
x
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
When Kim Kardashian got married the world stopped to watch. Millions of
people (including the researcher) tuned in to watch Kim’s Fairytale Wedding on E
Entertainment Television. For weeks leading up to the event, TV media shows,
magazines, message boards, blogs, Tweets and Facebook status updates writhed with
anticipation. It was as though the entire country was personally invited to the wedding as
guests. The wedding was to be bigger than the royal wedding between Will and Kate,
Diana and Charles, and Grace and Rainier combined. Over eight million people tuned in
to watch Kim walk down the aisle in what would be a two day television event. Kim
Kardashian was the American version of the Dutchess of Cambridge (USA Today, 2011).
It was during this time the researcher began to develop what would become the
main questions surrounding this study. Why did society feel so passionately for Kim
Kardashian without having ever met her? More importantly, what causes this one sided
affection and where does it come from? It is virtually possible to be a person living in
American society without encountering media culture in some way, but upon closer
examination, it seemed that some people were much more submerged into celebrity
culture than others. It stands to reason that there must be some key differences between
individuals who are not enveloped in this celebrity social world, and those who are.
2
The tendency to have an affinity towards or affection for a celebrity is not
uncommon, especially amongst younger people. As long as there have been celebrities,
there has of course been fandom. In a general sense, we may be compelled to encourage
fandom as a relatively normal and healthy activity in relation to one’s stage of
development. Popular media is interwoven both throughout the life course and
throughout life transitions. It provides normatively appropriate aged based activities
which define in large part, the intergenerational divide. In short, being a fan can be good
for you because it can foster a sense of identification with one’s generation, can facilitate
feelings of belongingness and self-esteem, and can help transition into more mature
stages of life (Harrington & Bielby, 2010). However, celebrity identification may serve a
deeper purpose on the individual level.
The writer became interested in parasocial relationships through observing the
climate of popular culture in the summer of 2011. At the fevered pitch of America’s
fascination with the Royal Wedding and the anticipation of the Kardashian Wedding, the
author observed that the preoccupation with the lives of Kim Kardashian and Kate
Middleton seemed to extend beyond general interest. People wanted to look, talk, speak
and be just like them. When Kate Middleton wore a dress, it immediately sold out in
stores. When the writer logged onto Facebook, status messages reflected a longing to
have a fairytale romance just like Kim and Chris expressing how Kim would make an
ideal best friend. The writer began to notice that what would ordinarily be a fascination
with the glitz and glamour of celebrity nuptials for some was an almost vicarious
3
experience for others. Some people seemed to care very little about the goings on in the
lives of the famous, while others seemed to thrive on learning intricate details about their
favorite celebrity, and in fact seemed to identify with them. The author began to wonder
what factors constituted this difference in affect towards celebrities, and became curious
about how these one-sided relationships come about as well as what purpose they might
serve in helping people frame themselves.
Further study is needed into the ways in which people engage with celebrities, as
these public figures are representations of the larger context of popular culture in which
we live. The clients we serve as social workers live (as we do) in this cultural world, and
are therefore forced to make their own meanings out of the images and stories of popular
culture. These meanings no doubt have implications for the attitudes and behaviors of
the people we serve. They may also affect the subsequent self-concept and self-esteem of
clients as they compare their own lives with those of the celebrities they encounter. The
writer’s findings may contribute to the field of social work because it honors the social
work ethical principle of competence which encourages increased proficiency in
professional skills and knowledge, which can then be applied to practice. This study will
hopefully increase the competence of social worker as they learn more about the social
world in which their client’s live. The hope is that this study will also help social
workers gain insight into a largely unstudied mechanism through which people cope with
loneliness: media consumption. Because the greatest prevalence of one of the most
important by-products of loneliness (depression) tends to be amongst poor and minority
4
populations, social workers can therefore gain a richer understanding of the ecological
world of clients, specifically with respect to the most vulnerable populations.
Background of the Problem
Mental and Physical Health. American’s spend a great deal of time consuming
media. The average American spends 140 hours per month watching television—about a
fifth of their lives (Nielsen, 2011). As technology improves, Americans are better able to
access television away from home and at their convenience. For example, the availability
of DVR (digital video recorders) and mobile phones that can access the internet or
television programs has made media literally at one’s fingertips. In the first quarter of
2009 alone, thirteen million American got their media through mobile viewing and
watched over eight hours of DVR recorded shows (The Nielsen Company, 2009).
According to the World Bank World Development Indicators report in 2009, 78.1 % of
the American population uses the internet, as opposed to 36.6% ten years prior.
Furthermore, 32% of people who use social media follow a celebrity (Nielsen, 2011).
Loneliness in the United States is viewed largely as a growing epidemic because
of the debilitating effects it has on the physical and psychological health of individuals.
Perceived social connectedness decreases the level of autonomic activities such as lower
resting blood pressure, increases immunoservailance (cells that monitor and fight
disease), and lowers levels of stress hormones. Conversely, low perceived social support
is associated with increased heart disease, body mass index, smoking, drinking and
5
metabolic rate. Social isolation is also a good predictor of morbidity and mortality from
cancer and cardiovascular disease (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2003).
However the implications loneliness has for mental health are also staggering. To
admit that one is lonely in itself is a taboo in modern society (Killeen, 1998). Loneliness
can be devastating; it can make one feel hopeless, useless, and without purpose.
Furthermore, it can result in desperate attempts to fill the void of closeness, sometimes in
non-constructive ways. Research of characteristics of the lonely indicate that the
loneliest people often believe they are self-absorbed and self-centered. Lonely people
were also found to have a general negative view of the world (Kileen, 1998). Thus,
loneliness can in many cases lead to depression, even after controlling for a wide range of
demographic and psychosocial variables. Working in tandem with depressive symptoms,
loneliness can lead to many of the aforementioned health risks which can diminish the
welfare of an individual over the lifespan (Cacioppo et al., 2006).
The populations most affected by loneliness are young adults and the recently
divorced (Rubenstein, Shaver & Peplau, 1979). This is because young adults tend to be
unattached, longing for that “one special person,” and are generally more likely to feel
alienated. They also tend to feel as if they are not understood or not needed.
(Rubenstein, Shaver & Peplau, 1979). Media consumption is a popular means of coping
with the hopelessness of loneliness. Media consumption (watching television, using
computers etc.) is identified as “sad passivity” and is associated with the loneliest and
most depressed young individuals. More vigorous coping strategies such as exercise,
6
hobbies and writing are associated with more minimal degrees of loneliness (Rubenstein,
Shaver & Peplau, 1979). People in this population are also the most likely to consume
media. Simultaneously, television households are at an all-time high, with young adults
(18-49) continuing to be the highest media consumers with respect to television (Neilsen,
2011).
Racial and Ethnic Considerations. Being a minority and being poor are the
strongest indicators for the prevalence of depressed symptoms (Riolo et al., 2005).
African Americans and Mexican Americans are more likely to be chronically dysphoric
over the course of the lifespan (Riolo et al., 2005). Furthermore, low socio-economic
status is associated with higher levels of depression. This is because low socio-economic
status, paired with the stressors of poverty and financial strain work in tandem to result in
increased risk of depressive symptoms (Lorant et al 2007). Persons living in poverty are
1.5 times more likely to have Major Depressive Disorder; largely the same cohort of
persons with lower socio-economic status (households making $20,000) who have been
reported to consume media at a rate almost double that of those in the middle class
(households making $60,000) (Nielsen, 2011).
Minority and socio-economic status are also predictors of the likelihood of media
consumption (Nielsen, 2011). With respect to diversity, racial and ethnic minorities,
specifically African-Americans and Hispanics, are more likely to consume media
compared to the general population. According to the Neilsen Television Audience
Report (2011), Blacks and Hispanics have higher tuning levels than the composite of the
7
entire population, with 79 and 60 hours per year respectively, as opposed to 59 hours
compositely.
Statement of the Research Problem
This study will investigate which aspects of loneliness are most associated with
increased parasocial interaction with celebrities and other media figures. Loneliness is a
condition that can affect both the social and psychological wellbeing of the individual.
Because loneliness is a multi-faceted phenomenon, it can be argued that specific
characteristics of feeling lonely (for example, feelings of depression and social
disconnection) are the facets that can have the deepest impact. People develop methods
of coping to alleviate the pain of loneliness, including consuming popular media.
Though media provides a degree of escapism for the consumer; a way to forget life
problems, at least for a short time, the relationship between viewers and the media
characters they encounter has been largely unstudied. Also unstudied are the benefits of
such relationships. Are parasocial relationships with celebrities providing lonely people
with the intimacy of friendship, love or companionship they are unable to obtain in the
real world? Are lonely individuals more likely to find meaningful identity in parasocial
relationships? These questions must first be answered before a judgment on the value of
these relationships can be made.
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Purpose of the Study
An exploratory study by design, this study’s purpose will serve to identify the
degree to which emotional health (loneliness) and parasocial relationships are associated.
The aim of this study is to increase the social work understanding of human behavior and
the social environment, as it will highlight a phenomenon that is largely ignored in the
field; the degree to which the behaviors, attitudes, and psychological wellbeing of clients
is connected to the world of media and media figures.
From a micro social work perspective, the findings from this study may benefit
direct social work practice with individuals and families. By helping to identify how the
emotional vulnerabilities of clients are often resolved through the emotional feedback and
personal identification they acquire from media and media figures, this study may aid the
practitioner in recognizing how media influences client’s perceptions of the world.
We are all in some way oriented to the world of popular culture. For some,
popular culture is the only world we know, for others it is a fun pastime, but at some
point everyone encounters it. Social workers must be aware of the level of importance to
which clients hold popular culture, because popular culture serves a variety of functions
in the lives of clients. Pop culture helps to define behavioral norms, establishes the
boundaries of society, and can influence revolution and social change (Kidd, 2007). In
this sense, clients who are consumers of popular culture may choose to subscribe to the
same values with figures they encounter on television or film, feel validated as their
feelings are reflected in a popular song, or develop their own moral compass largely by
9
identifying with the principles and actions of a popular media figure. Thus the lives of
clients are enveloped in the influence of popular culture (Rubin, 2008). This influence no
doubt affects the thoughts, feelings, and attitudes of clients. Therefore it is the
responsibility of social workers not to underestimate the degree to which popular culture
can influence client decision making. These perceptions are not necessarily negative.
Many therapeutic strategies like Narrative Therapy utilize identification with media
figures to help clients build solutions by using media figures as examples.
There is a
need to find relationships between emotional health and components of loneliness, and
parasocial relationships with celebrities or media figures in order to inform social
workers of the important role popular culture plays in the everyday lives of clients.
Research Question
This study addresses the following research question: What is the
relationship between emotional health as it relates to components of loneliness, and
parasocial relationships with celebrities or media figures?
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical perspective used for the purpose of this study is based in
Psychodynamic theory. The facets of Psychodynamic theory and its relevance to
emotional health and parasocial relationships with celebrities or media figures will be
explained as it applies to social work practice.
The basic assumption of Psychodynamic Theory is that conflict, both
interpersonal and intrapsychic is inevitable (Zeldow, 2010). Humans are complex beings
10
attempting to make sense of incompatible goals and paradoxes of life. We attempt to
rationalize these conflicts through hypothetical psychological structure: the Id, the Ego
and the Superego which all exist in our unconscious mind. The Id is governed primarily
by the pleasure principle: the desire to avoid pain and seek pleasure without delay of
gratification. Thus it seeks to satisfy our most basic urges. The Ego, which operates
under the reality principle, exists to postpone gratification until an appropriate object is
found to satisfy one’s urges through realistic thinking and problem solving. The
Superego is said to give balance to the two and represents the values and norms of
society. It is essentially one’s conscience. When these three forces are at odds, one is
said to be in conflict (Zeldow, 2010).
Psychodynamic perspectives of the past have held that behavior seeks to serve
some aggressive or sexual urge, but the idea that has been more widely adopted into
modern theory is the concept of Object Relations (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983).
Because Psychodynamic Theory assumes that the events of childhood significantly affect
the behaviors one exhibits in adulthood, one of the most important developments derived
from this idea is the assertion that objects are significant others. People can act as
objects. Therefore parent child interaction in early life is critical to development.
Movement from dependence on a parental figure towards independence as an
adult is central to autonomy (Zeldow, 2010). This allows the individual to be open to
meaningful attachments with others. If this process is disrupted it can result in the
constant effort on the part of the individual to attempt to reestablish this connection in
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maladaptive ways. If a firm sense of self is not developed, attempts to form attachments
with others may be nothing more than a way of compensating for the inability to do so at
an early stage. In such cases, the object of affection is not seen in an accurate way, but as
the main source of nurturance (Zeldow, 2010).
In short, Object Relations is the mechanism through which the individual gains a
basic sense of connection with the social world around them. It is through this sense of
connection that the individual feels calm and secure (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983).
These connections, according to Psychoanalytic theorist Heinz Kohut, are not limited to
connections at childhood, and therefore should not be looked at pathologically in
adulthood. Rather the need for nurturance and human affection from a significant object
is looked upon as a basic human need that is sought after throughout the lifetime, but may
intensify if not met in the early stages of development (Greenberg & Mitchel, 1983).
In keeping with the psychoanalytic tradition, Greenberg and Mitchell (1983)
assert that the earliest motivation in life is the desire to avoid pain and enhance the
pleasurable experience of attachment with others. As the individual grows, they learn to
associate with pleasurable relationships, while dissociating with relationships that are
either harmful or do not meet the aforementioned need for closeness. Thus people may
tend to enhance or intensify relationships that best fit their need for interaction, while
attempting to make those that do not fit their purposes disappear. In adulthood, we seek
relational experiences that are most similar to the most pleasurable we have ever
experienced, and this attempt to re-experience pleasurable relationships is constant
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phenomenon. We essentially never stop pleasure seeking. In adulthood, we expect for
significant people in our lives to exhibit “role responsiveness,” the testing out of whether
or not a person will respond in sought after ways that will reconstruct the original
interaction (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983).
Viewed in terms of psychodynamic theory, the research question would be
explained in terms of a lack of meaningful attachments with objects; in this case,
significant others, friends or any other relationship that would serve to enable an
individual to feel connectivity to others. From a psychodynamic perspective, people are
constantly seeking to re-establish the best pleasurable experience of connectivity they
have ever experienced. This experience occurring most usually at childhood is the
catalyst through which people endeavor to find comparable affection. In adulthood,
people tend to seek affection not in parental figures, but in friends and romantic partners.
When there is inconsistency in one’s ability to create meaningful attachment with others,
the result is loneliness. Therefore the person does not feel adequately nurtured. As a
result the person may seek meaningful attachments to alternate objects to compensate for
this void (seeking to satisfy the urge for attachment). Celebrities and media figures are
exemplary figures through which lonely individuals can form safe attachments.
Though not mutually satisfying in the classical sense, parasocial relationships
may be preferential for many lonely people because these such relationships offer
minimal risk. Celebrities do not argue, they have no opinions of their admirers, and they
almost never leave. Essentially, the research question in terms of psychodynamic theory
13
may be posed in the following way: In what ways do celebrities and other media figures
serve as alternate forms of connectivity when people do not feel that they are adequately
connected to others?
Definition of Terms
The following terms are used throughout this project and are common used in
both the study of parasocial interaction and of loneliness.
Parasocial Interaction
Describes one-sided relationships in which one party knows a great deal about the
other but the relationship is not mutual (Mccutcheon & Ashe, 2001)
Loneliness
The unpleasant experience that arises when a person’s system of social relations is
lacking in some important way; either quantitatively or qualitatively (Rubin, Perse
& Powell, 1985)
Celebrity
A famous or celebrated person (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Online).
Identity
The sense of self that develops as the child differentiates from parents and takes a
place in society (Jary & Jary, 1991)
Solitude
The absence of social interaction (McCutcheon, Aruguete & Scott & Von
Waldner 2004).
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Need to Belong
The need to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive,
and significant interpersonal relationships (Mellor et al., 2008)
Assumptions
The following assumptions have been made in this study: 1) most people have
knowledge of (even if in some minimal way) at least one celebrity or media figure; 2)
people tend to act emotionally towards media figures in a general sense; 3) loneliness is a
characteristic common to human experience; 4) meaningful attachment to another person
is a fundamental human need; and 5) people utilize media as a means of coping with
adversity.
Justification
Social work has of course been concerned with the effect of media on society and
the individual, but little research has been done into the ways in which the individual
interprets and uses media for his or her own social or psychological needs. Principal to
social work values in the National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics (2008)
is the “importance of human relationships.” Social workers should therefore be
concerned with parasocial relationships, and the factors contributing to the creation of
parasocial relationships. They should also be concerned with the emotional
vulnerabilities, specifically the lack of human relationships that may lead to the use of
parasocial relationships as a coping mechanism used to reconcile the lack meaningful
human contact amongst lonely individuals. The results of this study may assist social
workers towards a greater understanding of the ways in which the emotional response of
15
clients can be greatly influenced by stimuli outside of the classic, ecological sense
(family, institutions etc.) and can help to expand the understanding of cultural systems to
include the effects of media on client behavior. As described in the National Association
of Social Workers Code of Ethics (2008), social workers should aim to be competent to
remain in keeping with ethical practice. Therefore they should keep current with
knowledge relevant to social work. It is the researchers belief that media culture is
relevant to social work practice as “who we are or aren’t—alienated or not—is, for many
of us, largely defined by our relationship to popular culture” ( Rubin, 2008, p.xxi).
Clients are constantly living in a world saturated by media influence, to ignore the degree
to which that influence plays a role in the lives of our clients would be to ignore a field of
knowledge that could be utilized in groundbreaking ways.
Delimitations
This study will examine one facet of emotional health as it relates to parasocial
behavior. While it is impossible not to discuss the interconnectivity between loneliness
and other facets of emotional health (for example, depression), it is not the focus of this
study to expand these in great detail. Furthermore, this study does not aim to describe
parasocial relationships resulting from loneliness as beneficial or detrimental, but to
explore the extent to which the two are related. Further research would be needed to
explain the implications of the findings of this study. The research is not generalizable in
the sense that it is limited to the responses of Sacramento State students, not the
population as a whole. Furthermore, this study is quantitative by design. The study is
descriptive and does not provide an in depth analysis into the motivations nor a rationale
16
behind the phenomenon being explored. This purpose of this study is therefore to
explore the degree of relationship between aspects of loneliness and parasocial
relationships with celebrities.
Summary
In this section, the researcher outlined the background of the problem, the
statement of the research problem, the purpose of the study, and the theoretical
framework used to guide the research. Important terms utilized for the purposes of the
research, as well as assumptions, justifications and limitations of this study were also
discussed. Chapter 2 will consist of a review of the literature on the following themes:
loneliness and the need to belong; parasocial relationships; characteristics of people
involved in parasocial relationships; identification; the existence of imaginary social
worlds; the role of attachment theory in parasocial relationships; and attachment and
loneliness. Chapter 3 will include a description of the research methodology enlisted for
the study. The data analysis will be described in Chapter 4. Lastly, in Chapter 5,
conclusions, implications, and suggestions for further study will be discussed.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter reviews pertinent literature with regards to loneliness and parasocial
relationships with celebrities, especially as it relates to the history of fandom and
celebrity worship. These two concepts are key to understanding many facets of the
research question. The first section explains the historical background of parasocial
relationships from its roots in fandom to the rise of the Hollywood star. The second
section is an overview of the concepts of both loneliness and the need to belong,
delineating the difference between the two. The researcher will describe the
phenomenon of loneliness itself as it relates to the basic human need for meaningful
social interaction with others. Strict distinctions will be made between loneliness and
isolation. The third section will explain parasocial relationships and imaginary social
worlds in greater detail. The fourth section will highlight the characteristics most
descriptive of people who tend to enter into parasocial relationships and the rationale of
individuals who are likely to participate in parasocial relationships. In the fifth section,
the role of identity will be explored as it relates to the power of celebrity influence in the
lives of individuals. The sixth section will address the importance of Attachment Theory
in the study of both parasocial relationships and loneliness. Finally, the gaps in the
literature will be discussed.
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Historical Background
Parasocial relationships have been a field of interest for researchers for some
time, especially since the advent of television into popular culture. However the
examination of the forces through which parasocial relationships are fostered has been
studied through many different lenses from psychology and sociology to studies
communication studies. Only recently has the connection between emotional health and
parasocial relationships been a concern for study, and the rationale for the connection
between the two is as vast as the study of imaginary social worlds in general.
A Historical Background of Celebrity and Parasocial Relationships
If looked at solely in terms of historical context, celebrity is a relatively new
phenomenon (Inlgis, 2010). Concepts of fame amongst the masses date back to Roman
times, but the real roots of celebrity begin later in time, where in mid-eighteenth century
London, capital quickly replaced the court as the epicenter of social relations. With this
movement came the rise of the individual and the demise of the monarch (Turner, 2004).
This change in social fabric opened the doors for people to be admired not by their title,
but for their more urban activities. Admiration followed what you did rather than who
you were. Suddenly journalistic radicals, scientists, poets, and others outside of the
traditional royal societal construct began to rise to fame. At the same time, the theatre
rose to prominence, with its leading figures becoming instant celebrities, setting the
groundwork for what would later be the equivalent to what film did for Hollywood
(Inglis, 2010).
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Still, prior to the Twentieth Century, there was no real concept of celebrity as we
know it today. The concept of a true celebrity rose to fame just as mass media began to
expand to include not just newspapers, but radio and film (Turner, 2004). Not only were
newspapers attaining levels of mass circulation, but the invention of the camera allowed
people to not just read about important figures, but to see them. This laid the groundwork
for the publicizing of people, as media figures faces could now be disseminated across
the country with rapid speed (Gamson, 1994). Later, with the subsequent invention of
public relations and publicity promotion, the celebrity became elevated as a glamorous
commodity in need of protection.
Indeed prior to the twentieth century, there were of course people who were
successful and therefore famous. But in 1920, when Adolf Zukor, founder of Paramount
pictures offered the first one million dollar contract to actress Mary Pickford everything
changed. Suddenly what a person had accomplished had little to do with the amount of
fame one could acquire (Schnickel, 1985). Following this event, newspaper tycoons like
Walter Wenchell began to highlight the private lives of celebrities even as the rather
conservative news media was scarcely brave enough to report on even a pregnancy for
fear of offending people with bad tastes (Gabler, 1995). Suddenly, fans could read about
the private details of celebrity lives, including the most taboo of activities. By 1922, over
half of biographical interest stories reported in magazines were related to celebrity lives,
as opposed to ten years prior, when political interests dominated popular reading. At the
20
same time, magazines celebrating nothing but the lives of actors of stage and screen
began to hit newsstands (Turner, 2004).
No stronger influence to the rise of celebrity can be identified than of the motion
picture industry (Turner, 2004). As the American film industry began to develop newer
and better means of bringing films to mass audiences, the strength of celebrity developed.
Initially the names of actors in films were not disclosed as many working actors saw
working in moving pictures as a move that could taint their reputation, seeing it as
“below the stage” (Turner, 2004). But as the years went on, actors faces became more
and more recognizable, and personalities seen on the screen became in much higher
demand. Acting on the silver screen became increasingly more acceptable.
By the 1950s, people were becoming acquainted with an altogether different way
of encountering celebrity through television. With television came a new experience of
celebrity, marked by a more intimate, immediate, and spontaneous experience in which
people could identify more closely with the personalities of the celebrities they
encountered (Bennett & Holmes, 2010). The pull of attraction to movie stars was the
mystery behind the concealment then revelation of their personalities. Television was
much more concerned with convincing the audience that TV stars were relatable,
ordinary and authentic. This is because networks need viewers to form closer bonds with
the stars of television shows in order to convince them to tune in week after week
(Bennett & Holmes, 2010). Although television programming now focuses on the lives
21
of the rich and famous in recent years, the need for television personalities to be relatable
continues be a goal of producers.
Today, with the advent of the internet, handheld cameras, cellular phones, and
reality television, celebrities on both stage and screen can be encountered at any time.
People no longer need to be sitting in front of the television or in a crowded theatre to see
their favorite celebrity (Leslie, 2011). This had no doubt changed the climate of celebrity
interactions with the public in recent years. Yet the same basic connections that were
established years ago seem to hold true; celebrities still want to be relatable, and people
still want to relate to them. The very intimacy people feel when encountering celebrities
sets the stage for the phenomenon of parasocial relationships to occur.
Loneliness and the Need to Belong: An Overview
A thorough understanding of the relationship between parasocial relationships and
aspects of loneliness first requires an understanding of the study of loneliness and the
need to belong in general. This researcher will attempt to describe the ways in which the
study of loneliness has converged with the study of parasocial relationships, mainly as a
means of coping or resolving feelings of other-oriented loneliness by individuals.
It is important to note that loneliness and solitude are altogether different
experiences. For example, (Rokach 2011) asserts that contrary to popular thought being
lonely is not necessarily and consequently being alone. Being alone is simply the reality
of being without others, while being lonely is the subjective experience that is very much
connected with situational aspects of one’s life. It consists of disagreeable feelings that
22
arise when an individual experiences an inconsistency between the relationships they
desire, and the relationships they currently have (Mellor et al., 2008). Furthermore, being
alone can have positive and in fact therapeutic implications. For some, being in solitude
allows for self-reflection, creativity and relaxation. Greenwood and Long (2009) found
that a strong predictor of coping with loneliness or loss was other-oriented solitude. Thus
it is the lack of connection with others that results in the subjective experience of
loneliness this researcher is studying.
Loneliness, then, must be dismantled into its smaller components (aspects) to gain
an understanding of how it affects the psychosocial world of the individual. For this
reason, the construct of Russell’s UCLA Loneliness Scale (1996) used for the purposes of
this study assumes that loneliness is a single state that can be reached through many
different relational deficits. Researchers have been concerned with the physiological and
psychological effects of loneliness for quite some time.
One of the most widely studied aspects of loneliness, and perhaps the most
important facet for the purpose of this study is the need to belong. Researchers have
theorized that the need to belong is a fundamental human motivation; an essential human
need like food, water and shelter. Failure to satisfy this fundamental need can result in
adverse consequences for general health (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Mellor (2008)
found that when belongingness needs go unmet, the result is loneliness which then in turn
affects wellbeing. According to Hagerty and Petusky (1995), the need to belong is a
significant predictor of mental health difficulties ranging from depression to anxiety and
23
suicidality. Better connectivity with others can also foster more healthful behaviors. In an
investigation of stress and social support, House (1981), found that social support was
connected with better personal hygiene, nutritional choices, restful activities, and
exercise, all of which contribute to the lifespan.
Because we require satisfaction of our need for social connectivity, Beaumiester
and Leary (1995) assert that we may attempt to supplement those missing interactions
with a surrogate. The bonds that we create with others cannot be partially satisfying.
They must feel to the individual that there is some semblance of mutual positive caring.
When these needs are not met, the individual may attempt to replace inadequate social
relationships with another relationship that provides similar benefits. This action is
known as substitution.
Parasocial Relationships and Imaginary Social Worlds
American society is saturated with media culture. Caughey (1978) theorizes that
most Americans only know about two to three hundred people with whom they actually
interact, but are also oriented with another world of beings entirely. Celebrities belong
to a world of people whom we know and find significant, but with whom we never
actually engage. Through books, movies, television, and internet, it is nearly impossible
not to come into contact with celebrities and media figures (both fictional and real) in
everyday life. Caughey (1978) believes that these beings in our “artificial world” are
several times more numerous than those with whom we actually interact.
24
But to say that we never engage with these figures is not a complete truth. While
we do not have face-to-face interactions with media figures, we may have artificial
interactions with them in which we go “away” to what Goffman (1963) called a “playlike
world” in which [we] alone participate[s]” (p.69). Thus we enter into parasocial
relationships with these figures. These relationships allow us to generate our own
imaginary constructions of our relationships with media figures. These relationships may
closely resemble those of our actual lives. A certain guise of intimacy is created as the
production of media is manipulated such that the viewer feels that the figures on the
screen are somehow interacting with them (Caughey, 1978). The extent to which the
viewer identifies, sympathizes or likes a character has considerable influence over the
degree to which the individual transports into the narrative of the parasocial relationship
(Green, 2004).
These imaginary social worlds in which viewers find themselves participating can
serve a variety of purposes. McQuail et al. (1972) identified two essential functions of
parasocial interaction: companionship and personal identity. Similarly, Rosengren and
Windahl (1972) concluded that the most important function of parasocial relationships
was as a source of alternate companionship resulting from insufficiencies in social life.
Thus parasocial interactions may provide the viewer with attributes that create
frameworks for improvement of the self, but more importantly, may compensate for what
the viewer may be lacking in real relationships. When viewers find their own
relationships dissatisfying, they may use parasocial relationships with media figures in a
25
compensatory way. Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) suggest a “substitute for socializing
activity” is therefore created. Essentially, we may substitute what is lacking in our real
relationships by supplementing or substituting them with parasocial ones.
However, these relationships do not occur in a vacuum. There are many factors at
play that create imaginary social worlds, making it easier to participate in these
narratives. Parasocial relationships with media figures are bred through the interplay of
several important factors. Caughey (1984) identified several facets of social relations
with media figures that contribute to the creation of these imaginary social worlds. First,
there are cultural considerations—specifically those of mainstream American society.
There is a particular expectation of knowledge of prevalent media figures in American
society. “True Americans” can identify these media figures at will. Failure to recall
these figures or their importance can be seen as problematic, even anti-social. Often the
individual who does not exhibit knowledge of these figures is seen as outside the norm.
A prominent example is American sports teams and young males. Young males are
expected not only to know various sports teams, but also the individual players on the
teams, their team numbers, statistics and personal information. Thus it is in the
individuals’ interest to be well acquainted with media figures to avoid situations of social
exclusion in a media driven culture.
Another explanation as to why these relationships exist is the amount of time we
spend in narrative worlds (Caughey, 1984). It is said that by one’s teenage years, the
average person spends more time watching TV than attending school, and the average
26
adult watches more than three hours of television per day. It is virtually impossible not to
have at least minimal encounters with the entertainment world, especially when media
consumption occupies about half of our leisure time.
Because we are so often enveloped in these imaginary social worlds, we naturally
develop strong feelings about the figures we encounter (Caughey, 1984). As we become
acquainted with media figures, we assign our own personal evaluations of them as though
they are real, even through a lack of face-to-face contact. Just as in real relationships, we
tend to like some, and be indifferent to or dislike others. The strong feelings we develop
towards media figures are so personal that the terminology we use to describe them may
also be intensely emotional and personal. In discussing evaluations of celebrities, we
may use words such as “talented,” or “entertaining,” but more commonly we describe
them as if we are intimately involved with them For example, characters or figures we
dislike become “shallow,” “phony” or “pompous.”
It is difficult not to make real associations with media figures when the ways in
which we encounter them seems incredibly real. Editing techniques, dialogue, and
storylines help to create a pseudo-involvement between the consumer and the figure
(Caughey, 1984). Through various camera angles, we are put into the perspective of the
media figure, take on the role of the voyeur (we can see what the figure cannot), or
become the object of the figures attention as they speak directly to us by breaking the
fourth wall. All of these techniques serve one purpose: to pull the viewer out of the
objective social world and into the imaginary world.
27
Aiding in this process is the preexisting knowledge of social behavior that
consumers bring with them into the process. Consumers already have engrained in them
concepts of good and bad, and these concepts guide their interpretation of media figures
(Caughey, 1984). Thus when media figures do something the consumer deems favorable
or unfavorable, their subsequent emotional response or attitude towards the media figure
will be filtered through this preexisting system of learned knowledge.
Characteristics of People Involved in Parasocial Relationships
The characteristics of people who participate in parasocial relationships with
celebrities differ from that of the general population in several ways. Mccutcheon, Ashe,
Houran & Maltby (2003) found that there are levels of absorption into parasocial
relationships with celebrities. In their study of individuals who tend to worship
celebrities, it was discovered that celebrity worshippers, or those who self-reported to be
at the highest level of celebrity absorption, exhibited number of psychological risk
factors, one being lower psychological wellbeing. Furthermore they found that cognitive
deficits only help facilitate susceptibility towards celebrity worship, but they assert that
celebrity worship cannot simply be explained away by some cognitive deficiency found
in worshipers that we cannot find in nonworshipers (Mccutcheon, Ashe Houran &
Maltby, 2003).
Research by Goswick and Jones (1981) suggests that the missing variable
between people who seek parasocial relationships and people who do not is the need to
avoid feelings of loneliness and the subsequent negative feelings associated with it.
28
Lonely individuals (specifically those lonely individuals who are dissatisfied with their
friendship, dating and family relationships) tend to have more problematic emotions such
as negative self-concept, self-derogation and negative attitudes toward others (Goswick
& Jones, 1981). Mccutcheon, Aruguete, Scott & Von Waldner (2004) found that a
person’s tendency to relate to celebrities as measured by the Celebrity Attitude Scale
positively correlated with shyness and loneliness. They propose the idea that people
involved in parasocial relationships with media figures are attempting to cope with
shyness and loneliness by creating a benign non-threatening relationship with a celebrity.
People high in need to belong were also found to be more likely to engage parasocially.
Moreover, the relationships between other-oriented solitude and media use were
found to be the main reason for this relationship (Greenwood & Long, 2009). This
suggests that an important characteristic of people who participate in parasocial
relationships is loneliness facilitated by the absence of meaningful relationships with
others. The need to belong therefore can influence the individual to employ a celebrity or
media figure to serve as a type of symbolic surrogate for what is lacking relationally.
Identification
One explanation of how this can occur is the degree to which the individual
identifies with the media figure of choice. Basil (1996) proposes that this process can
best be explained by Burkes Dramatism theory, and Kelman’s theory of opinion change.
As proposed by Burke, the viewer consumes media; they do not just watch it blindly.
They are in fact assigning meaning to what they see. As the individual process this
29
information, they begin to find ways in which they share values or perceptions with the
figure. Through this experience, a bond is formed. Once this bond of identification is
formed it satisfies some innate need in the viewer (Kelman, 1961). Perhaps the needs
that are satisfied by identification with celebrities are simply aspects of a model for the
idealized self. Celebrities have talents or mannerisms that admirers would like to develop
in themselves, whether they be physical attributes, abilities or ethics (Boone & Lomore,
2001)
Kelman (1961) further asserted that there are three processes that contribute to the
condition of opinion change: compliance, identification, and internalization. Compliance
occurs when the individual takes on influence from another with the hope of achieving
some sort of favorable reaction from the other such as entry into a social group.
Essentially, the individual complies because the agent wants him to do so. Identification
refers to the process by which an individual adopts the behaviors of another person
because the behavior is somehow associated with a positive relationship that shapes a
person’s self-image. The individual is attempting to maintain an established relationship
that meets his needs. Finally, internalization occurs when an individual is influenced by
another because the views of the other are congruent with their own. The person adopts
the values of another because the other’s values are conducive to the intensification of his
own values.
Parasocial relationships with celebrities can then be assumed to be influenced by
any one of the aforementioned processes, or it may be a combination of two or three
30
(Kelman, 1961) It is possible that there are in fact tangible rewards one could derive
from an investment in a parasocial relationship (for example, membership in a club or
group of friends that appreciate the same musical artist), that these relationships serve to
supplement some innate need in the individual (feelings of loneliness or a need to
belong), or that people may be drawn to a given set of values that the celebrity exhibits
(political, social affiliations or attitudes of love and life choices).
When the individual adopts an attitude or behavior of the object of parasocial
relationship, the stronger the level of identification with a given figure, the more likely
the individual is to adopt their opinions, feelings and actions advocated by the celebrity
(Brown & Basil, 1995). An example of this trend was exemplified by Brown & Basil’s
1996 study of attitudes of HIV/AIDS in connection with basketball player Magic
Johnson. The study found that those who identified with Johnson to the greatest degree
were more likely to adopt his message of safe sex, condom use, and reduced risky
behaviors (Basil, 1996). A similar study performed on people’s perceptions following
the death of Princess Diana found that the more people feel connected to a celebrity, the
more likely they are to pay attention to media coverage and stories about that celebrity,
perform actions they advocate, and take on similar belief systems (Brown, Basil &
Bocarnea, 2003). An important distinction found, however, was that people tend to
process information through media involvement. The greater the exposure to media, the
more information will be processed through a media lens. Thus, if a person already
identifies with a particular celebrity, and then encounters them repeatedly through media
31
access, the attitudes they hold will be more likely to have been shaped by that given
celebrity. Gender and age were found to be key variables in identification because
people who are in the same age or gender category as the celebrity tend to have greater
degrees of identification (Brown , Basil & Bonarea, 2003).
The most prevalent theoretical perspective researchers have used as a guide for
research of identification in parasocial relationships is Kelman’s theory of Identification,
though Kelman’s theory is not primarily concerned with parasocial relationships, it is
also concerned with self-defined relationships, or those in which one person may be
completely unaware that others are role modeling his behavior. Additionally, it provides
an explanation of how bonds can be formed between a person and another whom they
have never met. The assertion is that individuals seek to preserve or augment selfdefined relationships by adopting the value systems and behaviors of the other (Brown &
Basil, 2010).
Attachment Theory Explained: A Theoretical Connection
Attachment theory has been given a great deal of attention with respect to the
study of parasocial relationships in recent years. The roots of attachment theory are
based in the work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby. Having worked separately in
the beginning, Bowlby’s understanding of developmental psychology and psychoanalysis
paired with Ainsworth’s methodology of the concepts created what we know today as
modern attachment theory. Early study was mainly focused on the role of attachments
32
between mother and child. Today all meaningful developmental attachments are deemed
important (Bretherton, 1992).
Attachment theory has two central components: a normative component, and an
individual difference component. The normative component aims to describe human
attachment in its most basic terms. It outlines typical patterns of behavior and stages of
development that all humans generally pass through. The individual difference
component examines deviations from this normative model. Most research performed
today is done from an individual difference standpoint, but it is important to have an
understanding of what is considered basic human attachment processes to evaluate
differences (Simpson & Rholes, 1998).
The basic premise of attachment theory originated by the work of Bowlby,
stresses that attachment is a behavioral system in which children form connections to
caregivers. Attachment theory asserts that infants develop strong emotional ties to
caregivers in the earliest years of life. Through these attachments the child accrues vital
social-emotional development and an increased overall sense of wellbeing (Roth-Hanania
& Davidov, 2004). The main function of the system is to increase the likelihood that the
need for safety and nurturance of the infant will be met. A child’s separation from the
caregiver results in behaviors meant to re-establish contact. These differing behaviors in
establishing contact in turn reflect different attachment styles (Cole & Leets, 1999). For
Bowlby, the child’s feelings of exploratory safety (the exploratory behavioral system) are
directly linked to their feelings of secure attachment to the caregiver; in this case the
33
adult. The more secure the child feels in their attachment to the adult, the more likely
they are to venture out away from them, knowing that should the situation become
threatening, they can come back to the caregiver for safety. Bowlby therefore made two
assertions; first, that differences in quality of caregiver child interactions are largely a
product of the history of contact with the caregiver, and second, that these differences in
quality of attachment have implications for later life (Sroufe, 2005).
Ainsworth furthered this concept through her Strange Situation Procedure.
During the procedure, a child is placed in an environment with their caregiver— an adult
stranger is introduced to the child. The caregiver is then removed in an effort to trigger
the child’s need for caregiver support. The child’s exploratory behaviors and attachment
behaviors are examined throughout the process and especially at the reunion between
caregiver and child. The different reactions to detachment stress have been assessed as
what we know today as attachment styles (Zeanah, Berlin & Boris, 2011).
The primary caregiver is considered the child’s “secure base.” This means that to
the child they are a strong, safe person on which the child can rely on when his
attachment system is aroused (von der Lippe et al., 2010). The mechanism through which
the adult transmits attachment safety to the child is generally thought to be through
sensitivity and the degree of responsiveness to the child’s signs of anxiety (von der Lippe
et al., 2010).
Historically, there have been thought to be three main attachment styles in
children: secure, avoidant and ambivalent/resistant.
Secure attachment is characterized
34
by the direct expression of distress at the separation from the caregiver and active
comfort seeking. When comfort is given, the child resumes separation and exploration.
Avoidant attachment elicits minimal response to separation, and ignoring or actively
avoiding the caregiver when reunited. Ambivalent/Resistant attachment is usually
characterized by intense distress at separation. Attempts to seek comfort are usually
minimal, awkward and resistant when the caregiver attempts to sooth. A fourth category,
disorganized attachment refers to atypical patterns of attachment not covered by previous
three main categories. These categories are expanded into more detailed and numerous
categories with age. (Zeanah, Berlin & Boris, 2011).
Studies of adult attachment assert that similar styles are exhibited in adulthood
(Simpson & Rholes, 1998). In studying attachments between parents and children, the
prevalent paradigm has been the Adult Attachment Interview AAI. True to its name, the
procedure of the AAI is by means of interview. This technique was mainly developed as
a means of predicting infant attachment styles by examining those of their parents.
However it is not a significant predictor of attachments between adults (Simpson &
Rholes, 1998).
The prevalent means of studying adult attachment relationships outside of the
nuclear family is known as the Peer/Romantic Partner Tradition (Simpson & Rholes,
1998). Similarly to the attachment styles found in children, adults in peer and romantic
relationships can be categorized into three distinct categories: secure, avoidant, and
anxious ambivalent. Though researchers recognize that adult attachment differs from
35
child attachment in very important ways, they nonetheless have concluded that bonds of
affection in adult hood are formed through an attachment process (Shaver, Hazan &
Bradshaw, 1987).
An important development in the study of adult attachment has been the work of
Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) who found that there are four as opposed to three
attachment categories. This is because avoidance can be broken down into two types:
fearful-avoidance, and dismissing-avoidance. These attachment styles are now believed
to be a reflection of different ways of coping with or controlling interpersonal
relationships (Simpson, Rholes & Phillips, 1996).
Attachment, Parasocial Relationships and Loneliness
A developing field of study involves the role of attachment styles in the
absorption of media. Specifically, researchers are interested in the formation of insecure
relationships in a parasocial way (Cole & Leets, 1999). Because parasocial relationships
function for the individual in much the same way as a normal relationship, “there is
reason to believe that parasocial relationships function similarly to ‘real life’ relationships
in terms of attachment behaviors” (Cole & Leets, 1999, p. 497). This is because
parasocial relationships display central properties of adult attachment (Weiss, 1992).
First, individuals will attempt to reduce the distance between themselves and their
attachment figure. An example of this behavior is proximity seeking amongst fans of
media figures, but perhaps a more solid, everyday example is the collection of
information about media figures such as memorabilia and trivia (Ferguson, 1992), or the
arrangement of one’s schedule such that one can encounter the media figure on
36
television. All of these behaviors are a means of gaining a sense of closeness.
Furthermore it shows how bonds can be formed with the parasocial other even if it is onesided.
Second, the object of attachment elicits a sense of security for the individual.
Companionship is a significant motive for many viewers (Caughey, 1984). The warmth
they feel while making a connection with a given media figure creates sense of safety in
the relationship formed, especially when the relationship is a continued one and continues
from week to week.
Finally, the individual may have a tendency to protest when separation from the
attachment figure is looming (Cohen, 2004). For example, campaigns that are often
started when a television show is due to be cancelled early. Petitions, message boards,
and letters flood studio inboxes protesting the decision, and demanding that the show be
reinstated.
In a 1999 study, Cole and Leets found that attachment style does have a
significant bearing on the degree to which people will tend to engage in parasocial
interaction. Specifically, they found those who are Anxious-ambivalent (people who
experience the most distress at separation from an attached figure) are the most likely to
engage in parasocial relationships. A perhaps more curious finding reported that though
more securely attached individuals reported only moderate parasocial interaction, they
were more likely they were to form parasocial relationships as their level of distrust
increased. They concluded that their findings suggest the possibility that those who are
37
anxious-ambivalent turn to TV characters because they are stable as a mechanism of
satisfying idealistic and unsatisfied relational needs.
Thus, individuals who experience loneliness related to unmet relational needs (not
necessarily the absence of others around them) may seek to buffer these unmet
attachment needs through imagined intimacy. Greenwood and Long conducted a 2011
study, in which they examined which types of attachment styles and life circumstances
are most vulnerable to parasocial relationships. They found that attachment needs may
be exacerbated by the attachment needs of the individual. Consequently, a person who
may be more vulnerable to feelings of abandonment or distrust of others in intimate
relationships romantic or otherwise, may seek out others who will be available and
responsive to their needs.
Because media figures are consistent, romanticized, and do not present any
serious threat, they make exemplary attachment figures for those with activated
attachment needs or difficulties forming attachments with others (Derrick, Gabriel &
Tippin, 2008). Moreover, individuals with high attachment needs tend to idealize the
behavior and appearance of their favorite character. This suggests that parasocial
relationships have a bearing on identity formation when facilitated through attachment
styles (Green, Pietromonaco & Lockwood, 2008).
The findings remain consistent with respect to parasocial responses to media
figures when examined solely by attachment style (Cole & Leets, 1999). Individuals with
more anxious attachment styles—that is, those who are more likely to have intense
38
preoccupation with real-life relationships, are the most likely to also have intense
preoccupation with imagined ones as well. These imagined relationships may provide
dependable feelings of intimacy craved from real life. Furthermore, anxious individuals
are more likely to express anxiety over a hypothetical loss or “breakup” with a parasocial
other, for example, a character being taken off the air (Cole & Leets, 1999). These
characters can be romanticized comforting figures for those who are insecurely attached
(Greenwood, Pietromonaco & Long, 2008). The longer a person has been involved in a
parasocial relationship with a character, the more that person believes in the qualities of
the character, and the more important the individual finds the relationship. Thus people
who are already prone to suffer from breakups due to high attachment anxiety may also
find themselves with high emotionality when it comes to the breakup of a parasocial
relationship (Cohen, 2004).
Cole and Leets (1999) also found that same gender parasocial relationships appear
to complement same gender real relationships, whereas opposite gender parasocial
relationships acted as a compensator for those not involved in a romantic partnership.
More importantly, those with high attachment anxiety, high in need to belong, and not
involved in a romantic relationship (the loneliest individuals), showed the highast
parasocial engagement, especially with opposite gender celebrities (Greenwood & Long,
2011).
Attachment styles have a great deal of influence both over the psychological
wellbeing of individuals, and their degree of emotional health (Wei et al, 2005). The
39
satisfaction of relational needs (the degree to which people feel autonomous, competent,
and related to others serves), as a mediator between ones attachment style and aspects of
emotional health (loneliness, shame, and depression). Essentially, attachment anxiety is
related to loneliness, but the more one’s psychological needs are meet, the less of an
effect that anxiety will have on one’s everyday life. Because people with high
attachment anxiety tend to have a more negative sense of self, they have a decreased
sense of self-efficacy. This is the degree to which they believe in their own social
competence. A lack of self-efficacy is the mediator through which attachment anxiety
fosters feelings of loneliness (Wei, Russell & Zakalik, 2005).
Gaps in the Literature
In reviewing past research related to the question to be studied, the researcher
identified several gaps in in the literature. Current and past literature is largely concerned
with connecting parasocial relationships with media figures with some theoretical
framework, yet the most basic aspects of the phenomenon have yet to be studied.
\Attachment theory has been the main framework through which parasocial relationships
have been explored with some success; however it has been difficult to provide a
description of what factors contribute to the likelihood that an individual will begin to
engage in parasocial relationships. Essentially, research has made a leap from behavior
to theory without a description of the mechanism through which the phenomenon
manifests itself.
Furthermore, while a small portion have attempted to focus on loneliness as a
mediator, they have not considered that loneliness is multi-faceted. Therefore the
40
loneliness experience may vary from person to person. This study attempts to bridge this
gap by identifying which aspects of loneliness are the most applicable to the phenomenon
of parasocial interaction itself.
Literature has also focused on adolescent television media consumption, largely
because adolescents are assumed to be the largest consumers of media, and are also
assumed to be more susceptible to celebrity influence. Little research has been done into
early adult (18 to 30 year old) parasocial behavior. Because young adults are amongst
the loneliest of the U.S. population, the degree to which they engage in parasocial
behavior is no doubt valuable to the study of parasocial relationships in general. This
study focuses specifically on young adults and utilized a convenience sample of
university students. Much of the research conducted on parasocial behavior has largely
ignored issues of diversity. While many studies have addressed specific cohorts based on
age alone, there has been little examination of the differences of media consumption with
respect to categories of diversity like race, class and gender. For example, even though
minorities consume media at an increased rate compared to whites, and are more likely to
be lonely, there are few research comparisons made across racial lines between loneliness
and parasocial behavior. Some comparisons have been made between gender and the
object of parasocial activity, but these comparisons have not been extended to include
differences in likelihood to engage parasocially between men and women. This study
will broaden the scope of the study of parasocial interaction to include comparisons
between parasocial interaction and demographic characteristics such as race, age and
41
gender. It will also treat loneliness as a multi-faceted experience by breaking it down
into its smaller components.
Conclusion
The researcher has outlined the vast array of literature aimed at the connection
between parasocial relationships and emotional health. An analysis of the literature was
written on both the connection between the variables examined for the purpose of this
study, and the literature necessary to describe the phenomenon through the lens of the
author’s chosen theoretical perspective. In the next chapter, the researcher will describe
her research methodology including the study performed, specifics of the research tool
and target population.
42
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter examines the research methodology used for the purposes of this
study. A description of participants and the selection criteria used to recruit them will be
explained, as well as a description of the sample population and the sampling method
used. The data collection, instrumentation, and data analysis will be discussed. Also
included in this chapter is an explanation of the steps taken to ensure the protection of
human subjects.
Research Question
The purpose of the study was to identify the ways in which emotional health can
have an effect on the way we experience and make meaning of popular culture. Specific
consideration was given to personal attachment to celebrities as well as how celebrity
influence can affect decision making and emotionality. These factors were explored to
address the question: What is the relationship between aspects of loneliness and
parasocial relationships with celebrities and other media figures?
Research Design
This study used an exploratory quantitative cross-sectional survey design research
method consisting of twenty questions (Likert scale) and four multiple choice questions.
Because statistical findings of the data collected will be analyzed, as opposed to
observation or personal interview, this study is by definition quantitative in nature.
43
This study utilizes an exploratory research design as there is little previous data
available for this topic of research. Though past research studies on parasocial
relationships have been performed, few have focused on possible contributory or
underlying factors affecting this phenomenon. Thus, the researcher’s use of an
exploratory survey study design is to bring to focus the previously unstudied factors of
the topic.
The data gathering process used for this study is survey research. Surveys are
designed to create statistics about a desired population by deducing characteristics of the
target population from the answers of the people who take the survey (Fowler, 2009).
According to Rea and Parker (2005), survey research requires “solicitation of selfreported verbal information from people about themselves” (Rea and Parker, 2005, p. 4).
In order to perform this type of research, a sample of the population to be studied must be
identified under the assumption that the responses of the people who take the survey can
be representative of the larger target population, and that the answers that they give will
adequately correctly describe the characteristics of the target population (Fowler, 2009).
Survey research according to Rubin and Babbie (2010) is beneficial because it
allows the researcher to examine many facets of the research topic in one questionnaire.
Furthermore it allows the researcher to reach larger numbers of people, which increases
external validity, (or the ability to standardize information gained), and generalizability to
the larger population. Finally, survey research allows for cross-comparisons between the
multiple characteristic variables of the population, and the research question itself.
44
When examining these benefits within the context of this study, the benefits of
survey research are numerous. Because the researcher cannot feasibly survey every
college student in the United States, measuring the responses of a statistically sound
sample of students more readily available to the researcher is much more practical with
respect to the time and resources the researcher can commit towards the completion of
this study. The sample collected can therefore be used for descriptive statistical analysis
that can be generalized to a larger population. Because responses are designed such that
each participant must respond to the same questions operationalized the same way,
ambiguity as to the meanings and reasoning behind questioning is decreased (Rubin &
Babbie, 2010).
However, survey research is also limiting in several ways. First, survey
questionnaires do not explore the deeper meanings behind any given phenomenon and
they do not give weight to individual circumstance and variability between persons.
Thus, consideration of the context of social life is often not adequately accounted for, and
the conditions through which people think and behave are not thoroughly examined
(Rubin & Babbie, 2010). Likewise, it is difficult for a researcher to change the nature of
the study design in the event that a new variable important to the research is introduced.
Surveys also leave open the possibility of biased responses on the part of participants,
which may not accurately measure their actual beliefs. However, data from this research
can be used as a catalyst for future in-depth study, and it is the hope of the researcher that
45
this research will aid the social work community gain insight into the ways in which
popular cultural affects the attitudes and behaviors of the clients it serves.
Variables
The independent variable in this study is loneliness, more specifically, the aspects
of loneliness as defined by the UCLA Loneliness Scale. The dependent variable is the
degree to which people engage parasocial relationships with celebrities and media
figures. Participant’s aspects of loneliness will be measured in a five point Likert Scale
format with respect to level of agreement (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly
disagree). The aspects of parasocial behavior will also be measured using the same five
point Likert format, comprised of questions developed by the researcher originally
derived from the Parasocial Interaction Scale. The level of measurement for both the
independent and dependent variable is ordinal scale. Control variables include age, race/
ethnicity, gender, and marital status, which are nominal measures.
Study Population
The study population included students currently attending California State
University, Sacramento. The researcher surveyed 46 students, 13 of which were male,
and 33 of which were female. This population included various racial and ethnic
backgrounds, which included African American (9), Caucasian (10), Asian (18), Hispanic
(7) and other (2). All but one participant in the survey (who identified as “married”)
identified as “single,” and 42 of 46 participants identified as less than 30 years of age.
Four identified as 30 or older.
46
Sample Population
The researcher is using a non-probability, convenience sample of 46 students
recruited in the Student Union of California State University, Sacramento. The strength
of this sample is that respondents are easily available and it is economical to conduct the
research. The weakness is that the sample is limited only to those who visited the
Student Union on the specific days in which the study was performed and is not
representative of the population.
Instrumentation
Surveys were administered to all participants who first agreed to participate in the
study and subsequently signed an informed consent form (see appendix A). A
standardized survey, which consisted mainly of twenty Likert-type questions and four
demographic questions, was completed by each participant. The survey also contained
one fill in question, and two multiple choice questions. To measure the independent
variable (emotional health), participants were instructed to rank their level of agreement
to the following statements: I feel “in tune” with the people around me, I feel as if there
are people I can turn to, I feel alone most of the time, I feel outgoing and friendly, I feel
close to people, I feel I have meaningful relationships with others, I feel isolated from
others, I feel there are people in my life that really understand me, I have people in my
life that I can talk to, I feel I can find companionship when I want it.
To measure the dependent variable (parasocial relationships with celebrities),
participants were instructed to rank their level of agreement to the following statements:
47
When I see my favorite celebrity becoming emotional, I become emotional too, when my
favorite celebrity gives their opinion about something, it helps me make up my own mind
about the topic, I feel sorry for my favorite celebrity when he/she makes a mistake, my
favorite celebrity makes me feel comfortable as if we are friends, my favorite celebrity
keeps me company when he/she is on television, sometimes I make remarks to my
favorite celebrity when I see them on TV, I miss seeing my favorite celebrity when they
are not on television, I find my favorite celebrity to be attractive, I emulate the
fashion/style of my favorite celebrity, when I watch my favorite celebrity on television,
and I feel as if I am a part of their world.
The reliability and validity of questions for both the independent and dependent
variable are substantiated by the research performed by the originators of the scales from
which they were derived (Russell, 1996). The UCLA Loneliness Scale-version 3 (the
scale from which the questions for the independent variable are derived), has been used
to assess loneliness in a variety of populations ranging from college students to the
elderly, all yielding similar results. These findings provide strong support for the
reliability of the scale. Furthermore, it yielded comparable findings to the values
reported in the two earlier versions of the UCLA Loneliness Scale. The validity of the
scale was also found to be strong, given that results from Version 3 (primarily of the
college population) have significant correlation to other measures of loneliness (Russell,
1996). The Parasocial Interaction (the scale from which the questions for the dependent
variable are derived), was also found to have good reliability, as it has been tested and
48
revised against previous versions, all yielding high significance and correlation to one
another (Rubin, Perse & Powell, 1985).
Data Gathering Procedures
The survey was conducted in the Student Union of California State University,
Sacramento. The researcher approached potential subjects throughout a month-long data
gathering process in the University Union of Sacramento State. The researcher oriented
herself at a table central to most participants in the union, where each participant could
turn in their survey and enter a drawing as an inducement. The researcher obtained
consent by requiring that participants sign an informed consent form prior to completing
the survey. The researcher introduced herself and the survey to participants. The
researcher then said the following:
“My name is Megan Daniel and I am a graduate student in Social Work here at
C.S.U.S. I am currently performing a research survey for my thesis on the
relationship between emotional health and parasocial relationships with
celebrities. Would you consider taking a few minutes to complete a survey? It is
completely voluntary and anonymous, so if you don’t want to complete the survey
you can hand it back to me with the survey and consent form blank at any time. If
you do wish to participate, please read and fill out the consent form. It should
only take ten to fifteen minutes to complete the survey. If you have any questions
you may ask me immediately, or if you have questions later, you may e-mail me
at the address provided on the consent form.”
49
Participants who agreed to participate in the study completed a consent form and then the
survey.
Data Analysis
All data analysis including statistics, frequency distributions, and cross-sectional
analysis was performed using the PASW (Predictive Analysis Software) program
(version 18). Chi-square analysis was used to examine the relationship between the
aspects of the independent variable (emotional health), with those of the dependent
variable (parasocial relationships with celebrities and media figures), and were also
completed using the PASW program. Chi-square analysis was also used to examine the
relationships between participant responses and demographic criteria such as age,
race/ethnicity, gender and marital status.
Protection of Human Subjects
Before data collection began, this study was approved by the California State
University, Sacramento Division of Social Work Human Committee for the Protection of
Human Subjects as a minimal risk study.
Potential subjects were informed of the voluntary nature of the study through the
informed consent document provided. Once this document was read, participants were
asked to sign this consent form prior to participating in the study which outlined the risks
and benefits of participation. The informed consent form stressed that participants could
cease participation in the study at any time without consequence. Furthermore, they
could choose to skip or decline to answer any question.
50
The researcher made herself available to clarify any questions participants may
have had. All responses to the survey were kept confidential. Consent forms and data
gathered were stored in a locked cabinet in the researcher’s home. The researcher’s
thesis advisor had access to completed surveys throughout the extent of the project up to
its conclusion. The researcher’s findings as reported in its finality did not include any
information that can be used to identify subjects. All data collected over the duration of
the study will be destroyed one month after researcher’s project is filed by Graduate
Studies or by June of 2012. Because of the personal nature of many of the questions
posed in the survey, information for accessing mental health support services was
provided should subjects feel they need it. Finally, the researcher’s contact information
was included should participants need additional information about the study.
Risk of discomfort or harm was minimized in several ways. First, survey
responses were kept confidential. Additionally, survey participants were given the option
to cease participation or decline to answer any given question at any time. Finally, in the
event that participants should become distressed or experience discomfort from having
completed the survey, resources were given for additional support, namely Counseling
and Psychological Services at California State University, Sacramento which provides
counseling services at no cost to students.
Summary
This chapter discussed the purpose, design and research methodology in the
study. Descriptions of the study population and the study sample were provided, as well
51
as a description of the survey instrument used and the means by which the data acquired
was analyzed by the researcher. A detailed explanation of the means by which ethical
practice was ensured for the protection of human subjects was outlined. In the next
chapter, the data will be analyzed.
52
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
The following chapter examines the results of the survey performed. The
demographic makeup of the respondents will be explored, and participant responses will
be discussed as they relate to the research question: the relationship between emotional
health (loneliness) and parasocial interaction with celebrities and other media figures.
Chi-square tests will be utilized to exemplify relationships between variables. This
chapter will conclude with a summary of the findings.
Research Question
The research question is what is the relationship between emotional health and
parasocial relationships with celebrities and other media figures? The factors being
explored in relationship to various parasocial behaviors for which findings will be
reported are: (1) demographic relationships with the dependent variable; (2) feeling in
tune with others; (3) feeling alone; (4) feeling close to others; (5) having someone to talk
to; (6) being able to find companionship when needed.
Survey Respondents
A total of 49 participants completed the survey. After eliminating results from
those respondents that did not answer at least half of the questions posed in the survey,
the data from a total of 46 surveys were coded and analyzed.
53
Dependent Variable
Parasocial Interaction. The dependent variable for the purpose of this study were
the various aspects of parasocial interaction derived from the Parasocial Interaction Scale.
The questions in Likert scale format were collapsed into two categories in order to create
more meaningful statistical analysis. Respondents selected between the following levels
of agreement on a four point scale: Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly
Disagree. Two multiple choice questions designed to measure frequency and type of
celebrity were also posed.
Independent Variables
Aspects of loneliness. With the exception of the gender, age and marital status
variables, all other variables were recoded following data collection to allow for a richer
statistical analysis. The independent variable in this study was the level of agreement
various aspects of loneliness derived from the UCLA Loneliness Scale. Respondents
chose between the following levels of agreement on a four point Likert scale: Strongly
Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. To allow for meaningful statistical
analysis, these variables were collapsed into two categories: Strongly Agree/Agree and
Disagree/Strongly Disagree. The process of coding each variable will be discussed under
the heading of each category.
Age. Because the survey population was comprised of a convenience sample of
mainly young adults, age was coded into two distinct categories in order to be more
easily utilized for statistical analysis: under 30 years of age, and 30 years of age and
54
older. The age category of under 30 year of age had a total of 42 responses (91.3
percent), while the age category of 30 year of age and older had a total of 4 responses
(8.1 percent). All 46 participants responded to this question.
Age and Comfort with Celebrities. The relationship between age and the
dependent variable “my favorite celebrity makes me feel comfortable as if we are
friends” was recoded into two response categories corresponding to the two highest and
the two lowest levels of agreement with this statement. Over three quarters (78.6 percent)
of the respondents under 30 years of age disagreed that celebrities make them feel
comfortable (Table 4.1) This association was approaching significance however two cells
that had an expected count less than five (X=5.436; df=1; p=.020).
Table 4.1
Age and comfort with celebrities
Age
Under 30 years of
age
30 years of age or
older
Total
Count
% within Age
% within
comfortable
% of Total
Count
% within Age
% within
comfortable
% of Total
Count
% within Age
% within
comfortable
% of Total
My favorite celebrity makes me feel
comfortable as if we are friends
Agree/strongly Disagree/strongly
agree
disagree
9
33
21.4%
78.6%
75.0%
97.1%
Total
42
100.0%
91.3%
19.6%
3
75.0%
25.0%
71.7%
1
25.0%
2.9%
91.3%
4
100.0%
8.7%
6.5%
12
26.1%
100.0%
2.2%
34
73.9%
100.0%
8.7%
46
100.0%
100.0%
26.1%
73.9%
100.0%
55
Gender. Of the total 46 respondents, 13 respondents (28.3 percent) indicated
they were male, and 33 respondents (71.7 percent) indicated they were female. Gender
was not found to have any significant relationships to the dependent variable (parasocial
interaction) when a chi square test was performed.
Gender and Frequency of Celebrity Encounters. The relationship between age
and the dependent variable (the frequency with which I see my favorite celebrity) was
recoded into two response categories (every day to 4-6 times a week, and 2-4 times a
week or less). Equal proportions of men and women saw their favorite celebrity every
day to 4-6 times a week. (Table 4.2) (X=5.719; df=1, p=.017). Chi square testing was
conducted between the two variables and the association was shown to be statistically
significant
Table 4.2
Gender and frequency of celebrity encounters
Gender
Male
Female
Total
Count
% within Gender
% within frequency
% of Total
Count
% within Gender
% within frequency
% of Total
Count
% within Gender
% within frequency
% of Total
The frequency with which I see my
favorite celebrity
Every day to 4- 2-4 times a week
6 times a week to once a week or
less
8
5
61.5%
28.5%
50.0%
16.7%
17.4%
10.9%
8
25
24.2%
75.8%
50.0%
83.3%
17.4%
54.3%
16
30
34.8%
65.2%
100.0%
100.0%
34.8%
65.2%
Total
13
100.0%
28.3%
28.3%
33
100.0%
71.7%
71.7%
46
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
56
Race. Of the total 46 respondents, 9 respondents (19.6 percent) indicated they
were Black/African American, 10 respondents (21.7 percent) indicated they were
Caucasian, 18 respondents (39.1 percent) indicated Asian/Pacific Islander, 7 respondents
(15.2 percent) indicated they were Hispanic, and 2 respondents (4.3 percent) responded
as “other” but did not specify an identified race. This variable was recoded into two
response categories (Caucasian and not Caucasian) in order to be more easily used for
statistical analysis.
Race and making remarks to celebrities on television. The relationship between
race and the dependent variable was recoded into two response categories. Nearly twothirds of the respondents who were not Caucasian agreed that they made remarks to their
favorite celebrity when they see them on television as compared to 30% of Caucasians
(Table 4.3) (X=3.401; df=1; p=.065). A chi square test was performed between the two
variables and though this association was approaching significance, it did not render any
statistically significant findings.
57
Table 4.3
Race and making remarks to celebrities on television
Race
Caucasian
Not
Caucasian
Total
Count
% within Race
% within Remarks
% of Total
Count
% within Race
% within Remarks
% of Total
Count
% within Race
% within Remarks
% of Total
Sometimes I make remarks to my
favorite celebrity when I see them
on TV
Agree/strongly Disagree/strongly
agree
disagree
3
7
30.0%
70.0%
12.0%
35.0%
6.7%
15.6%
22
13
62.9%
37.1%
88.0%
65.0%
48.9%
28.9%
25
20
55.6%
44.4%
100.0%
100.0%
55.6%
44.4%
Total
10
100.0%
22.2%
22.2%
35
100.0%
77.8%
77.8%
45
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Feeling “in tune” with others. There were 46 participants who responded to the
question “I feel in tune with the people around me.” Among these respondents 6
respondents (13 percent) indicated that they strongly agreed to this statement, 36
respondents (78.3 percent) indicated that they agreed, 3 respondents (6.5 percent)
indicated they disagreed, and 1 respondent (2.2 percent) indicated that they strongly
disagreed.
The “in tune” variable was also recoded into two new response categories:
Strongly Agree to Agree representing 91.3 percent of respondents, and Disagree to
Strongly disagree representing 8.7 percent of respondents. These recoded variables were
compared against the dependent variable “When I watch my favorite celebrity on
television, I feel as if I am a part of their world,” which was collapsed into two recoded
variables as aforementioned. Nearly three-quarters of respondents who agreed with being
58
in tune with others disagreed that when they watch their favorite celebrity on television
and feel as if they are a part that celebrity’s world Table 4.4). This association was
approaching significance (X=3.94; df=1; p=.047); however there were two cells that have
an expected count less than five.
Table 4.4
Feeling “in tune” and feeling a part of a celebrities world
I feel “in
tune” with
people
around me
Agree/
strongly
agree
Disagree/
strongly
disagree
Total
Count
% within Tune
% within World
% of Total
Count
% within Tune
% within World
% of Total
Count
% within Tune
% within World
% of Total
When I watch my favorite celebrity
on television I feel as if I am a part
of their world
Agree/strongly Disagree/strongly
agree
disagree
11
30
26.8%
73.2%
78.6%
96.8%
24.4%
66.7%
3
1
75.0%
25.0%
21.4%
3.2%
6.7%
2.2%
14
31
31.1%
68.9%
100.0%
100.0%
31.1%
68.9%
Total
41
100.0%
91.1%
91.1%
4
100.0%
8.9%
8.9%
45
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Feeling Alone. Similarly, 46 participants responded to the question “I feel alone
most of the time.” Among these respondents 3 respondents (6.5 percent) indicated that
they strongly agreed to this statement, 3 respondents (6.5 percent) indicated that they
agreed, 33 respondents (71.7 percent) indicate that they disagreed, and 7 respondents
(15.2 percent) indicated that they strongly disagreed.
The “feeling alone” variable, as previously mentioned was also recoded into two
new response categories: Strongly Agree to Agree representing 13 percent of
respondents, and Disagree to Strongly disagree representing 87 percent of respondents.
59
These recoded variables were compared against the dependent variable “When I watch
my favorite celebrity on television, I feel as if I am a part of their world,” which was
collapsed into two recoded variables as aforementioned. About three-quarters of
respondents reported disagreement to feeling alone most of the time and feeling part of a
celebrity’s world. Very few respondents actually agreed to both feeling alone and also
feeling part of a celebrity’s world Table 4.5). This association was approaching
significance (X=4.084; df=1; p=.043), however there were two cells that have a count
less than five.
Table 4.5
Feeling alone and feeling a part of a celebrity’s world
I feel alone
most of the
time
Agree/
strongly
agree
Disagree/
strongly
disagree
Total
Count
% within Alone
% within World
% of Total
Count
% within Alone
% within World
% of Total
Count
% within Alone
% within World
% of Total
When I watch my favorite celebrity
on television I feel as if I am a part
of their world
Agree/strongly Disagree/strongly
agree
disagree
4
2
66.7%
33.3%
28.6%
6.5%
8.9%
4.4%
10
29
25.6%
75.4%
71.4%
93.5%
22.2%
64.4%
14
31
31.1%
68.9%
100.0%
100.0%
31.1%
68.9%
Total
6
100.0%
13.3%
13.3%
39
100.0%
86.7%
86.7%
45
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Feeling close to people. All 46 participants responded to the question “I feel
close to people.” Of those respondents, 13 (28.3 percent) reported that they strongly
agreed with this statement, 26 (56.5 percent) reported that they agreed, 6 (13 percent)
reported that they disagreed, and 1 (2.2 percent) reported that they strongly disagreed.
60
The “feeling close” variable was recoded into two new response categories.
Strongly Agree to Agree representing 84.8 percent of respondents, and Disagree to
Strongly Disagree representing 15.2 percent of respondents. These recoded variables
were compared against the dependent variable “When I see my favorite celebrity
becoming emotional, I become emotional too,’ which was collapsed into two recoded
variables according to the two highest, and two lowest levels of agreement. In comparing
the two variables, 85.7 percent of respondents reported disagreement to feeling close to
others, while at the same time in agreement that when they see their favorite celebrity
becoming emotional, they become emotional themselves (Table 4.6) (X=6.717; df=1;
p=.010). Two cells had a count less than five.
Table 4.6
Feeling close to people and celebrity emotionality
I feel close
to people
Agree/
strongly
agree
Disagree/
strongly
disagree
Total
Count
% within close
% within
celebemotional
% of Total
Count
% within close
% within
celebemotional
% of Total
Count
% within close
% within
celebemotional
% of Total
When I see my favorite celebrity
become emotional, I become
emotional too
Agree/strongly Disagree/strongly
agree
disagree
13
26
33.3%
66.7%
68.4%
96.3%
Total
39
100.0%
84.8%
28.3%
6
85.7%
31.6%
56.5%
1
14.3%
3.7%
84.8%
7
100.0%
15.2%
13.0%
19
41.3%
100.0%
2.2%
27
58.7%
100.0%
15.2%
46
100.0%
100.0%
41.3%
58.7%
100.0%
61
Having people to talk to. Of the total 46 respondents that answered the question,
“I have people in my life I can talk to,” 19 respondents (41.3 percent) reported that they
strongly agreed to the statement, 26 people (56.5 percent) reported that they agreed, 1
respondent (2.2 percent) reported that they disagreed, and no participants indicated that
they strongly disagreed.
The “having people to talk to” variable was recoded into two new response
categories with strongly agree to agree representing 97.8 percent of responses, and
disagree to strongly disagree representing 2.2 percent of responses. The recoded
variables were compared against the dependent variable “the frequency with which I see
my favorite celebrity is” which was collapsed into two recoded variables according to the
two highest and two lowest levels of frequency (every day to 4-6 times a week, and 2-4
times a week to once a week or less). In comparing the two variables, 88.9 percent of
respondents were in agreement that they have people in their lives that they can talk to
while reporting the lowest frequency with which they see their celebrity (Table 4.7)
(X=6.814; df=1; p= .009). However, two cells had a count less than five.
62
Table 4.7
Having people in one’s life and frequency of celebrity encounters
I have
people in
my life that I
can talk to
Agree/
strongly
agree
Disagree/
strongly
disagree
Total
Count
% within Talk
% within Frequency
% of Total
Count
% within Talk
% within Frequency
% of Total
Count
% within Talk
% within Frequency
% of Total
Frequency
2-4 times a week
Everyday to 4- to once a week or
6 times a week
less
5
40
11.1%
88.9%
83.3%
100.0%
10.9%
87.0%
1
0
100.0%
0.0%
16.7%
0.0%
2.2%
0.0%
6
40
13.0%
87.0%
100.0%
100.0%
13.0%
87.0%
Total
45
100.0%
97.8%
97.8%
1
100.0%
2.2%
2.2%
46
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Companionship. All 46 respondents answered the question, “I feel I can find
companionship when I want it.” Of these respondents 13 people (28.3 percent) indicated
that they strongly agreed to this statement, 25 respondents (54.3 percent) indicated that
they agreed, 7 respondents (15.2 percent) indicated that they disagreed, and 1 respondent
(2.2%) indicated that they strongly disagreed.
The companionship variable was recoded into two new response categories with
Strongly Agree to agree representing 82.6 percent of responses, and Disagree to Strongly
Disagree representing 17.4 percent of responses. Recoded variables were compared
against the dependent variable “Sometimes I make remarks to my favorite celebrity when
I see them on TV,” which was collapsed into the two highest and two lowest levels of
agreement. In comparing the two variables, 100 percent of respondents who disagreed
that they can find companionship when they want it also agreed that they make remarks
63
to their favorite celebrity when they see them on television. About half of the
respondents who agree that they find companionship also agreed that they make remarks
to their favorite celebrity (table 4.8) (X= 6.632; df=1; p=.010). Two cells had a count
less than five.
Table 4.8
Companionship and making remarks to celebrities on television
I feel I can
find
companionship
when I need it
Agree/
strongly
agree
Disagree/
strongly
disagree
Total
Count
% within
Companionship
% within Remarks
% of Total
Count
% within
Companionship
% within Remarks
% of Total
Count
% within
Companionship
% within Remarks
% of Total
Sometimes I make remarks to my
favorite celebrity when I see them
on tv
Agree/strongly Disagree/strongly
agree
disagree
18
20
47.4%
52.6%
Total
38
100.0%
72.0%
40.0%
7
100.0%
100.0%
44.4%
0
0.0%
84.4%
84.4%
7
100.0%
28.0%
15.6%
25
55.6%
0.0%
0.0%
20
44.4%
15.6%
15.6%
45
100.0%
100.0%
55.6%
100.0%
44.4%
100.0%
100.0%
Summary
This chapter described the results of the survey performed. The demographic
characteristics and the responses of respondents were analyzed in an effort to examine the
relationship between aspects of loneliness and parasocial interaction with celebrities and
other media figures. Chi-square tests were utilized to find the statistical relationships
between variables. In the next chapter, the data gathered will be analyzed. The
64
conclusions, limitations and implications for social work practice and policy will also be
discussed.
65
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter will begin with a brief summary of the most important findings
discovered from the study. Findings presented will be those that were statistically
significant, those that were approaching significance, and others that while not
significant, were interesting or surprising. Thus a more in-depth discussion of the
findings of the study will be analyzed. Next, limitations of the study will be discussed,
followed by the implications of the findings at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels of
social work practice and policy. The chapter will conclude with recommendations for
future research and a final conclusion.
Summary
There remains little research into the affect that loneliness may have on media
consumption on a parasocial level. Past studies have looked only at one facet of
loneliness, not the many intricacies of the experience itself. The purpose of this study
was to clarify these studies through the exploration of what aspects of loneliness have the
strongest relationship with parasocial interaction with celebrities and other media figures.
Of the 13 items used to compare against behaviors of parasocial interaction, only one was
found to be statistically significant. Seven others approached significance.
The variable with the strongest significance, which was also the only
demographic variable, was gender and the frequency with which one sees their favorite
66
celebrity. This is consistent with research conducted by Cole and Leets (1999) which
found that no differences in sex [gender] are associated with parasocial interaction.
Other findings for which chi square tests were conducted did not render
statistically significant evidence, but were approaching significance. A chi square test
was approaching significance when comparing age with degree of celebrity comfort.
This revealed that a greater percentage of respondents under 30 years of age as compared
to 30 years of age or older disagreed that celebrities make them feel comfortable, as if
they are friends. The chi square was approaching significance for people who were more
likely to agree that they made remarks to their favorite celebrity when they see them on
television and also disagreeing that they feel “in tune” with others. Chi square tests were
approaching significance for reporting disagreement to feeling close to others while at the
same time feeling emotional when seeing one’s favorite celebrity becoming emotional.
Those who had the lowest frequency of seeing their favorite celebrity also agreed to have
someone to talk to about issues. This relationship had a chi square that was also
approaching significance. Finally about half of the respondents agreed that they can find
companionship when needed and also that they make remarks to their favorite celebrity; a
relationship that again was approaching significance.
Discussion
This study was created to explore aspects of loneliness and parasocial interaction
with celebrities and other media figures. The researcher first compared parasocial
interactions with the demographic characteristics of race, age and gender. Then, these
67
interactions were compared with aspects of the phenomenon of loneliness. When
examining the findings from a psychoanalytical lens, it is important to consider which
aspects of loneliness could be most closely associated with the basic human need for
connection and the ways in which people form meaningful connections with the world
around them through their relationships with others.
Age and Parasocial Behavior. Age could play an important role in the degree to
which people behave parasocially due to differences in the frequency with which people
of different age groups encounter media, and the through differences in the ages at which
people are the most likely to experience loneliness. It was therefore surprising that
younger adults (under 30 years of age) had higher levels of disagreement to parasocial
behavior. Rather, this study found that adults 30 years of age and older were more likely
to agree that they behaved parasocially. The researcher believed that the opposite would
be true given that the literature suggests that young adults are more likely to experience
loneliness (Perlman,1990), and are also the largest group of television media consumers
in the United States (Neilsen, 2011). However, more research needs to be conducted to
explore the connection between adults and loneliness, as well as adults and parasocial
behavior.
Gender and Parasocial Behavior. The fact that gender did not play a role in the
propensity towards parasocial behavior was not surprising. As aforementioned, a great
majority of studies on parasocial behavior have found that sex differences do not play a
large role in parasocial interaction. However differences have been identified in the type
68
of celebrity men and women interact with parasocially. Men tend to form stronger
parasocial bonds with male celebrities, whereas women form bonds with celebrities of
both sexes (Boone & Lomore, 2001). No analysis of the type of celebrity chosen by
respondents as a “favorite celebrity” was conducted for the purposes of this study.
Race and Parasocial Behavior. Though no significant statistical findings were
derived from this study with respect to race and parasocial behavior, the findings were
nonetheless interesting. The researcher believed that because they are less likely to be
emotionally healthy (Riolo et al., 2005), paired with the fact that they also consume a
great deal more media than the general population, minorities would report a higher
degree of parasocial activity (Nielsen, 2011). The findings from this study support this
assertion as minorities were found to report parasocial behavior at over twice the rate of
non-whites. At present little study has been done to investigate the relationship between
race and parasocial behavior—information that could help further the knowledge base
within the study of media engagement in general.
Connectivity with Others. Feeling “in tune” with others, having someone to talk
to about issues, and finding companionship when it is needed are important factors that
may play a role in the likelihood of parasocial interaction with celebrities. This study may
support prior research which found that people whose loneliness experience is due to
unmet relational needs may seek to buffer their attachment needs through parasocial
relationships (Greenwood & Long, 2011). The aspects of loneliness approaching the
69
greatest significance were those aspects of loneliness that are characterized primarily by a
need for attachment to others.
In applying findings to the literature, these findings may be consistent with both
the psychoanalytic tradition and attachment theory, which consider strength in
relationship to others as the key to emotional health. One of the most important aspects
of psychodynamic theory is the concept of object relations which asserts that significant
others are objects to which we must form meaningful attachments (beginning in early
childhood) (Zeldow, 2010). If we are unable to form these attachments, we struggle to do
so in adulthood. Sometimes we form attachments but in unhealthy ways.
The story is similar according to the study of adult attachment theory. Most
people carry their childhood attachment style into adulthood, and these styles determine
to a great degree the ways in which people experience intimacy in friendships and
relationships (Cole & Leets, 1999). Those who are the most insecurely attached tend
resort to more extreme relational behaviors. More research is of course necessary, but the
findings of this study suggest that it is the aspects of loneliness that have the most to do
with interaction with others that have the most bearing on one’s propensity towards
parasocial interaction. That is, the more people feel detached from others, the more they
may utilize relationships with celebrities and other media figures to supplement their
relational needs and reflect a desire for intimacy, even it is imagined (Cole & Leets,
1999).
70
The findings are also consistent with studies of the need to belong. Because need
to belong is not necessarily connected with any one attachment figure, it cannot be
described in the same way as attachment theory. Therefore, it is much broader than
attachment theory, which focuses on one figure as being the object of connection.
Therefore need to belong can be defined to include the desire to be included in groups or
the larger society. According to Greenwood and Long (2011), the key elements that
encourage parasocial interaction with celebrities is the absence of shared empathy paired
with heightened relational needs.
Finally, the findings of the research may support the idea that loneliness is a
complicated and multi-facted experience. It is for Russell (1996) a multidimensional
experience that is characterized by different relational deficits that come together to
create what we call loneliness. It was not simply being alone that influenced parasocial
behavior; rather it was a feeling of detachment from others which could presumably still
take place even in a crowded room full of people.
Limitations
The limitations of this study include the number of participants (n=46), the way in
which participants were obtained for the study, the collection methods, the research tool,
the study participants, and the researcher herself. The findings of this study cannot be
generalized to the larger population because of the limited number of participants utilized
for data collection. Furthermore, the sample procedures used in this study were not
representative because a convenience sample of available students was used. The
71
participant’s degree of awareness of the purpose of the study may have influenced the
answers reported. The researcher’s bias may have influenced the ways in which the
survey was designed, the data collected, and the subsequent analysis of the data itself. In
order for further research into this topic to be performed, the study should be duplicated;
changes made to the survey, and representative probability sampling methods should be
utilized. To gain a richer perspective on the studied phenomenon, qualitative analysis
would also be useful.
Implications for Social Work Practice and Policy
There are several implications for social work practice resulting from this study.
First, little research has been done with respect to media engagement in the field of social
work, and even less with respect to this research question. The research performed in this
study will therefore help to increase the knowledge base. It is the researcher’s hope that
the information collected by this study will inspire others to do additional research on this
topic.
On the micro level, it would be beneficial for social workers to be aware of media
as an environmental factor in the lives of clients. Social workers could therefore begin to
see media and celebrity as influences that can affect client’s thoughts, beliefs and
perceptions. It could also help social workers to be more cognizant of media events as
they apply to the individual lives of clients. Furthermore, social workers could reference
media in their own practice strategies, not only to build a rapport with clients, but to
provide objective examples through which phenomena happen in the lives of others and
72
in the larger culture. Social workers could also gain a richer understanding of how
media can be used as a coping strategy.
At the mezzo level, the findings of this study can assist social work educators to
expand curriculum to include media influences. Client reactions to celebrity and media
influence could be used an example of human behavior in the social environment.
Through the exploration of how this research topic and topics like it may intersect with
theories commonly used in social work, educators can provide students with a deeper
understanding of media as more than just an outside influence in the lives of clients. The
findings of this study may also provide increased social work knowledge of the
differences in media experiences across different populations of people, especially with
respect to race, class and gender.
On the macro level, social workers can use the research performed in this study to
work with media entities such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and
the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), as well as entertainment content
companies like Viacom to both educate and advocate for media consumers. Social
workers can highlight the ways in which the relationships consumers form with media
figures do have implications for their lives and behaviors. Social workers could therefore
advocate for more conscientious programming, and a greater awareness of human
behavior and popular culture amongst media providers.
This research could have implications on the policy level as well. Social workers
could utilize this research to increase awareness about topics that are consistent with
73
social work principles. For example, information about the degree to which people
identify with media can help entities such as the Ad Council which seeks to provide the
American public with education on a variety of topics such as teen pregnancy prevention,
drunk driving, and foster care. Such campaigns often enlist the help of celebrities who
have considerable media influence, and could therefore further awareness about topics
that are hot button societal issues. An example of this has been the “It Gets Better
campaign,” and the “No H8” campaign, which have utilized celebrity influence to
increase awareness about bullying, and homophobia, and the current policies surrounding
them.
Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between emotional health
(loneliness) and parasocial relationships with celebrities and other media figures. The
following section is a list of recommendations developed for future and present social
workers:

Social work education shall recognize the influence of media, particularly the
celebrity influence of human behavior and the social environment. This can be
done through examining media through the lens of various social work theories
and practice strategies.

Social work shall be concerned with the ways in which the influence of media and
celebrity effects the most vulnerable of society, especially with respect to race,
class and gender.
74

Social work shall be concerned with increasing the knowledge base with respect
to the use of media and relationships with celebrities and other media figures as a
coping strategy for life stressors like loneliness. This can be done by expanding
the scope of social work research to strive for a greater understanding of how
individuals view media influences (including celebrity) in comparison to their
own lives.

Social work shall expand its advocacy lens to include institutions that regulate
media engagement including the Motion Picture Association of America
(MPAA), the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and various other
media companies to shed light on the implications media and celebrity influences
have on vulnerable groups.

Social work shall be concerned with working with media entities to further
awareness of issues key to the profession through the use of media and media
figures who have considerable influence.

Further research shall be done on the topic in order to better understand how
emotional health may affect parasocial interaction with celebrities and other
media figures. This will in turn better prepare future social workers in
understanding this relationship. Areas of focus for future study shall include
areas that were either approaching significance, or were significant in the chi
square tests. Other studies shall aim for a deeper understanding, and may enlist
qualitative research, larger populations and representative sampling populations.
75
Conclusion
The primary purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between
emotional health as it relates to components of loneliness and parasocial interaction with
celebrities and other media figures. The secondary purpose of this study was to increase
the amount of research that has been performed on the topic as there is currently little
research done, especially within the field of social work. The findings from this study
suggest that additional research should be performed on the topic in order for it to be
better understood for application to social work practice.
Future research ought to include more demographic variables including socioeconomic status and level of education on the likelihood to engage in parasocial behavior
with celebrities, an expansion upon the number of aspects of loneliness used in the study,
and an expansion of the types of parasocial behaviors performed. The study might also
include additional forms of emotional health aside from loneliness. The study needs to
be duplicated in order to validate the findings. Supplementary in-depth analysis could be
used to further explore this topic and add to the body of knowledge that currently exists.
76
APPENDICES
77
APPENDIX A
Consent to Participate in Research
You are invited to participate in a research study that will be performed by Megan Marie
Daniel, a Master of Social Work student in the Division of Social Work at California
State University, Sacramento. This study will explore the relationship between
components of emotional health and parasocial relationships with celebrities and media
figures.
Procedures:
After carefully reading this form and agreeing to participate in this study, you will be
given a survey containing multiple choice and fill-in questions. This survey should take
about 15 minutes to complete. Your survey responses will be kept private and no names
will be recorded. As a participant in this study, you are free to decide not to answer any
specific question, skip questions, or stop taking the survey at any time.
Risks:
The discussion of some topics on the survey may illicit some emotional responses as you
reflect upon aspects of your emotional health relative to your relationship with celebrities
and media figures. If needed, you can seek mental support through California State
University, Sacramento Counseling and Psychological Services. They are located in The
Well, Primary Care on the second floor.
Counseling and Psychological Services provides free counseling to C.S.U.S. students,
and can also provide referrals to resources in the community. They can be reached at
(916) 278-6416 or www.csus.edu/psysrv/.
Furthermore, you may access their
Sacramento
Valley
Community
Resource
page
at
www.csus.edu/psysrv/CommunityRes/MentalHealthAgencies.html for regional list of
available resources.
Benefits:
The research gained by completing this survey may help others to better understand the
relationship between emotional health and parasocial relationships. In addition, by
participating in this study you may gain insight into that ways in which your own
emotional health may relate to your relationships with celebrities and media figures.
Confidentiality:
All information is confidential and every effort will be made to ensure that your
confidentiality is protected. Your responses to the survey will be kept confidential.
Information you provide on the consent form will be stored separately from completed
surveys and will be kept in a locked cabinet in a secure location in the researcher’s home.
Throughout the duration of the project, the researcher’s thesis advisor will have access to
the completed surveys. The final research report will not include any identifying
information. All data will be destroyed as of June 2012, approximately one month after
the project is filed with Graduate Studies at California State University Sacramento.
78
Compensation:
Participants will not receive any kind of fiscal compensation. Participants will be entered
into a drawing to win a gift card $50 to a local retail store as an inducement for
participation.
Rights to Withdraw:
If you decide not to participate in the survey, you may withdraw at any time. You may
elect not to answer any specific question on the survey.
Consent to Participate as a Research Subject
I have read the description on the Research Participation cover letter. I
understand that my participation is completely voluntary. My signature or initials
indicate that I have received a copy of the Research Participation cover letter and I agree
to participate in the study.
Signature or initials___________________________
Date_______________________
If you have any questions you can contact the researcher, Megan Marie Daniel via email
at Meganmariedaniel@gmail.com, or by telephone at (xxx) xxx-xxxx.
Or, if you need further information, you can contact the researcher’s thesis advisor:
Maria Dinis, Ph. D., MSW
c/o California State University Sacramento
(916) 278-7161
dinis@csus.edu
79
Consent to Participate as a Research Subject
I have read the description on the Research Participation cover letter. I
understand that my participation is completely voluntary. My signature or initials
indicate that I have received a copy of the Research Participation cover letter and I agree
to participate in the study.
Signature or initials___________________________
Date_______________________
If you have any questions you can contact the researcher, Megan Marie Daniel via email
at Meganmariedaniel@gmail.com, or by telephone at (xxx) xxx-xxxx.
Or, if you need further information, you can contact the researcher’s thesis advisor:
Maria Dinis, Ph. D., MSW
c/o California State University Sacramento
(916) 278-7161
dinis@csus.edu
80
APPENDIX B
Survey Instrument
Please answer the following demographic questions. Please only circle one option for each category.
Age
Under 30 year of age
30 years of age or
older
Race
Black
Caucasian
Asian/Pacific Islander
Native American/Alaskan
Native
Other_________________
Gender
Male
Marital Status
Single
Female
Married
Divorced
Widowed
Please answer the following questions as honestly as possible. Indicate whether you strongly agree,
agree, disagree, or strongly disagree to each question. Circle your answers completely.
I feel “in tune” with the people around me
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
I feel as if there are people I can turn to
Strongly Agree
Disagree
I feel alone most of the time
Strongly Agree
Disagree
I feel out going and friendly
Strongly Agree
Disagree
I feel close to people
Strongly Agree
Disagree
81
I feel I have meaningful relationships with others
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
I feel Isolated from others
Strongly Agree
Disagree
I feel there are people in my life that really understand me
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
I have people in my life that I can talk to
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
I feel I can find companionship when I want it
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Before answering the following questions, take a moment to think about your favorite celebrity.
Keeping your favorite celebrity in mind mark the response that is most applicable to you. Please
answer honestly.
My Favorite celebrity is (please write):___________________________________________
I see my favorite celebrity mostly:
In magazines
On television
Via the internet
Other______________
The frequency with which I see my favorite celebrity is:
Every day
less
4-6 times a week
2-4 times a week
Once a week or
82
When I see my favorite celebrity becoming emotional, I become emotional too
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
When my favorite celebrity gives their opinion about something, it helps me make up my own mind
about the topic
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
I feel sorry for my favorite celebrity when he/she makes a mistake
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
My favorite celebrity makes me feel comfortable as if we are friends
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
My favorite celebrity keeps me company when he/she is on television
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Sometimes I make remarks to my favorite celebrity when I see them on TV
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
I miss seeing my favorite celebrity when they are not on television
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
I find my favorite celebrity to be attractive
Strongly Agree
Disagree
Agree
83
I emulate the fashion/style of my favorite celebrity
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
When I watch my favorite celebrity on television, I feel as if I am a part of their world
Strongly Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
84
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