RETENTION: CURRENT RESEARCH AND BEST PRACTICES
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, School
Psychology and Deaf Studies
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION
in
School Psychology
by
Megan E. Andrew
Maryam A. Scaffidi
Kimberly C. Tzikas
SPRING
2012
RETENTION: CURRENT RESEARCH AND BEST PRACTICES
A Project
by
Megan E. Andrew
Maryam A. Scaffidi
Kimberly C. Tzikas
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Catherine Christo, Ph.D.
__________________________________
Date
ii
Students:
Megan E. Andrew
Maryam A. Scaffidi
Kimberly C. Tzikas
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and
credit is to be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Department Chair
Bruce A. Ostertag, Ed.D.
Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation,
School Psychology, and Deaf Studies
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
RETENTION: CURRENT RESEARCH AND BEST PRACTICES
by
Megan E. Andrew
Maryam A. Scaffidi
Kimberly C. Tzikas
The authors collaborated and shared equal responsibility in all aspects of the
development of this project that reviews current research and best practices of grade
retention. The practice of grade retention continues to be a controversial practice, as the
majority of research does not support this practice. The purpose of this project is to
provide administrators, teachers, and parents, with current research and resources, to
make an informed decision regarding the need to retain a student. The workshops will
provide information about grade retention regarding: perceptions, current research,
benefits, and alternatives. Those who attend this workshop are expected to gain insight
into the negative effects of retention, and learn about the alternatives that could be
utilized in the place of retention.
The prepared projects are: a five-hour PowerPoint training workshop for
administrators and teachers and a two-hour PowerPoint for parents. Materials provided
as a support to the workshops include: a presenter’s manual, related handouts, and
presenter notes with each PowerPoint slide. This presentation is created so that
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implementation can occur by any school psychologist or administrator, in order to
educate the target audience of each workshop. The workshops are expected to introduce
the topic of grade retention, provide current research, and equip educators, teachers, and
parents, with alternatives to grade retention.
________________________, Committee Chair
Catherine Christo, Ph.D.
________________________
Date
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. viii
Software Specifications ............................................................................................... ix
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1
Background of the Problem ...............................................................................1
Purpose of the Project ........................................................................................3
Definition of Terms............................................................................................3
Limitations .........................................................................................................3
Statement of Collaboration ................................................................................4
2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ........................................................................6
Introduction ........................................................................................................6
Rates of Retention in the United States .............................................................6
Retention Policies in Schools.............................................................................7
Demographics of Retained Students ................................................................10
Effects of Student Age at Time of Retention ...................................................11
Stakeholders’ Understanding of Grade Retention ...........................................13
Positive Outcomes of Retention.......................................................................18
When is Retention Appropriate? ......................................................................19
Negative Outcomes of Retention .....................................................................20
Alternatives to Retention .................................................................................23
Conclusion .......................................................................................................44
3. METHODS ............................................................................................................45
Research ...........................................................................................................45
Development of the Presentation .....................................................................46
4. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION ................................................................48
Interpretation ....................................................................................................48
Recommendations ............................................................................................50
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Appendix A. Presenter’s Manual ...............................................................................52
Appendix B. Presentation Slides: Educator Workshop .............................................58
Appendix C. Handouts: Educators ...........................................................................178
Appendix D. Presentation Slides: Parent Workshop ...............................................188
Appendix E. Handouts: Parents ...............................................................................265
References ..................................................................................................................273
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1.
Empirically Based Studies of School-based Mental Health Interventions..............32
2.
Joyce Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement ......................................35
3.
Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in Schools .............................................36
4.
Strategies for Improving the Five Key Areas for Reading Achievement ................38
5.
Evidence Based Reading Programs .........................................................................40
6.
Effective Instructional Strategies and Assessment ..................................................42
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SOFTWARE SPECIFICATIONS
The project appendices contain note pages within the presentation slides. The
notes are provided as a guide, for use during a workshop presentation. Slides should be
viewed using Microsoft® PowerPoint software.
ix
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
When a student fails to master academic material, educators face a range of
choices—they can provide extra tutoring, place the student in summer school, or,
as a last resort, hold the student back for a year. This last option—retention—
often proves to be a difficult and contentious issue for both schools and parents.
(Cannon, et al., 2011, p. 1)
Currently, there is a misconception about retention among administrators,
teachers, and parents. Rather than basing decisions on current research, educators are
typically influenced by personal experience and colleagues (Kagan, 1992). Furthermore,
parents are typically unaware of the negative consequences of grade retention (Akmal &
Larsen, 2004). This creates misinformed perspectives as to if, and when, to use retention
as an intervention for struggling students. Inappropriate use of retention can have many
negative consequences. Therefore, there is a need for educators and parents to have a
solid understanding of what retention is, what current research states regarding the effects
of retention, and alternative interventions available for students. Continuing education
opportunities are needed to provide educators and parents with the knowledge to
appropriately utilize the practice of grade retention.
Background of the Problem
Grade retention continues to be a well-known practice implemented within
schools. Multiple studies report retention rates as high as 15%; given a school population
of approximately 48 million students, more than 5.5 million students will be retained
2
(Griffith, Lloyd, Lane, & Tankersley, 2010). In addition, the percentage of students
retained has shown a steady increase over the last 25 years (Rafoth & Knickelbein, 2008).
This increase in rates is concerning due to research demonstrating negative academic,
social-emotional, and economic outcomes for students who are retained. Jimerson,
Woehr and Kaufman (2004) found that using retention as an intervention for academic
failure does not improve academic performance. Abbott et al. (2010) found that retained
students either show declines in achievement over several years after retention, or have
academic outcomes that are no better after repeating a grade than those of low-achieving
promoted students. In addition to the academic effects, Holmes (1989) reports retained
students display poorer social adjustment, more negative attitudes toward school, less
frequent attendance, and more problem behaviors.
Furthermore, the cost of retention can be significant. As stated by the Center for
Policy Research in Education (1990), it is estimated that school districts around the
country spend nearly ten billion dollars a year to provide an extra year of schooling for all
retainees. Unfortunately, schools continue to implement this practice, despite the
mounting evidence regarding the effects of grade retention.
The process, by which retention is determined, continues to vary across districts.
Due to the use of retention processes rarely built on research-based best practices,
retention continues to be utilized inappropriately, thus perpetuating the above mentioned
negative outcomes.
3
Purpose of the Project
This project aims to help parents and educators become more familiar with the
research surrounding retention; therefore, providing the knowledge necessary to
differentiate between when retention is inappropriate and when it may be appropriate for
select students. The secondary purpose is to provide parents, teachers, and administrator
with appropriate alternatives to address the needs of struggling students. These goals will
be met through two separate trainings; one five-hour training for administrators and
teachers, and a two-hour training designed for parents. During the workshop for
educators, a handout delineating a best practice protocol for grade retention will be
provided. A manual and presentation guide will also allow the workshops to be delivered
by any trained school psychologist.
Definition of Terms
According to Jimerson et al. (2004), “grade retention, also known as nonpromotion, flunking, failing, being held back, or the gift of time, refers to a child
repeating his or her current grade level again the following year” (p. 1). As explained by
Schnurr, Kundert and Nickerson (2009), grade retention provides an additional year of
instruction and growth for “students who are not academically and/or socially ready for
the next grade” (p. 1).
Limitations
This project has been designed to provide teachers, administrators, and parents
with the tools necessary to make informed decisions regarding the retention of students.
The majority of the research used within this project supports the need to decrease the use
4
of retention. However, the authors recognize that many studies cited by those against
retention are insufficiently sound to support the contention that making students repeat a
grade is always wrong (Lorence, 2006). Furthermore, National Association of School
Psychologists [NASP] (2003) states that no study at this time has been able to predict
accurately which children will benefit from being retained. Therefore, the suggestions as
to when retention may be appropriate are based on the current position statement held by
NASP.
Statement of Collaboration
This project was developed collaboratively. Each co-author had equal
responsibility in the research, collection, and data gathering. Areas of research
completed by Megan Andrew included:

negative economic effects;

teacher’s, administrator’s, student’s and parent’s beliefs;

effects of student age at time of retention;

behavior and cognitive behavior modification strategies;

Early reading programs;

effective instructional strategies and assessment
Areas of research completed by Maryam Scaffidi included:

rates of retention;

demographics of retained students;

negative academic effects;

positive outcomes;
5

preschool interventions;

comprehensive school-wide programs;

after school and summer school programs;
Areas of research completed by Kimberly Tzikas included:

retention policies;

negative social-emotional effects;

when is retention appropriate;

looping and multi-age classrooms;

school-based mental health programs;

parent involvement
Subsequent titles and subtitles were divided amongst the three individuals to
create a comprehensive project. All duties performed in the development of the project
and training workshop were shared equally.
6
Chapter 2
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Introduction
According to Jimerson et al. (2004), “grade retention, also known as nonpromotion, flunking, failing, being held back, or the gift of time, refers to a child
repeating his or her current grade level again the following year” (p.1). Overall, the
majority of research warns against retaining students; however, there are some instances
when researchers have found retention to be an appropriate intervention for struggling
students. These contrasting views on grade retention, as put forth by various researchers,
are also mirrored in the schools. Administration, teachers, parents and students appear to
be under-informed and, at times, disagree on if and when retention is appropriate. This
chapter provides a review of prior studies that examine the effects and trends of grade
retention. Specifically, a summary of research on the following will be reported: rates of
retention, retention policies, demographics of retained students, stakeholders’
understanding of retention, positive outcomes, negative outcomes, and alternatives to
retention.
Rates of Retention in the United States
Although rates vary across schools within the nation, overall, retention rates have
increased over the last decade. Poland (2009) found that approximately three million
children each year fail a grade. Other studies report retention rates as high as 15%,
demonstrating that within school populations of about 48 million students, more than 5.5
million students have been retained (Griffith et al., 2010). The National Association of
7
School Psychologists (NASP) (2003) also approximates that 15% of all American
students are retained each year, with 30-50% being held back at least once before the
ninth grade. The percentage of students retained has shown a steady increase over the
last 25 years to about 40% (Rafoth & Knickelbein, 2008).
The increase in retention rates may be attributed to the federal government’s
emphasis on making all students meet minimum academic standards, measured by end of
the year testing. Abbott et al. (2010) suggest that the demands districts and states are
facing for students to meet state-governed test scores, as a result of the No Child Left
Behind Act of 2001, have led to an increase in retention rates. Prior to this law, it was
common for low achieving students to be promoted to the next grade (Lorence &
Dworkin, 2006). However, Balow and Schwager (1990) reported that schools were
subject to careful scrutiny if students were promoted without having mastered the skills
needed to move on to the next grade level. As a result, retention was seen as a strategy to
help low achieving students and continues to be used as a popular means of intervention
in many schools today (Abbott et al.).
Retention Policies in Schools
Retention and promotion policies vary from state to state. In a 1997 study, the
American Federation of Teachers (AFT) looked at the promotion policies of 85 of the
largest school districts in the US. This study found that of the 78 districts that had written
policies, there were discrepancies between many of the districts’ policies including:
standards for promotion, key players in the decision to retain or promote educational
alternatives for students who are failing, and means of making retention rates public
8
information. For example, current state law in California requires every school district to
have a written Pupil Promotion and Retention (PPR) policy approved by the district’s
governing board. The history of recent changes in the requirements outlined in
California Education Code (EC), as explained by the California Department of Education
(2011) website, is summarized below:
Until 1998, California law only required school districts to have policies
pertaining to Pupil Promotion and Retention (PPR) (see California
Education Code [EC] Section 48070), without specifying any
requirements for those policies. With a growing concern about the "social
promotion" of students who do not meet grade-level standards, in 1998 the
California Legislature passed a new set of laws which transformed the
way students move from grade level to grade level. As part of the larger
standards-based school reform movement, this legislation outlined a
promotion process based on student attainment of grade-level content
standards (EC Section 48070.5 (a) through (j)), and at the same time
provided funding for intensive instructional support for those students who
are at risk of being retained (in grades two through six) or who are
recommended for retention or retained (in grades two through nine) (see
EC sections 37252.2 and 37252.8). (California Department of Education,
2011)
EC Section 48070.5 states that school districts’ PPR policies must include criteria
for promotion and retention at the following specific grade levels: between second and
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third grade, between third and fourth grade, between fourth and fifth grade, between the
end of the elementary grades and the beginning of middle school, between the end of the
middle school grades and the beginning of high school. The identification of students
who should be retained or who are at the risk of being retained should be based primarily
on proficiency in reading between the second and third grades and between the third and
fourth grades. For the remaining grade levels, identification should be based on
proficiency in reading, English-language arts, and mathematics. Districts may also set
promotion criteria at other grade levels; however, the state does not require school
districts to have student promotion and retention criteria beyond the last year of middle
school to the first year of high school. EC does not prohibit school districts from
retaining a child in more than one grade.
Consistent with EC Section 48070.5(b), districts’ PPR policy needs to include
students’ grades and other indicators of academic achievement in the decision making
process. Students’ results on the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program
may be included as one indicator of academic achievement; however, STAR testing
results may not be the exclusive criterion for promotion or retention.
If a pupil is identified as performing below the minimum standard for promotion,
EC states that the pupil shall be retained unless their general education classroom teacher
determines that retention is inappropriate. In this case, the teacher should specify
recommendations for intervention other than retention. In addition, school districts are
required to provide “programs of direct, systematic, and intensive supplemental
10
instruction to pupils enrolled in grades two through nine who have been recommended
for retention or who have been retained” (EC Sections 37252.2 and 37252.5).
To be in line with EC 48070.5(e), a district’s policy shall provide for parental
notification when a pupil is identified as being at risk of retention. This notice shall be
provided as early in the school year as practicable. A school can retain or promote a
student without parent or guardian approval. However, consistent with EC 48070.5(f)
policy, parents shall be provided with information regarding the process whereby the
decision of the teacher to retain or promote a pupil may be appealed.
Demographics of Retained Students
Nationwide, certain groups of students are more likely than others to be retained.
Characteristics such as age, gender, socioeconomic background, and race/ethnicity are
risk factors for early grade retention (Cannon et al., 2011). Cannon et al. found relatively
younger students, especially grades kindergarten through third grade, and boys, are more
likely to be held back. Griffith et al. (2010) reported recent national data showing that
more African Americans than Caucasians (16% and 8% respectively), more boys than
girls (13% and 6% respectively), and more students from households from the lowest
quartile than the middle two or top quartile on SES (16.9%, 10.6 %, and 3.9 %,
respectively) are retained.
A systematic method or criteria for deciding whether a student should be retained
may not always be utilized. However, factors such as students’ low academic
performance, failure to meet grade level standards, social immaturity, behavior problems,
being an English language learner, lack of parental involvement, and/or lack of
11
attendance and missed instruction are often reasons students are retained (Griffith et al.,
2010). They further argue that academic performance (e.g. early literacy skills) is the
most predictive factor of retention. Children with multiple risk factors noted above are
substantially more likely to be retained. In addition, Griffith et al. reported that the
majority of students with specific learning disabilities are retained at least once prior to
the time when they are determined to be eligible for special education.
Children with behavior problems, or students who appear to lack social skills or
maturity, are also targeted for retention. Social immaturity (e.g. difficulty paying
attention, poor social skills, poor emotional regulation, etc.) is one of the primary reasons
students are recommended for retention (Wu, West & Hughes, 2010). In addition, Wu et
al. report student’s physical size as another risk factor. Simply being physically “small”
in comparison to same age peers, appears to be another reason for retaining students.
With an extra year of physical maturation, the retained child’s ability to follow rules and
gain social skills is expected to improve relative to the prior year and to his or her
(younger) classmates.
Effects of Student Age at Time of Retention
There have been many questions regarding the age at which a student should be
retained. It is assumed that the younger a student is when retained, the more likely he or
she is to succeed academically, both short-and long-term. A study by Silberglitt,
Appleton, Burns and Jimerson (2006) found that early grade retention (kindergarten
through second grade) did not yield advantages in reading from first to eighth grade,
relative to students retained later (third through fifth grades). However, Pomplun (1988)
12
noted that retention may decrease in effectiveness as grade level increases. It is apparent
that research regarding when retention is most effective is inconclusive.
Academic Redshirting
Cannon et al. (2011) reported that many parents intentionally delay school entry, a
strategy also known as “academic redshirting.” The majority of these parents choose to
delay their child’s entrance into kindergarten an additional year in order to give the child
extra time to mature and gain skills. However, a study conducted by Loeb, Bridges,
Bassok, Fuller and Rumberger (2007) found young kindergartners made similar progress
during their kindergarten year when compared to their older peers. In addition, Quirk,
Furlong, Lilles, Felix and Chin (2011) found the practice of redshirting was not
associated with school readiness or accelerated achievement and that the strongest
predictor of school readiness is high quality preschool. In this same study, the youngest
children in the sample with preschool were rated more ready for kindergarten than the
oldest students without preschool; thus suggesting that age does not moderate the
effectiveness of preschool. Furthermore, research by Rafoth and Knickelbein (2008)
suggests delayed entrants into kindergarten had lower achievement test scores later on, in
addition to higher rates of high risk behaviors in adolescence. Late entry into
kindergarten also denies children an opportunity for cognitive growth through social
interaction with their age-mates (National Association of Early Childhood Specialists,
2000). The sum of this research suggests, like retention, delayed entry should not be used
as a means of intervention.
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Stakeholders’ Understanding of Grade Retention
Teachers
The continued implementation of grade retention may be attributed not only to the
academic policies and standards within federal and local governments, but also as a result
of the current beliefs and perspectives of educators. As demonstrated by the results from
the Teacher Retention Beliefs Questionnaire, reported by Tomchin and Impara in 1992,
many teachers from various grade levels identified retention as an appropriate
intervention. In addition, Kagan (1992) reported that teachers are more likely to base
their decisions to retain students on personal experience and advice from colleagues
rather than research. As just stated, perceptions held by teachers appear to be based on
their personal and short-term interactions with retained students, rather than being based
on research (Witmer, Hoffman & Nottis, 2004). There are various points proposed by
educators regarding the positive effects of retention, including the belief that retention
provides students with the opportunity to improve on foundational knowledge and skills,
as well allowing students the opportunity to acquire social and behavioral skills, prior to
the next grade level (Cannon et al., 2011). In addition, educators may also have the
opinion that retention can have positive social and emotional outcomes, due to the
stimulation that may be provided to student’s self-concept and self-confidence during the
repeated year. This may be attributed to their advantage in knowledge and skills over
their new classmates (Goos, Van Damme, Onghena, & Petry, 2011). Although students
may have some advantage over peers when the school year first begins, Goos et al.
(2011) found that teachers continued to rate the retained student as lower performing in
14
math and language, than their younger-aged peers. The positive perceptions held by
teachers in regards to grade retention create an interesting contrast when evaluating the
negative perception teachers hold with regards to the retained student themselves.
Administrators
Input from various people can contribute to the decision to retain a student.
Therefore, not only is it important to evaluate the perspective that teachers have on
retention, but also the perspective that administrators may hold as well. Interviews were
conducted with principals throughout the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD)
regarding their opinion on grade retention. The results of these interviews demonstrated
that administrators have varied attitudes toward retention (Cannon et al., 2011). Many
acknowledged that grade retention can have short-term benefits, but were concerned
regarding the long-term consequences that may occur. Some did not believe that
retention was an effective way of improving students’ long-term performance, while
others found that grade retention could be effective in certain cases. Proponents of
retention believed it would be wrong to promote a student who was struggling and give
him or her more difficult coursework in the following grade level.
Although principals varied in their opinions regarding the effects of retention,
principals did have a general consensus that if retention was going to occur, it should be
implemented in the earlier grade levels, rather than the later grades. However, they did
not agree on the specific grade in which retention is appropriate. In addition, academics
were considered the main indicator of retention, but some did also believe a student’s
maturity and social skills should be taken into consideration in order to evaluate the
15
“whole child” (Cannon et al., 2011). Lastly, a number of principals indicated that the
final decision to retain did fall to the administrators, as they can “influence or override
teacher recommendations” (Cannon et al., 2011, p 16).
In a study conducted by Murray, Woodruff and Vaughn (2010), principals were
again asked questions regarding their perspective on grade retention, as well as the
procedures in place for implementing grade retention at their schools. Overall, the study
demonstrated a lack of consistency when it came to decisions regarding grade retention;
however, some commonalities did emerge. These included the importance of parental
input and the use of assessment data (including progress monitoring) and student grades
when making decisions regarding retention.
Parents
Although a school can retain or promote a student without parent approval, it is
important that parents are informed of the options available to them regarding their
child’s education (Jimerson et al., 2004). A study conducted by Akmal and Larsen
(2004), used qualitative methods in order to understand the nature of parent involvement
when arriving at the decision to retain middle school students. It was found that parents
always received a letter informing them that their child was at risk of retention, and that it
was important for parents to contact their child’s teacher immediately.
From the interviews conducted by Akmal and Larsen (2004), it was found that
some parents agreed with the decision to retain, or asked for their child to be retained. It
was a common theme across all schools, that when parents requested their child be
retained, it was a way of showing punishment for “failing to show initiative or
16
cooperation” (Akmal & Larsen, 2004, p. 11). Parents did not appear to demonstrate an
understanding regarding the research on retention, nor did they appear to be provided
with information regarding the possible effects that grade retention may have on their
child. As stated by Jimerson et al. (2004), information should be given to parents in
order to provide them with a better understanding regarding the possible effects of
retention on their child. Jimerson et al. also suggest effective interventions and resources
that parents can access to further their understanding of grade retention.
Students
In a study conducted by Yamamoto and Byrnes in 1987, the evaluation of stress
in a child’s life was assessed. The results indicated that by the time a student was in the
sixth grade, only the loss of a parent and going blind would create a more stressful event
than grade retention. This study was replicated in 2001, and both studies also
demonstrated a trend showing an increase in the stress associated with grade retention
from first, to third, and then to sixth grade (Jimerson & Kaufman, 2003).
According to students, “not much changed the second (or third) time around”
(Penna & Tallerico, 2005, p. 14) when they were retained; rather they received the same
instruction, textbooks, and assignments that they failed the previous year, and the
redundant routine in the classroom was ultimately boring and frustrating (Penna &
Tallerico). Some students reported receiving less help, and at times, being the subject of
public humiliation by the teacher (Penna & Tallerico). Students can also be ridiculed by
their peers through both verbal remarks and demeaning behaviors. Participants in the
study conducted by Penna and Tallerico, stated that they were often mocked, picked on,
17
bullied, and berated because of their age and retained status. With the constant ridicule
from adults and teachers, participants described the various emotions they endured
regarding both themselves and the adults responsible for the retention decision. Some of
these emotions consisted of anger, denial, disbelief, shame, and humiliation. Students
gained a “loss of hope” in regards to the decision they ultimately found to be illogical or
unjust. The study reported that one second-time retainee did not believe that repeating
the year would benefit him and “the teachers would be too busy to help me” (Penna &
Tallerico, 2005, p. 14).
Grade retention is the single most powerful predictor of dropping out of school
(Penna & Tallerico, 2005). In a study conducted by Penna and Tallerico, students were
interviewed who were at one point retained, and who dropped out of school. Twenty of
the twenty-four students interviewed, “identified grade retention as their eventual exit”
(p. 14). When examiners began to evaluate the effects that retention had on the students’
eventual exit from school, it was apparent that their retention experience “underscored
three interrelated phenomena: (a) the unhelpful nature of the repeat year, academically;
(b) social stigmatization by peers, primarily for being overage for grade level; and (c),
their own immediate and longer-term emotional reactions to these academic setbacks and
peer pressures” (Penna & Tallerico, 2005, p. 14).
According to the literature, students appear to perceive grade retention as an
unjustified way of addressing academic and behavioral difficulties. Overall, students
may experience resentment, worthlessness, withdrawal, lower employment rates, and
18
higher rates of school drop-out (Jimerson, 1999; Jimerson & Kaufman, 2003; Jimerson,
Pletcher et al., 2006; Penna & Tallerico, 2005).
Positive Outcomes of Retention
Studies in favor of retention posit that making students repeat a grade benefits the
students and promotes academic success. Proponents of retention believe that promoting
underperforming students teaches students and teachers that effort and achievement are
unimportant (American Federation of Teachers [AFT], 1997). AFT (1997) further claims
teachers are forced to deal with a much wider range of student preparedness when lowperforming students are promoted, and students who are not retained are denied a second
chance to learn what they missed.
Cannon et al. (2011) reported students who were retained in the first or second
grade can significantly improve their grade-level skills during the repeated year.
Furthermore, they reported improvement in English Language Arts, with many
improving at least one proficiency level. Cannon et al. further noted, however, that
although all groups achieved educationally meaningful gains, students who repeated a
grade did not catch up to their original peers’ level of performance. Witmer et al. (2004)
also found any small positive effects that had been seen with the retained students usually
were not sustained beyond a few years.
Wu et al. (2010), however, found that students benefited from retention in both
short- and long-term, as reported by teacher-rated behavioral observations. Their
research followed up on students who had been retained in first grade and noted
significant academic competence and social improvement among these students as they
19
progressed through the fourth grade. Students with behavioral issues were perceived to
display a decrease in hyperactivity and increased behavioral engagement. However, they
note that despite benefits through fourth grade, retention may create vulnerabilities which
may not appear until the middle grades. For example, students may become more
sensitive to being over-age for a grade.
The positive effect of grade retention noted by Lorence (2006) is specific to the
instructional practices that students receive during their repeated grade. If a student is
covering the same material from the previous year, retained students are likely to
experience little progress, if any. Instead, Lorence suggests teachers prepare individual
education plans to address the academic needs of the students who repeat a grade. With
supplemental educational support for students who have been retained, retained students’
academic performance increased (Lorence & Dworkin, 2006). Overall, any gains made
by low-performing students can be attributed to the number of hours spent in, as well as
the intensity of, the intervention, not retention per se (Abbot et al., 2010).
When is Retention Appropriate?
A review of research conducted by Lorence (2006) posited that most of the
studies cited by those against retention are insufficiently sound to support the contention
that making students repeat a grade is always wrong. However, at this time, there are no
specific indicators that predict which children could benefit from retention (Jimerson et
al., 2004). Lorence encourages future research surrounding what appropriate criteria are
needed to determine if retention is worthwhile and what should be the goals of retention.
NASP (2003) also agrees that no study has been able to predict accurately which children
20
will benefit from being retained; however, according to the NASP position statement,
under some circumstances, retention is less likely to yield negative effects. These
circumstances include: students who have relatively positive self-concepts; good peer
relationships; social, emotional, and behavioral strengths; and those who have fewer
achievement problems. In addition, it may be appropriate to retain a student who has
difficulty in school due to a lack of opportunity for instruction, rather than lack of ability;
however, retention is only appropriate if this lack of opportunity is due to attendance and
mobility, and these problems have been resolved. Furthermore, the student should be no
more than one year older than his or her classmates. Lastly, for retention to be less likely
to yield negative effects, students should receive specific remediation to address skills or
behavioral deficits and promote achievement and social skills during the repeated grade.
Negative Outcomes of Retention
Academic
The majority of research has concluded that retention has significant negative
effects on academic outcomes. Jimerson et al. (2004) found that using retention as an
intervention for academic failure does not improve academic performance. Abbott et al.
(2010) found that retained students either show declines in achievement over several
years after retention, or have academic outcomes that are no better after repeating a grade
than those of low-achieving promoted students. Although initial academic improvement
may occur during the year the student is retained, achievement gains decline within two
to three years of retention (Jimerson et al.). It is unwise to return students to the same
insufficient academic environment that failed them in the first place (Abbott et al.).
21
If a student is not given additional instruction to help him/her learn material
missed the previous year, there is little reason to expect simply repeating the curriculum
will enhance student learning (Rafoth & Knickelbein, 2008). Rafoth and Knickelbein
further noted that once students have been retained, they often do not receive additional
services necessary for them to achieve in school. For students who have significant
learning problems, simply making them repeat a grade is not helpful (Lorence &
Dworkin, 2006).
Lastly, as stated previously, retention is the single most powerful predictor of
dropping out of school. Therefore, students who are retained are at a high risk for cutting
their education short.
Social and Emotional
A review of research has revealed there are relatively few studies that have
addressed the social and emotional outcomes of retention (Jimerson, et al., 2006).
According to Bonvin, Bless, and Schuepbach (2008), in addition to being scarce, research
in this area is very heterogeneous with regard to objectives, design, measuring
instruments, and longevity of the resulting effects. Thus, some researchers have
concluded it is inappropriate to draw any firm conclusions from the available studies
(Bonvin et al.; Lorence, 2006; Wu et al., 2010). In contrast, other researchers and the
National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) do support conclusions regarding
negative social and emotional consequences experienced by retained students. NASP’s
most recent position statement adopted by the NASP Delegate Assembly in 2003 states
there are research-supported negative impacts on students. For example, retention is
22
associated with significant increases in behavior problems as well as an increased risk of
health-compromising behaviors such as emotional distress, cigarette use, alcohol use,
drug abuse, suicidal intentions, and violent behaviors (NASP, 2003). In a well-known
meta-analysis, Holmes (1989) concluded that on average, retained students displayed
poorer social adjustment, more negative attitudes toward school, less frequent attendance,
and more problem behaviors in comparison to control groups. In a longitudinal study of
grade retention conducted by Jimerson & Ferguson (2007), results suggested that retained
students displayed more aggression than the promoted group of students. Lastly,
Alexander, Entwisle and Dauber (1994) and Smalls (1997) reported students associate
being retained with “flunking”; this association is hard on their self-esteem and resulted
in teasing from their peers.
Economic
As stated by the Center for Policy Research in Education (1990), it is estimated
that school districts around the country spend nearly ten billion dollars a year to provide
an extra year of schooling for all retainees. As stated by Eide and Goldhaber (2005), the
cost of retention can be significant depending on the amount spent locally, as well the
cost of additional educational programs (e.g., tutoring, summer school, etc.). The costs of
academic interventions are expensive, and typically are the responsibility of the school
district; however, the cost of grade retention falls largely on the state (Cannon et al.,
2011).
The cost of retaining a student is evaluated based on the extra money spent by the
tax-payers to educate a student for an additional year, as well as the delayed entry into the
23
workforce (Eide & Goldhaber, 2005). According to Eide and Goldhaber, “ the cost to the
individual (an opportunity cost) associated with delayed entry into the job market
depends ultimately on how much the individuals would have earned in the year that they
did not enter the labor market” (p. 199). In addition, as stated earlier, studies show a high
correlation between grade retention and high school dropout rates. The increase in
dropout rates make students ill-equipped for the modern workforce and ultimately paying
less tax, adding cost to welfare programs, and being disproportionately represented in
crime and incarceration statistics (Rumberger, 1987). From the societal level, the cost
associated with grade retention and high school drop-out rates, is estimated to exceed
$240 billion dollars annually (Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007).
Alternatives to Retention
School districts try to improve student outcomes by using retention as a means of
intervention for academic failure; however, few studies have shown positive outcomes
after retention. Instead of continuing this expensive practice that may be detrimental to
students, changes on the micro and macro level are necessary (Jimerson et al., 2006).
Jimerson et al. have concluded that children are most often retained due to low academic
achievement, behavior struggles, or a combination of both. Therefore, school-wide
interventions (macro) and instructional strategies (micro) designed to address these areas
are imperative to reduce retention rates and appropriately address the needs of struggling
students. Depending on the timing of implementation, such strategies may serve as
prevention for those students at-risk for retention, or as an intervention for students
recommended for retention (Jimerson et al.). Strategies which may serve as alternatives
24
to retention, through both prevention and intervention, include (a) preschool programs,
(b) comprehensive school-wide programs, (c) summer school and after school programs,
(d) looping and multi-age classrooms, (e) school-based mental health programs, (f) parent
involvement, (g) early reading programs, (h) effective instructional strategies, and (i)
behavior/cognitive behavior modification (Jimerson et al.).
Preschool Intervention Programs
Poland (2009) suggests that implementation of universal pre-school programs
benefits children and reduces retention rates. Basic literacy skills, pro-social behaviors,
and socio-emotional development are emphasized in pre-school programs. Early
emphasis may assist at-risk students before they experience academic challenges by
providing a foundation of skills. By enhancing the necessary skills for academic success
through pre-school programs, retention may be prevented (Jimerson et al., 2006).
Sorlie and Ogden (2007) provided a community-wide intervention model
developed in Norway, named Early Intervention for Children at Risk for Developing
Behavioral Problems (EICR), aimed at preventing and treating problem behavior in
children as young as three years old. Sorlie and Ogden believed that pre-school
consultation is important; as such, training should be targeted to help teachers and
preschool staff interacts competently with behaviorally problematic children. Training
should include teaching of common rules, good directions, encouragement, negative
consequences, and problem solving skills. Sorlie and Ogden further emphasized the
importance of social skills training for pre-school students. Social skills groups should
instruct at-risk pre-school students how to reduce problematic behavior that may lead to
25
retention in later grades. Core components of social skills training should address
emotion regulation, problem solving, and anger management. A finding from Sorlie and
Ogden showed that after one year of implementing EICR, the prevalence of student
problem behavior was significantly lower, and student relations were better in schools
that implemented the intervention, in comparison to schools that did not. Findings
suggested that early intervention programs, such as EICR, can promote development of
healthy social relations among peers that can prevent the onset of problem behavior,
which could reduce retention rates in later grades (Sorlie & Ogden).
Jones, Daley, Hutchings, Bywater and Eames (2008) reviewed one specific
program implemented in the UK, named the Incredible Years (IY) Basic Parent Training
(PT) program. The IYPT is a community-based program implemented for preschool
children at risk of developing both conduct problems and ADHD. The program promotes
positive parenting through the use of (a) reinforcement through play and child-centered
activities; (b) praise, reward, and incentives for appropriate behaviors; (c) guidance in the
use of limit setting and structure; and (d) strategies for managing non-compliance (Jones
et al.). Parents attended a 12-week course for 2.5 hours per week, led by a certified
facilitator. The efficacy of this program was examined, and findings concluded that the
IYPT program was a valuable intervention for many students displaying early signs of
ADHD. The success of this psychosocial intervention is based on the premise that early
intervention, before the transition to school and before the child’s behavior becomes
associated with anti-social tendency and school failure, offers the best opportunity of
altering the developmental course of potential behavioral disorders (Jones et. al).
26
As mentioned earlier, the purpose of early intervention programs is to minimize
retention rates. Other well documented and well researched early intervention programs
for at-risk children include the federally funded Head Start Project, The Carolina
Abecedarian Project, the Milwaukee Project, and The Perry Pre School Project. These
programs focus on high-risk families (identified by low income, low parental IQ, and low
education). The importance of early identification and intervention is stressed both in
child health policies and in the scientific literature (Sonnander, 2000).
Comprehensive Programs to Promote Social and Academic Development
Implementation of comprehensive programs requires a significant commitment by
school administration and faculty to look at system change; however, if these programs
are successful, they may lead to reduction in retention (Jimerson et al., 2006). Schnurr et
al. (2009) recommend system change through reviewing the appropriateness of
curriculum and instruction and evaluating the effectiveness of school-wide interventions.
Bowman (2005) further emphasizes the importance of critically examining
classroom and school practices, but also emphasizes the importance of teacher
preparedness. To address this need, school districts can offer more opportunities for
teachers to network and provide ongoing professional development. Teacher preparation
programs should also make teachers aware of the current research on grade retention.
George, Harrower and Knoster (2003) defined school-wide behavior support
simply as, establishing specific guidelines and providing proactive prevention and
support for all students and faculty in a given school. The goal is to nurture the
emergence of a school culture that promotes positive or appropriate behavior, and
27
operates through collaborative data-based decision making to build a positive
school climate. (p. 171).
When implementing a school-wide support system, George et al. recommend six general
steps that ensure success:
1. Establish a foundation for collaboration or operation;
2. Build faculty involvement;
3. Establish a data-based decision-making system;
4. Brainstorm and select strategies within an action planning process;
5. Implement school-wide program through an action plan;
6. Monitor, evaluate, and modify the program.
An example of an assessment tool for a school-wide program is the Positive
Behavior Support: Comprehensive Assessment Tool (PBS-CAT), which provides a series
of prompts relevant to specific action planning, stemming from the six steps. Prevention
and early intervention through the use of PBS-CAT allows administrators to identify
areas of need within their school building. As a result, schools can develop specific
action plans for addressing relative areas of need within a comprehensive model of
prevention and early intervention. Overall, with the implementation of school-wide
programs for prevention and early interventions in place, schools can expect to see a
decrease in the number of behavior incidents, as well as positive changes related to
academic achievement and overall school climate (George et al., 2003).
28
Summer School and After School Programs
Research has shown additional time and exposure may help struggling students
master academic material (Jimerson et al., 2006). Cannon et al. (2011) suggest the
following interventions to increase exposure to academic material for at-risk students: (a)
trained instructional aides to work with students in small groups on specific skills; (b)
learning centers and resource specialists for individual or small groups in the classroom,
or in “pull out” sessions; (c) after school tutoring led by trained school staff or
volunteers; and (d) summer school or intersession classes. Giving students additional and
individualized instruction, rather than retaining them, can help to avoid the negative
effects a student may experience by being a year older than his or her peers.
Smink (2011) argued that school leaders should invest in summer learning,
because when students are not engaged in learning during the summer, they fall behind in
math and reading. Recent studies by Smink found that after implementing a summer
program in Pittsburgh public schools, there was a 400 percent increase in attendance.
Smink also implemented a summer program in Baltimore City public schools and found a
23 percent increase in students moving from basic, to proficient or advanced in math and
an 18 percent increase in students moving from basic, to proficient or advanced in
language arts. In order to support students and provide continued instruction that leads to
improved academic achievement, Smink suggested schools partner with summer school
programs facilitated by libraries, parks, or youth employment agencies, in order to stretch
public funds.
29
In addition to summer programs providing further instruction to improve student’s
academic performance, Smith (2011) reported a financial gain as well. As reported by
Smith, when students return to school after the summer, the cost of re-teaching forgotten
material can be more than $1,500 per student each year, or more than $18,000 over the
course of a K-12 career. By providing students with summer school instruction, funds
that would be spent on re-teaching the students at the beginning of the new school year,
would then be saved.
Additional intervention can be provided through after school programs. As
discussed by Sherman and Catapano (2011), one benefit to after-school programs, is the
increase in student learning due to an increase in time spent on academic activities. This
was evaluated through an after school mathematics program in urban areas. In this same
study, teachers reported a noticeable difference among students who participated in the
after school program; students were more confident when taking the state-mandated
standardized tests, and improved their mental computation skills. After school programs
provide opportunities for K-12 students to experience additional academic support in
formats that are different from what they experience during the school day. These
programs also provide an opportunity for middle, or high school students, to help tutor
younger children (Sherman & Catapano).
Continued learning in summer school and after school programs provides students
with the opportunity to read for more sustained periods, show greater confidence as a
learner, ask and answer more questions, listen and follow directions, as well as allow for
improvement in the ability to work independently and in groups.
30
Looping and Multi-Age Classrooms
Looping classrooms have students spend two or more years with the same
teacher. The practice of looping has been described under various names, including
teacher rotation, family-style learning, student-teacher progression, and multiyear
instruction (Cistone & Shneyderman, 2004). A study conducted by Cistone and
Shneyderman analyzed the academic performance (reading comprehension and
mathematics applications) and retention rates of two groups of students. Comparisons
occurred through both a looping sample and a matching sample. Students in the looping
sample substantially outperformed their matched counterparts in both subject areas; in
addition, the number of students in the looping sample retained after the 1999-2000
school year was significantly lower than the corresponding figure for the matching
sample. Cistone and Shneyderman’s work suggests that participation in looping not only
increases academic achievement, but also reduces student retention rates.
Multi-age grouping classrooms are sometimes referred to as combo classes. In
this alternative classroom structure, students from two consecutive grades are in the same
classroom and taught by the same teacher. Multi-age classrooms can help address the
needs of diverse student abilities and can serve as a viable alternative to retention
(Darling-Hammond, 1998). In addition to the flexibility for academic instruction, a child
who is behind socially or behaviorally (a common reason for retention) can take
advantage of the diverse peer resources available in multiage classrooms. In addition,
older students can model appropriate classroom routines and social interactions for
younger students (Kappler & Roellke, 2002). Darling-Hammond noted that students in
31
multiage classes often demonstrate more cooperative behavior and are more able to adjust
to new situations.
School-Based Mental Health Programs
Successful implementation of school-based mental health programs may be an
effective way to decrease retention rates. Students with mental health challenges often
fall behind their classmates (Jimerson et al., 2006) and can end up being recommended
for retention. According to Dwyer (2004), school-based prevention and intervention
practices have become essential for reducing the incidence of mental health problems that
interfere with learning and social development. Furthermore, Greenwood, Kratochwill
and Clements (2008) found that schools provide excellent settings for targeting children’s
mental health, their academic performance, and the important connection between the
two.
Many universal (Tier 1) evidenced-based interventions, which address schoolbased mental health needs, involve teacher implementation. Additionally, more specific
(Tier 2 and 3) mental-health interventions often require teacher referral (Greenberg,
Domitrovich & Bumbarger, 2001). Therefore, teacher ‘buy-in’ is imperative to the
success of school-based mental health programs. Reinke, Stormont, Herman, Puri, and
Goel (2011) recently investigated teacher perceptions around supporting children’s
mental health needs in schools. Results indicated that teachers view themselves as
important participants in addressing their students’ mental health; however, only 34% of
teachers in this particular study reported that they felt they had the necessary skills to
support these needs in the classroom. Therefore, in addition to getting teacher ‘buy-in’, it
32
is necessary that the implementation of school-based mental health programs include
effective training and ongoing consultation for teachers; a role which could be filled by a
school psychologist on campus.
Hoagwood et al. (2007) did an extensive review of empirically based studies of
school-based mental health interventions. This review identified 64 out of more than
2,000 articles published between 1990 and 2006 that met methodologically rigorous
criteria. Of the 64 studies, 40 solely examined mental health outcomes, while 24
examined academic and mental health outcomes. Some of the studies and related
programs which met the researcher’s criteria are listed Table 1.
Table 1
Empirically Based Studies of School-based Mental Health Interventions
Author
Name
Catalano,
Mazza, &
Harachi,
2003
Raising Healthy
Children
Gottfredson, Social problemJones, &
solving
Gore, 2002
curriculum
Intervention
Components
Universal
interventions
targeting
socialization in
classrooms,
families, & peers
Educational
Outcomes
Teachers & parents
reported improved
commitment to
school; teachers
reported improved
academic
performance
Mental Health
Outcomes
Teachers reported
improved social
competence &
decreased
antisocial behavior
Social skills classes
taught by graduate
students in
psychology. 27
lessons focused on
social competency
skills, involved role
playing and skill
practice
School attendance:
treatment group
more tardy and
more likely to be
absent, but more
likely to remain in
school
Compared to
control, treatment
group self-reported
significantly less
rebellious
behavior, less
victimization, &
increased positive
peer association
33
Klein, 2004
Nelson,
Martella, &
MarchandMartella,
2002
Reaching New
Heights
Comprehensive
School-Based
Program
13 sessions
targeted at
increasing stress
management skills
and decreasing
perfectionism,
levels of academic
anxiety and social
anxiety; improve
children’s selfefficacy to
implement
successful
situations; increase
students’
effectiveness in
coping with
academic and
social stressors
Improvement on
total schoolproblem and
schoolcompetencies
teacher-rated
scores; students
displayed fewer
difficulties in
school on the
anxious-shy and
learning problems
scales
2-yr. universal,
selected, and
indicated
interventions for
disruptive
behaviors
consisting of 5
elements: 1.
School-wide
Program; 2.
School climate:
consistent declines
in suspensions,
emergency
removals, office
referrals.
Academic
achievement:
improved scores on
Problem solving:
improved problem
solving skills for
the immediate
intervention group.
Social & academic
stressors: children
in the delayed
intervention group
improved after
receiving the
intervention;
delayed continuous
improvement found
for immediate
intervention group.
Teachers’
competency scores:
immediate
intervention group
improved
significantly more
and displayed
greater competency
in school-related
tasks, including
frustration
tolerance,
assertiveness, and
task organization
Social competence:
significant
improvement on
BERS
34
Ecological
arrangements in
school; 3.
Behavioral
expectations,
discipline policies,
and procedures; 4.
One-on-one
tutoring in reading,
family
management,
conflict resolution;
5. Individualized
function-based
behavioral
interventions &
support
Table adapted from Hoagwood et al., 2007
broad reading,
dictation, &
calculation (WJ-R)
Consumer
satisfaction:
teachers reported
that techniques and
strategies were
easy to use,
addressed
educational needs,
and would
recommend project
to other teachers
Parent Involvement
Since parental involvement has been identified as a risk factor for retention,
schools are encouraged to make policy changes that encourage and facilitate a strong
home-school connection. Jimerson et al. (2006) recommended increasing understanding
among administrators, teachers, and staff regarding the importance of parent involvement
and consistently inviting parents to participate in all aspects of their child’s education. In
addition to understanding the importance of parental involvement, educators should also
have knowledge of what barriers may be impeding parental involvement in their schools.
Lawson (2003) suggested that language barriers, work schedules, and a sense of
disenfranchisement have generally resulted in lower levels of (at least visible) parent
involvement by working-class parents; in particular, those from ethnic and racial
minorities. The perception of what parent involvement actually is can also be a barrier.
35
Lawson also found some parents view involvement simply as getting their children to
school on time, and keeping them safe: however, teachers tend to define parent
involvement as parents to be visible at school. Although both teachers and parents felt
that involvement was important, the lack of agreement around what parent involvement
actually looks like, has caused teachers to view parents as unwilling to help and has
resulted in parents feeling unappreciated (Lawson). Therefore, to first have a qualitative
definition of parent involvement would be helpful. Epstein (1995) provided a framework
or hierarchical definition of parental involvement that is briefly summarized in Table 2.
Table 2
Joyce Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement
Domain
Description
Parenting
Parents create an environment in the home that supports learning.
Communicating
Volunteering
Learning at home
Decision making
This type of involvement is characterized by communication between
parents and school personnel. This occurs when parents regularly attend
school conferences and functions, including attending parent-teacher
association meetings (Ballantine, 1999).
Parents act as volunteers in their child’s school. This includes parents
tutoring children in the classroom (Darch, Miao, & Shippen, 2004) or
helping the teacher by reading and grading papers (Ballantine, 1999).
Parents assist their children with homework and ensure that homework is
completed. Additionally, parents help their children set goals that motivate
the child to learn. This involves parents having high expectations for their
child.
Parents are involved in school decisions. One way parents accomplish this
is by serving as representatives on school committees
Adapted from Braden & Miller, 2007
In addition to providing a framework for educators and parents on how to
appropriately define parent involvement, school psychologists can promote parental
36
involvement through collaboration and consultation. School psychologists and
counselors can provide specific examples of how to increase parental involvement to
teachers through workshops, as well as during active problem-solving and collaboration
with individual teachers. Work can also be done directly with parents, parent groups, and
administrators, to create a more welcoming environment for parents. Specific examples
of ways to foster a strong home-school connection and increase parent involvement, as
suggested by multiple researchers, are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3
Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in Schools
Author
Darch, Miao, &
Shippen, (2004)
Pogoloff (2004)
Recommendations
 Communicate regularly, rather than just when a problem has
occurred.
 Initiate positive contact with parents at the beginning of each
school year, and maintain that contact all year. This could be
accomplished by developing a one-page letter to send home to
parents. Included in this letter is information about the teacher, the
goals for the year, and an invitation for parents to become
involved in the classroom.
 Have parents complete an interest survey. This can help teachers
identify ways that the parent might enjoy being involved in their
child’s education.
 Call the parents of children identified as having a learning or
behavior problem within the first two weeks of school (before
other problems surface) in an effort to proactively establish a
positive relationship and discuss a time when the teacher and
parents can meet.
 Have three to four conferences yearly with parents of children
with learning and behavior problems. It is important to inject the
active role of the parent into these parent-teacher conferences and
to reinforce such participation.

Communicate with parents in multiple ways. The form of
communication preferred by the parents should be determined,
37




Kyriakides (2005)

and whenever possible that method should be used.
Each interaction with parents should begin with a positive
statement, which will lessen defensiveness.
Let parents know that their input is valued.
Interact with students and their families in various settings such as
attending the school’s athletic or theatrical activities.
Confidentiality must be respected to ensure a positive
relationship.
Give parents meaningful jobs in the classroom. Parents are often
assigned cleaning up jobs, which may result in decreased parent
motivation to continue active involvement. If parents are engaged
in more meaningful activities, such as reading to students or
helping students with assignments, they will be more motivated to
continue their involvement.
Early Reading Programs
Reading is an essential skill for subsequent knowledge acquisition. Furthermore,
reading is an area commonly cited as a reason for retention. Reading programs that
provide developmentally appropriate, intensive, and direct instruction strategies to
promote the reading skills of low-performing students with reading problems may help to
prevent the need for struggling students to repeat a grade (Jimerson et al., 2006). The
National Reading Panel (2000) also emphasized the importance of explicit and direct
systematic instruction (e.g. scripted presentations, small-group instruction, unison
responding, signals, pacing, corrections, and praise) via scientifically proven and
evidenced based programs to help struggling readers.
Due to the importance of using scientifically based programs, the National
Reading Panel reviewed over 100,000 studies in the year 2000, to identify key skills and
methods central to reading achievement. A review of research using a “what works”
38
basis found the need for instruction to target five areas essential for effective reading
instruction: (a) phonemic awareness; (b) phonics; (c) fluency; (d) vocabulary; and (e)
reading comprehension (Bursuck & Blanks, 2010). When using a “what works” basis,
educators can learn about and implement “methods and approaches that have worked
well and have caused reading improvement for large numbers of children” (National
Reading Panel, 2000, p. 8). Strategies that may help in improving fluency for example,
include choral reading, student-adult reading, tape assisted reading, partner reading, and
readers’ theatre (National Reading Panel, 2000). The various methods used to address
the five critical areas to improve reading achievement are listed in Table 4.
Table 4
Strategies for Improving the Five Key Areas for Reading Achievement
Phonemic
Awareness
Definition:
Importance:
Further
Development:
Phonics
Instruction
Definition:
Importance:
• the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate
individual sounds and phonemes in spoken
words.
• improves children’s word reading and
reading comprehension.
• helps children learn to spell.
• identify phonemes,
• categorize phonemes,
• blend phonemes to form words,
• segment words into phonemes,
• delete or add phonemes to form new words,
and substitute phonemes to make new words.
• manipulate phonemes by using the letters of
the alphabet.
• focus on only one or two rather than several
types of phoneme manipulation.
• helps children learn the relationships between
the letters of written language and the sounds
of spoken language.
• leads to an understanding of the alphabetic
principle—the systematic and predictable
relationships between written letters and
spoken sounds.
39
• systematic—the plan of instruction includes a
carefully selected set of letter-sound
relationships that are organized into a logical
sequence.
• explicit—the programs provide teachers with
precise directions for the teaching of these
relationships.
• ample opportunities for children to apply
what they are learning about letters and sounds
to the reading of words, sentences, and
significantly improves children’s word
recognition, spelling, and reading
comprehension.
Definition:
• the ability to read a text accurately and
Fluency
quickly.
Instruction
Importance:
•frees students to understand what they
read.
Further
• modeling fluent reading by having
Development:
students engage in repeated oral reading.
• evaluate instruction and set instructional
goals to motivate students.
Definition:
• the words we must know to communicate
Vocabulary
effectively.
Instruction
• oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in
speaking or recognize in listening.
• reading vocabulary refers to words we
recognize or use in print.
Importance:
• beginning readers use their oral vocabulary to
make sense of the words they see in print.
• readers must know what most of the words
mean before they can understand what they
are reading.
Further
• indirectly, students engage daily in oral
development:
language, listen to adults read to them, and
read extensively on their own.
• directly, students are explicitly taught both
individual words and word-learning strategies.
Definition:
•understanding the text being read.
Text
Comprehension
Importance:
• comprehension is the reason for
Instruction
reading.
Further
• by teaching comprehension strategies through
development:
explicit instruction, cooperative learning, and
by helping readers use strategies flexibly and
in combination.
Table adapted from the National Reading Panel, 2000
Further
Development:
40
In addition to the techniques listed in Table 4, evidence based reading programs
that utilize techniques to improve the key areas of reading, may improve reading
achievement and minimize the need for grade retention. Specific reading programs
include (a) Corrective Reading; (b) Reading Mastery; (c) Language!; (d) Wilson Reading
System; and the (e) Read 180 program (Christo, Davis, & Brock, 2009; Flanagan &
Alfonso, 2011; What Works Clearinghouse, 2007; What Works Clearinghouse, 2008;
What Works Clearinghouse, 2010). These various reading programs provide intervention
services to different age groups, as well as vary from small group, to whole class
implementation. Descriptions of these programs are provided in Table 5.
Table 5
Evidence Based Reading Programs
Corrective
Reading
Language!
Read 180
Reading
Mastery
Targeted AgeGroup:
Description:
Targeted AgeGroup:
Description:
Targeted AgeGroup:
Description:
Targeted AgeGroup:
Description:
4th to 5th grade
Implemented in small groups of 4-5
students, and through the use of 45minute lessons, over four to five
days. Focuses on decoding,
fluency, and comprehension.
Primary to 9th grade reading levels
Integrates reading, writing, and
other language arts skills over a two
day period, and a total of 90 minutes
of instruction.
4th to 12th grade
Designed to meet the needs of
students struggling within the five
areas identified by the National
Reading Panel in 90 minutes.
Kinder-3rd & Kinder-6th grade
Addresses the five key areas of
reading identified by the National
Reading Panel through a one year
41
Wilson Reading
System
Targeted AgeGroup:
Description:
curriculum; contains fast paced and
interactive lessons.
2nd to 12th grade
Uses a multisensory and synthetic
phonics approach for students with
language based difficulties.
Implement in a 45-90 minute
instructional period.
Effective Instructional Strategies and Assessment
Implementing effective, research-based teaching strategies in the classroom is an
important link to student success. Some recommended teaching techniques include direct
instruction, cooperative learning, and mnemonic strategies (Bursuck & Blanks, 2010;
Jimerson et al., 2006; Lloyd, Forness & Kavale, 1998; National Institute for Direct
Instruction, 2012). In addition, systematic assessment strategies, such as continual
progress monitoring and formative evaluation, allow teachers to adapt instructional
strategies to assessment results of student progress. Progress monitoring, particularly
Curriculum Based Measurement, is a research-validated assessment method that provides
data critical for evaluating academic performance across the entire spectrum of student
achievement. These data provide teachers with direct evidence to determine whether
their students are benefiting from the instructional program. Teachers who use progress
monitoring procedures with low-performing students, such as those at risk for retention,
may better enable these students to make adequate yearly progress (Stecker, Lembke &
Foegen, 2008). A description of the different teaching and monitoring strategies are
summarized in Table 6.
42
Table 6
Effective Instructional Strategies and Assessment
Strategy
Cooperative Learning
Direct Instruction
Mnemonic Strategies
Systematic Assessment
Description
Structuring classes around small groups that work together to meet a
common goal. Allows for students work together, have group
processing, incorporate individual accountability, and provide
positive interdependence.
Model for teaching that emphasizes well-developed and carefully
planned lessons designed around small learning increments and
clearly defined and prescribed teaching tasks (e.g., Corrective
Reading, Language for Learning, Corrective Math, etc.)
Strategy for understanding and remembering what one learns (e.g.,
rhyming, acronyms, singing, etc.)
To evaluate student’s response to intervention and provide positive
consequences for improvement (e.g., Curriculum Based
Measurement)
Behavior and Cognitive Behavior Modification Strategies
A combination of behavioral approaches such as modeling, feedback, and
reinforcement with cognitive approaches (e.g., cognitive think alouds) may be effective
to teach anger control and self-coping. The acquisition of these skills may reduce
disruptive behaviors and increase on-task time in the classroom. As stated previously,
maladaptive behavior commonly plays a role in the decision to retain. Therefore, using
appropriate behavioral interventions can serve as prevention and intervention for students
at risk for retention.
Behavioral interventions can be provided by various trained staff members within
the school setting, while attending to different behaviors that contribute to student
success. In a study conducted by Mason and McMahon (2009), school counselors
facilitated an intervention with eighth grade students at-risk of retention. The
intervention provided weekly meetings, both group and individual, with the student’s
43
school counselor. During the group meetings students shared positive achievements,
such as tests, quizzes, and projects, while the counselor would share a positive statement
from a student’s teacher. During these 30-minute sessions, counselors also focused on a
specific skill that played a role in school success. Some of these skills included (a) using
a student planner for assignments and calendaring; (b) keeping track of grades; and (c)
managing time after school. During the individual meetings, students would discuss
grades, review the promotion criterion for passing five of seven classes, and reinforce the
skills discussed earlier in the group session. Lastly, the individual sessions allowed for
students to share frustrations, concerns, and stressors, while provided the school
counselors the opportunity to provide encouragement and motivation. The study, which
consisted of 33 students, of the 1400 enrolled at the middle school, concluded at the end
of two grading periods. Results indicated 23 less failing grades than received in the first
quarter, and 15 more A’s and B’s in the fourth quarter. Overall, 64% (21) of students
improved their overall academic average between the first and fourth quarters. The
intervention provided through group and individual meetings offered additional support
to help change behavior, and increase academic performance.
When identifying and providing support, ideas can be generated through the use
of a Student Study Team (SST) as well, which will provide a collaborative team approach
(Jimerson et al., 2004). The SST can assist in identifying the approach that would be
most appropriate for a student’s specific behavioral and cognitive needs. Some of these
may include (a) group counseling, (b) individual counseling; (c) token reinforcement
systems; (d) peer or adult monitors; (e) modeling; and (f) adult feedback (Jimerson et al.,
44
2004; Jimerson et al., 2006; Villalba, Akos, Keeter, & Ames, 2007; Zyromski & Joseph,
2008). These behavioral and cognitive-behavioral modification approaches, can help in
reducing classroom behavior problems that interfere with learning.
Conclusion
Grade retention is often used as a solution to help students who are struggling
both academically and behaviorally. Despite the ineffectiveness of this practice that has
been found by the majority of current research, the rate of retention continues to increase.
Recent reviews of research conclude that there are no clearly identified benefits to
retaining students, and in fact, the practice may have deleterious effects on students’
achievement, self-concept, and attitude toward school, and can increase engagement in
high-risk behavior, and the likelihood of dropping out of school. Currently, teachers,
administrators, and parents do not have a consistent understanding of the process of
retention and its implications; yet, they are the ones making the decisions to retain
students. As school psychologists, we have a responsibility to advocate for students and
to increase the use of research-based educational practices. Therefore, the goal of this
project is to help parents and educators become more informed about the research
surrounding retention, and in turn, be better able to differentiate between when retention
is inappropriate and when it may be appropriate for select students. Lastly, it is not
enough to assert that schools should work to reduce the rate of retention; parents,
teachers, and administrators need to be provided with appropriate alternatives to address
the needs of struggling students.
45
Chapter 3
METHODS
Research
In the process of researching this project, several techniques were utilized. The
Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) and EBSCOhost databases were
searched for journal articles using a variety of search terms. The key words “grade
retention,” were used in combination with other terms, such as effects, alternatives, rates,
demographics, and policies. Additional searches were conducted using words such as
preschool, summer school, looping, redshirting, effective instruction, behavior, and
multi-age classrooms. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)
website was also searched for interventions, information regarding parent involvement,
retention efficacy, and their position statement. In addition to accessing NASP
publications, a posting was also placed on the NASP listserve seeking current research on
academic redshirting. Multiple responses were received, including a link to the position
statement developed by the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State
Departments of Education. To provide additional information regarding the retention
policies written within California State law, the California Educational Code was also
researched. Both qualitative and quantitative studies were reviewed. The articles were
then grouped into categories to create the initial outline. The outline was then modified
to conform to the research gathered. Each author was assigned particular topics of the
outline to write sections of the literature review. After the initial completion of the
literature review, further changes were made to provide more in depth information
46
regarding specific alternatives to grade retention. When furthering research in these
areas, books regarding specific reading interventions were also utilized. These included
Essentials of Specific Learning Disability Identification, written by Dawn P. Flanagan
and Vincent C. Alfonso, as well as Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at
School, written by Catherine Christo, John Davis, and Stephen E. Brock.
Development of the Presentation
The in-service training presentations were developed to provide participants
knowledge of research on grade retention, the ability to differentiate between when
retention is inappropriate and when it may be appropriate for select students, and
appropriate alternatives to address the needs of struggling students. The main points of
the literature review were summarized in the presentations to provide schools a basis for
developing a retention process based on best practices. In addition, parents were
provided with the knowledge necessary to advocate for their child, who may be at-risk
for retention. The in-services provide an overview of retention rates, perspectives,
policies, effects, and alternatives. The training developed for teachers and administrators
is designed to be presented in five-hours, through the use of direct instruction and group
discussion. Parents will be provided a two-hour workshop, also using direct instruction
and group discussion. A brief overview of the in-service was also presented to fellow
school psychology graduate students and faculty members to solicit feedback. Due to the
entirety of this presentation not being presented to the targeted audience prior to
submission, suggestions were sought from school psychology faculty at California State
University, Sacramento. The PowerPoint presentation, handouts, and notes for presenters
47
are located in the appendices of this project. A CD containing these materials will be
provided to facilitate the presentations of the in-services, using a computer and projector.
48
Chapter 4
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
The project, Retention: Current Research and Best Practices, resulted in the
creation of two PowerPoint presentations intended to further educate and inform
educators and parents on the effects of retention. This included an overview of the
current research, paired with alternative strategies and interventions, which may reduce
the rate of retention in our schools. The goal of the workshop for educators is to align the
current research with the current practice being implemented in schools. During the fivehour workshop, administrators and teachers will be provided information through
brainstorming, small-group discussion, handouts, and informational resources. The twohour parent workshop is intended to provide parents with the background knowledge
needed to be better advocates for their students, who may be at risk for retention. This is
accomplished through interactive discussion, lecture, and informational resources.
The workshop for educators is contained in Appendix A and the workshop for
parents in Appendix B. The remaining documents include the handouts for the
educator’s workshop, within Appendix C, and the handouts for the parent’s workshop,
within Appendix D.
Interpretation
Grade retention continues to be a controversial practice and the percentage of
students retained has shown a steady increase over the last 25-years (Rafoth &
Knickelbein, 2008). Many studies conducted over the last few decades, have found
negative consequences as a results of grade retention; however, additional studies did
49
find some positive outcomes. What is agreed upon by many is two-fold: (a) there is
insufficient evidence to support the contention that retention is always wrong (Lorence,
2006); and (b) there is a need for additional research regarding which children may
benefit from being retained (Jimerson et al., 2007; Lorence, 2006). As a result, it is
suggested at this time that schools rely on research-based interventions, as a way of
providing academic and behavioral support to students, rather than resorting to retention.
Until grade retention is further researched, and conclusively supported to be an effective
or ineffective intervention, best practice is implementing alternative strategies, which are
currently supported in the research. Suggested alternatives currently include both
academic and behavioral interventions, which address needs across the educational
spectrum, from individual students to system-wide change. Some of these alternatives
include: preschool, summer school and after school programs, flexible classroom
structure, reading interventions, as well as behavioral and cognitive-behavioral supports.
Although the alternatives to retention are greatly supported by research, it was
surprising to find limited concrete evidence supporting or refuting the practice of
retention. As the topic of retention was explored, the amount of research supporting the
practice of retention as an acceptable intervention was unexpected. In addition to these
findings, the lack of consistency among the criterion needed to be considered for
retention, and the difference between educational law and the implementation of
retention, was also an area of startling discovery.
50
Recommendations
The following recommendations are offered as a result of the findings within this
project. It is recommended that educators and parents attend the workshops in order to
further their understanding of the effects of grade retention, and become aware of current
research and best practices. Through these trainings, it is hoped that schools will
integrate additional options to address the needs specific to each student. Furthermore, it
is recommended that the research community address the inconsistencies found in
research through well-designed longitudinal studies. While tracking large samples of
students from kindergarten through high school, and controlling for contributing
variables, the following should be addressed: (a) social-emotional outcomes; (b) effects
of retaining at different grade levels; (c) what appropriate criterion are needed to
determine if retention is worthwhile and accurately predict which children will benefit
from being retained; and (d) what should be the goals of retention. Lastly, in order to be
knowledgeable consultants, school psychologists need to continually update their own
awareness of current research surrounding this topic. This involves being a critical
consumer of research, and in turn, advocating for the implementation of best practices.
51
APPENDICES
52
APPENDIX A
Presenter’s Manual
53
Introduction
According to Jimerson, Woehr, and Kaufman (2004), “grade retention, also
known as non-promotion, flunking, failing, being held back, or the gift of time, refers to a
child repeating his or her current grade level again the following year” (p.1). Grade
retention is often used as a solution to help students who are struggling both academically
and behaviorally. Despite the ineffectiveness of this practice that has been found by the
majority of current research, the rate of retention continues to increase. Recent reviews
of research conclude that there are no clearly identified benefits to retaining students, and
in fact, the practice may have deleterious effects on students. Currently, teachers,
administrators, and parents do not have a consistent understanding of the process of
retention and its implications. Therefore, this manual and accompanying PowerPoint
presentations are designed to help parents and educators become more versed in the
research surrounding retention, and in turn, be better able to differentiate between when
retention is inappropriate and when it may be appropriate for select students. Lastly, it is
not enough to assert that schools should work to reduce the rate of retention; parents,
teachers, and administrators need to be provided with appropriate alternatives to address
the needs of struggling students. The information provided in the presentations is based
on a literature review performed between September and December 2011.
Nature of the Presentations
This project includes two PowerPoint presentations; one designed for educators
(administration and teachers) and one for parents. The first presentation, designed for an
audience of educators, is calculated to last five hours with one 45 minute break. The
54
second presentation, designed for parents, is intended to last two hours with one 15
minute break.
Audience participation is an integral aspect of both presentations and should be
fostered through the use of quality presentation techniques such as pausing for questions,
demonstrating active listening, and validating audience input. In addition, presenter(s)
may want to provide participants with name badges which can be read from a distance.
Before beginning the workshop, presenter(s) will need to make copies of presentation
materials for each participant. Materials provided to participants should include a copy of
the PowerPoint presentation as well as any supplementary handouts (found at the end of
this manual).
In preparation for giving this workshop, presenter(s) should read over the slides
and accompanying notes thoroughly. Presenter(s) may add their own names and contact
information to the initial slide. In addition, it is recommended that presenter(s) become
familiar with the information cited and referenced at the end of the presentation. The final
slide includes the authors’ contact information as an additional resource. Presenter(s) are
encouraged to contact the authors if any questions arise not directly answered within the
scope of each presentation or within this manual.
Guidance for Presenters
Each workshop is presented as a series of Microsoft PowerPoint slides. The slides
are prepared with all necessary information for presenting the workshops. Presenter(s)
may use their own language when presenting; however, sample language has been
provided on the notes section of each slide. Throughout both presentations, the notes
55
sections include the headings “sample presentation language”, “say”, “read”, and “do.”
In addition, some slides use the animation feature of Microsoft PowerPoint. Some
information on the slide may emerge only after a secondary click of the computer mouse
or slide progress button. This feature allows the presenter to discuss part of a slide before
exposing more information. When this feature is used the word “click” in indicates when
the next portion of the slide should be exposed. The slide should progress and animation
allowed finishing before continuing with the sample language.
The presentation can be performed with one or multiple presenters. If there are
two presenters, a natural place to change is after the break; however, presenters may also
want to alternate sections as delineated on the workshop outline. There are no set rules
regarding presenter changes or segments. However, it is recommended that each
presenter introduce themselves at the beginning of the presentation and again before they
begin presenting their section(s). A recommended timeline for the educator workshop
follows:
Slides
Topic
Duration
#2-3
Welcome, KWL, & Outline
5 minutes
#4-13
Perceptions
25 minutes
#15-23
Current Research
25 minutes
#25-34
Policy
25 minutes
#36-47
Outcomes
30 minutes
#48
Break
45 minutes
56
#50-52
When is Retention Appropriate?
15 minutes
#54-113
Alternatives
110 minutes
#114
Conclusion
5 minutes
#115
Questions
15 minutes
A recommended timeline for the parent workshop follows:
Slides
Topic
Duration
#2-3
Welcome, KWL, & Outline
6 minutes
#4-8
Perceptions
10 minutes
#10-18
Current Research
20 minutes
#20-25
Policy
10 minutes
#27-38
Outcomes
22 minutes
#39
Break
15 minutes
#41-43
When is Retention Appropriate
5 minutes
#45-70
Alternatives
20 minutes
#71
Conclusion
2 minutes
#72
Questions
10 minutes
About the Authors
Megan Andrew, Maryam Scaffidi, and Kimberly Tzikas are school psychologist
interns. They all completed their Masters degrees at California State University,
57
Sacramento. This workshop was completed to satisfy part of the requirements of their
Specialist in Education (Ed.S.) degrees.
58
APPENDIX B
Presentation Slides: Educator Workshop
59
Slide 1
RETENTION: CURRENT
RESEARCH AND BEST
PRACTICES
By Megan Andrew,
Maryam Scaffidi, &
Kimberly Tzikas
60
Slide 2
Welcome Educators!

KWL chart
 In
the first column, record what you KNOW about
retention.
 In the second column, record what you WANT to
know about retention.
Do: Pass out KWL chart to all participants.
Sample Presentation Language: To begin, I/we would like to do a KWL chart in order to tap
your prior knowledge about the practice of grade retention and get our brains thinking about
what we want to learn in this workshop.
Read: All bullets on the slide.
Do: Give group approximately 5 minutes to record on their chart.
Say: Can I/we have a few volunteers share what they wrote?
61
Slide 3
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Intermission
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: Here is my/our workshop outline. I/We will be referring
back to this throughout the training to keep you aware of what I/we have, and will be,
covering.
Read: Roman numerals.
62
Slide 4
Audiences’ Personal Perceptions:

Discussion
Sample Presentation Language: At this time, talk to your neighbor about what your
perceptions of retention are. For example, does it work? And, when is it appropriate?
What are your experiences with students who have been retained?
Do: Give participants 1 minute to talk to their neighbor.
Say: What did you come up with? Can I/we have some volunteers to share?
Do: List perceptions on a whiteboard, poster board, or chalkboard.
63
Slide 5
Common Perceptions in Research:
Educators


Administrators
Teachers
Sample Presentation Language: Now that we have an idea of some of the perceptions in your
district, let’s go over what has been found in the research.
64
Slide 6
Administrative Perspectives on
Grade Retention
•
Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) Study



Many principals acknowledged that grade retention can
have short-term benefits, but were concerned regarding
the long-term consequences that may occur;
Some did not believe that retention was an effective
way of improving students’ long-term performance;
Others found that grade retention could be effective in
certain cases.
Sample Presentation Language: Input from various people can contribute to the decision
to retain a student. Therefore, not only is it important to evaluate the perspective that
teachers have on retention, but also the perspective that administrators may hold as well.
Say: Interviews were conducted with principals throughout a study in the Los Angeles
Unified School District, regarding their opinions on grade retention. In this study,
varying perspectives were noticed.
Read: The last three bullet points.
Say: Lastly, proponents of retention believed it would be wrong to promote a student who
was struggling and give him or her more difficult coursework in the following grade
level.
65
Slide 7
Administrative Perspectives on
Grade Retention
•
Overall Consensus Among Principals





Should be implemented in the earlier grade levels,
rather than the later;
Academics considered the main indicator of retention;
Student’s maturity and social skills should be taken into
consideration;
Importance of parental input;
Use of assessment data (including progress monitoring)
and student grades.
Sample Presentation Language: Although principals varied in their opinion regarding
the effects of retention, principals did have a general consensus.
Say: The consensus among the principals explained that if retention was going to occur,
it should be implemented in the earlier grade levels, rather than the later grades.
However, they did not agree on the specific grade in which retention is appropriate. In
addition, academics were considered the main indicator of retention, but some did also
believe a student’s maturity and social skills should be taken into consideration in order
to evaluate the “whole child.” Lastly, a number of principals indicated that the final
decision to retain did fall to the administrators, as they can “influence or override
teacher recommendations” (Cannon et al., 2011, p 16).
Read: The last two bullet points on slide.
66
Slide 8
Teacher Perspectives on
Grade Retention

More likely to base their decisions to retain students on
personal experience and advice from colleagues rather than
research (Kagan, 1992).

Many believe retention provides students with the opportunity
to improve on foundational knowledge and skills and to
acquire social and behavioral skills, prior to the next grade
level (Cannon et al., 2011).

Although students may have some advantage over peers
when the school year first begins, Goos et al. (2011) found
that teachers continued to rate the retained student as lower
performing in math and language, than their younger-aged
peers.
Sample Presentation Language: Various researchers have surveyed teachers regarding
their perceptions of grade retention and its effectiveness as an intervention for struggling
students.
Click and Say: Kagan found that teachers are… Read: Bullet 1
Click and Say: A study by Cannon et al. revealed… Read: Bullet 2
Click and Read: Bullet 3
67
Slide 9
Summary of Perspectives in
Current Research: Educators



Mixed views between educators
Often not based on research
A need for continued education on current
research
Sample Presentation Language: Overall, the research has generated mixed views
between educators. And, often times the decision to retain is not based on research. This
demonstrates a need to further our knowledge regarding if and when retention is an
effective intervention.
68
Slide 10
Common Perceptions in Research:
Parents & Students


Parents
Students
Sample Presentation Language: Now, I/we are going to discuss the perceptions of both
parents and students regarding retention. This is an important point of view that can
often be overlooked.
69
Slide 11
Parent Perceptions on
Grade Retention

Akmal and Larsen (2004)
Some parents agreed with the decision to retain, or
asked for their child to be retained.
 Parents requested their child be retained, it was a way
of showing punishment for “failing to show initiative or
cooperation.”


Jimerson et al. (2004)
Information should be given to parents in order to
provide them with a better understanding regarding
the possible effects of retention on their child.
 Schools should provide effective interventions and
resources that parents can access to further their
understanding of grade retention.

Sample Presentation Language: I/We will discuss how parents viewed retention.
Click and Read: First bullet points on the slide.
Click and Read: Next bullet points on the slide.
Say: According to Akmal and Larsen, parents did not have an understanding regarding
the research on retention, and they weren’t provided with information regarding the
possible effects that grade retention may have on their child. Some parents used retention
as a way a punishment or negative consequence for failing.
70
Slide 12
Student Perceptions on
Grade Retention

Yamamoto & Byrnes, 1987
the time a student was in the 6th grade, only
the loss of a parent and going blind would create a
more stressful event than grade retention.
 By
Sample Presentation Language: The following illustrates what many students may think
about retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Clearly, retention is very scary and stressful to students; they don’t view it as a
positive solution to them struggling in school.
71
Slide 13
Student Perceptions on
Grade Retention

Penna & Tallerico, 2005
Not much changed the second or third time around;
rather they received the same instruction, textbooks,
and assignments that they failed the previous year.
 Redundant routine in the classroom was ultimately
boring and frustrating.
 Students reported receiving less help, and at times,
being the subject of public humiliation by the teacher.
 Ridiculed by their peers through both verbal remarks
and demeaning behaviors.
 Mocked, picked on, bullied, and berated because of
their age and retained status.

Sample Presentation Language: Here is more research stating student’s experience on
retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: On another study by Penna &Tollerico retained students were later interviewed
about their experience. Overall, students stated the negative effects of retention:
academically, socially, and their own immediate and longer-term emotional reactions to
these academic setbacks and peer pressures.
72
Slide 14
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Intermission
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: At this point, we will move on to current research
findings on different aspects of retention.
73
Slide 15
Current Research:
Statistics on Grade Retention



Rates of grade retention
Demographics of those at risk for retention
Effects of age at time of retention
Sample Presentation Language: More specifically, I/we will address the following.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
74
Slide 16
Rates of Grade Retention

Approximately three million children each year fail a
grade (Poland, 2009).

Rates are as high as 15%, demonstrating that within
school populations of about 48 million students, more
than 5.5 million students have been retained (Griffith,
Lloyd, Lane, & Tankersley, 2010).

The National Association of School Psychologists
(NASP) (2003) also approximates that 15% of all
American students are retained each year, with 3050% being held back at least once before the ninth
grade.
Sample Presentation Language: Here are nation-wide statistics of retention rates.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
75
Slide 17
Increase In Retention Rates

The percentage of students retained has
shown a steady increase over the last 25
years to about 40% (Rafoth & Knickelbein,
2008).
 No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, led to an
increase in retention rates, making all students
meet minimum academic standards.
Sample Presentation Language: Retention rates have increase over the past few decades.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Prior to the implementation of NCLB, students who did not meet grade level
standards were promoted on to the next grade level, rather than retained.
76
Slide 18
Who is at Risk?

Characteristics such as age, gender,
socioeconomic background, and race/ethnicity
are risk factors for early grade retention.
 Relatively
younger students, especially grades
kindergarten through third grade, and boys, are
more likely to be held back (Cannon, Lipscomb,
Public Policy Institute of California, 2011).
 More African Americans than Caucasians, more
boys than girls, and more students from low SES
households (Griffith, Lloyd, Lane, Tankersley,
2010).
Sample Presentation Language: There is no systematic method or criteria for deciding
whether a student would be retained. Certain characteristics place students at risk of
retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Students with specific learning disabilities are retained at least once prior to the
time when they are determined to be eligible for special education.
77
Slide 19
Who is at Risk?

Students with (Griffith et al., (2010):
 low
academic performance;
 failure to meet grade level standards;
 social immaturity;
 behavior problems;
 English as a second language;
 lack of parental involvement;
 lack of attendance and missed instruction.
Sample Presentation Language: Other risk factors are as follow:
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Physical size- simply being physically “small” in comparison to same age peers.
78
Slide 20
Grade Retention: Effects of Age

Research regarding when retention is most
effective is inconclusive.

Early grade retention (kindergarten through
second grade) did not yield advantages in reading
from first to eighth grade, relative to students
retained later (third through fifth grades)
(Silberglitt, Appleton, Burnes, Jimerson, 2006).

Retention may decrease in effectiveness as grade
level increases (Pomplun, 1998).
Sample Presentation Language: There have been many questions regarding the age at
which a student should be retained. It is assumed that the younger a student is when
retained, the more likely he or she is to succeed academically, both short-and long-term.
Say: A study conducted by Silberglitt, Appleton, Burns, & Jimerson in 2006, found that
early grade retention, occurring in kindergarten through second grade, did not yield
advantages in reading from first to eighth grade; this was relative to students retained
later, in the third through fifth grades. However, in 1998 Pomplun noted that retention
may decrease in effectiveness as grade level increases. Due to these differing viewpoints,
it is apparent that research regarding at what age retention is most effective, is
inconclusive.
79
Slide 21
Academic Redshirting

Definition:
 Intentional
delay of school entry into kindergarten
in order to give the child extra time to mature and
gain skills.
 Delay is generally an additional year.
Sample Presentation Language: Academic redshirting is the intentional delay of school
entry into kindergarten in order to give the child extra time to mature and gain skills.
The delay is generally an additional year. Deciding if their child is ready to start
kindergarten can be a daunting decision for many parents.
80
Slide 22
Effects of Academic Redshirting
•
Delayed entrants into kindergarten had lower achievement
test scores later on, in addition to higher rates of high risk
behaviors in adolescence (Rafoth & Knickelbein, 2008).
•
Late entry into kindergarten also denies children an
opportunity for cognitive growth through social interaction
with their age-mates (National Association of Early Childhood
Specialists, 2000).
•
A study conducted by Loeb (2007), found young kindergarten
students made similar progress during their kindergarten
year, when compared to their older peers.
Sample Presentation Language: Your district most likely has a cut-off date to determine
when children enter kindergarten based on their birth date. When helping parents with
this decision, it is important to keep the following research in mind.
Click and Read: Bullet 1
Click and Read: Bullet 2
Click and Read: Bullet 3
81
Slide 23
Effects of Academic Redshirting

Quirk, Furlong, Lilles, Felix, and Chin (2011)
 The
practice of redshirting was not associated
with school readiness or accelerated
achievement.
 The strongest predictor of school readiness is
high quality preschool.
 The youngest children within the sample with
preschool, were rated more ready for
kindergarten than the oldest students without
preschool.
Sample Presentation Language: These researchers have done recent research on the
practice of redshirting with similar findings to the researchers on the previous slide.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
Say: The sum of this research suggests delayed entry should not be used as a means of
intervention.
82
Slide 24
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Intermission
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: At this point, we will move on to the policy of grade
retention, both by law, as well as the policy implemented in your school.
83
Slide 25
Grade Retention: Current Policy



Discussion
California Education Code (EC) on grade
retention
Is your district’s policy in line with Ed Code?
Sample Presentation Language: I/We will now go over what current California
Education Code says regarding grade retention policy as well as discuss what current
practice and policy is in your district.
84
Slide 26
Current Policy: Discussion

What is your district’s current policy?
Say: What is your district’s current policy? What are you seeing happen in your
schools?
Do: Pass out the “Compare and Contrast PPR Policy” handout. If the group is sitting
at tables, they should work as a group; if seated in rows, ask the group to work with 2-3
people seated near them. Ask each table (or small group) to brainstorm/discuss what
their district’s grade retention policy and/or what retention practices are used at their
school site(s) and record their answers in the appropriate column. Pause and allow the
group 5 minutes to do this activity.
Say: Now that you’ve had some time to share with each other your understanding of how
grade retentions are handled in your district, We’d/I’d like some volunteers to share.
Do: Call on at least 5 participants to gain insight into their district’s current
practice/policy.
Say: Thank you for sharing. Let’s now go over California Ed Code and see how your
policy aligns.
85
Slide 27
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

Read: Bullet
Current state law in California requires every
school district to have a written Pupil
Promotion and Retention (PPR) policy
approved by the district’s governing board.
86
Slide 28
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

History of Current Changes to Policy (“Pupil
Promotion and Retention,” 2010)
 Until
1998, California law only required school
districts to have policies pertaining to Pupil
Promotion and Retention (PPR), without
specifying any requirements for those policies.
 With a growing concern about the "social
promotion" of students who do not meet gradelevel standards, legislation outlined a promotion
process based on student attainment of gradelevel content standards.
Sample Presentation Language: It is also important for us to have an understanding of
the more recent changes to Ed Code regarding grade retention policy and what preceded
these changes.
Click and Read: Bullet 1
Click and Read: Bullet 2
87
Slide 29
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

PPR policies must include criteria for
promotion and retention at the following
specific grade levels:
2nd and 3rd grade;
 between 3rd and 4th grade;
 between 4th and 5th grade;
 between the end of the elementary grades and
the beginning of middle school;
 between the end of the middle school grades and
the beginning of high school.
 between
Sample Presentation Language: Ed Code states that school districts PPR policies must
include criteria for promotion and retention at the following specific grade levels.
Click and Read: Bullet 1
Click and Read: Bullet 2
Click and Read: Bullet 3
Click and Read: Bullet 4
Click and Read: Bullet 5
88
Slide 30
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

Identification of students who should be
retained or who are at the risk of being
retained should be based primarily on:
proficiency in reading between the 2nd and 3rd
grades and between the 3rd and 4th grades;
 proficiency in reading, English-language arts, and
mathematics for the remaining grade levels.


EC does not prohibit school districts from
retaining a child in more than one grade.
Sample Presentation Language: In addition to what specific grade levels need to have
retention policy in place, Ed Code also states what retention should be based on at
different grades.
Read: All bullets on slide.
89
Slide 31
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

What data should be used in the decision?
 Students’
grades
 Other indicators of academic achievement
 Standardized
Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program
results may be included as one indicator of academic
achievement; however, STAR testing results may not
be the exclusive criterion for promotion or retention.
Sample Presentation Language: A district’s PPR policy needs to include students’ grades
and other indicators of academic achievement in the decision making process. Students’
results on the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program may be included as
one indicator of academic achievement; however, STAR testing results may not be the
exclusive criterion for promotion or retention.
90
Slide 32
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

Who makes the initial recommendation?



If a pupil is identified as performing below the minimum standard
for promotion, the pupil shall be retained unless their general
education classroom teacher determines that retention is
inappropriate.
If the teacher deems it is inappropriate, the teacher should
specify recommendations for intervention other than
retention.
School districts are also required to provide “programs of
direct, systematic, and intensive supplemental instruction to
pupils enrolled in grades two through nine who have been
recommended for retention or who have been retained.”
Sample Presentation Language: Teachers play a pivotal role the decision to retain a
student.
Read: All bullets (except first question) on slide.
91
Slide 33
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

How are parents involved?
 District’s
policy shall provide for parental
notification when a pupil is identified as being at
risk of retention.
 Notice shall be provided as early in the school
year as practical.
 School can retain or promote a student without
parent or guardian approval.
 Policy shall provide a process whereby the
decision of the teacher to retain or promote a
pupil may be appealed.
Sample Presentation Language: As we have seen, Ed Code specifies that educators have
an integral part in the decision to retain. Parents also play a very important role,
however, a school can retain or promote a student without parent or guardian approval.
That being said, this decision cannot be made without first notifying the parent and
providing information regarding the process to appeal the decision.
92
Slide 34
Current Policy:
District vs. The Education Code

Is your district in line with the current Education
Code policy on grade retention?
Sample Presentation Language: Now that we’ve gone over what Ed Code specifies as the
required pieces of a districts PPR policy, let’s take some time to go back over what you
came up with in your groups and compare the two.
Do: Using the “Compare and Contrast PPR Policy” handout, participants will get back
in their groups and compare and contrast Ed Code and their current district policy. This
activity will not only serve as educational, but will also allow districts to identify areas of
their PPR policy which may need to be enhanced or changed. Allow 5 minutes for this
activity.
93
Slide 35
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Intermission
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: Let’s now look at the positive and negative outcomes
found by various researchers.
94
Slide 36
Current Research:
Outcomes of Grade Retention


Positives
Negatives
 Academic
 Social-Emotional
 Economic
Sample Presentation Language: We will first go through the positive outcomes, then the
negative academic, social-emotional, and economic consequences.
95
Slide 37
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes

Cannon et al., (2011)
who were retained in the 1st or 2nd
grade, can significantly improve their grade-level
skills during the repeated year.
 Students showed improvement in English
Language Arts, with many improving at least one
proficiency level.
 Although all groups achieved educationally
meaningful gains, students who repeated a grade
did not catch up to their original peers’ level of
performance.
 Students
Sample Presentation Language: There are some studies that support the benefits of
retention, and the academic success it promotes.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
96
Slide 38
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes
•
Witmer, Hoffman, and Nottis
(2004)
Any
small positive effects that have
been seen with the retained students
usually have not been sustained
beyond a few years.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Gains or progress, in this case, were short term.
97
Slide 39
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes

Wu, Hughes, and West, 2010
 Students
benefited from retention in both shortand long-term, as reported by teacher-rated
behavioral observations.
 Noted significant academic competence and
social improvement.
 Teacher’s perceive a decrease in hyperactivity
and an increase in behavioral engagement.
 Possible Limitation: Despite benefits through 4th
grade, retention may create vulnerabilities which
may not appear until the middle grades.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: As students approach pre-teen years, they may become more self-conscious about
being over-age for a grade.
98
Slide 40
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes

Lorence (2006)

Positive effects of grade retention were specific to the
instructional practices students received during their
repeated grade.



If a student is covering the same material from the previous
year, retained students are likely to experience little progress,
if any.
With supplemental educational support for students who
have been retained, retained students’ academic
performance increased.
Overall, any gains made by low-performing students
can be attributed to the number of hours spent in, as
well as the intensity of, the intervention, not retention
per se (Abbott, Wills, Greenwood, & Kamps, 2010).
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Lorence suggests teachers should prepare individual education plans to address the
academic needs of the students who repeat a grade. So overall, positive outcome won’t
necessary come from being retained. Instead it’s the instruction and support that’s
implemented for the retained child.
99
Slide 41
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Academic
 Jimerson,
Woehr, and Kaufman (2004)
 Found
that using retention as an intervention for
academic failure does not improve academic
performance.
 Although initial academic improvement may occur
during the year the student is retained, achievement
gains decline within 2-3 years of retention.
Sample Presentation Language: And now we will look at negative effects and outcomes
of retention. First, we will look at negative academic outcomes.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
100
Slide 42
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Academic

Abbott et al., (2010)



Rafoth & Knickelbein (2008)


Retained students either show declines in achievement over
several years after retention, or have academic outcomes that
are no better after repeating a grade than those of lowachieving promoted students.
It is unwise to return students to the same insufficient
academic environment that failed them in the first place.
If a student is not given additional instruction to help him/her
learn material missed the previous year, there is little reason to
expect simply repeating the curriculum will enhance student
learning.
Retention is the single most powerful predictor of dropping
out of school (Penna & Tallerico, 2005).
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Academically, students who have been retained are at risk of not graduating.
101
Slide 43
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Social Emotional

The National Association of School Psychologists
(NASP) supports conclusions regarding negative
social and emotional consequences experienced by
retained students.


Significant increases in behavior problems;
Increased risk of health-compromising behaviors:






Emotional distress
Cigarette use
Alcohol use
Drug abuse
Suicidal intentions
Violent behaviors
Sample Presentation Language: Before I/we go into the research around the negative
social emotional outcomes experienced by students who are retained, it is important to
also recognize some of the limitations of this research. According to Jimerson, Pletcher,
& Graydon (2006), a review of research has revealed there are relatively few studies that
have addressed the social and emotional outcomes of retention. In addition to being
somewhat scarce, research in this area is very heterogeneous with regard to objectives,
design, measuring instruments, and longevity of the resulting effects (Bonvin, Bless, &
Schuepback, 2008). Thus, some researchers have concluded it is inappropriate to draw
any firm conclusions from the available studies (Bonvin et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2010;
Lorence, 2006). That being said, other researchers and the National Association of
School Psychologists do support conclusions regarding negative social and emotional
consequences experienced by retained students.
Say: Such as… Read: smaller bullets after NASP statement.
102
Slide 44
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Social Emotional
 In
a longitudinal study of grade retention
conducted by Jimerson & Ferguson (2007),
results suggested that retained students
displayed more aggression than the promoted
group of students.
 Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber (1994) and Smalls
(1997) reported students associate being retained
with “flunking”; this association is hard on their
self-esteem and resulted in teasing from their
peers.
Read: Two bullets on slide.
103
Slide 45
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Social Emotional
 Holmes
(1989)
 A highly
published meta-analysis, which concluded
that on average, retained students displayed:




Poorer social adjustment;
More negative attitudes toward school;
Less frequent attendance;
More problem behaviors in comparison to control groups.
Sample Presentation Language: Lastly, a very well known study conducted by Holmes
(1989) concluded that on average, retained students displayed…
Read: Last 4 bullets on slide.
Say: Overall, despite the previously mentioned limitations, it is clear there is evidence to
support the contention that students who are retained are at risk for many negative social
emotional effects.
104
Slide 46
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Economic
 School
districts around the country spend an
estimated $10 billion a year to provide an extra
year of schooling for all retainees (Center for
Policy Research in Education, 1990).
 Cost is based on the extra money spent by the
tax-payers to educate a student for an additional
year, as well as the delayed entry into the
workforce (Eide & Goldhaber, 2005).
Sample Presentation Language: The implementation of retention is not an inexpensive
practice. There are various aspects where extra expense is created, when implementing
retention.
Say: As stated by the Center for Policy Research in Education in 1990, it is estimated
that school districts around the country spend nearly ten billion dollars a year to provide
an extra year of schooling for all retainees. The cost of retention can be significant
depending on the amount spent locally, as well the cost of additional educational
programs, such as tutoring and summer school. The costs of academic interventions are
expensive, and typically are the responsibility of the school district; however, the cost of
grade retention falls largely on the state as well.
Read: Last Bullet
105
Slide 47
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes
•
Economic
 High
correlation between grade retention and
high school dropout rates.
 Students
who don’t graduate are ill-equipped for the
modern workforce and ultimately pay less taxes,
adding cost to welfare programs, and are
disproportionately represented in crime and
incarceration statistics (Rumberger, 1987).
 From
the societal level, the cost associated with
grade retention and high school dropout rates, is
estimated to exceed $240 billion annually
(Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007).
Sample Presentation Language: There is a high correlation between grade retention and
high school drop-out rates, which can add to the societal cost associated with retention.
Say: The cost to the individual, an opportunity cost, associated with delayed entry into
the job market, depends ultimately on how much the individuals would have earned in the
year that they did not enter the labor market. In addition, as stated earlier, studies show
a high correlation between grade retention and high school dropout rates. The increase
in dropout rates make students ill-equipped for the modern workforce and ultimately
paying less tax, adding cost to welfare programs, and being disproportionately
represented in crime and incarceration statistics. From the societal level, the cost
associated with grade retention and high school drop-out rates, is estimated to exceed
$240 billion dollars annually.
106
Slide 48
Intermission


Questions
Break
Sample Presentation Language: At this time, we are going to break for lunch. I/we
appreciate everyone’s contribution and attention up to this point. We will see you back
here in 45 minutes. If you would like to ask any questions on your way out, please feel
free to talk to me/us as well we be here for the duration of the break.
107
Slide 49
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Intermission
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: Welcome back. The second half of this workshop will
focus on the cases when retention may be appropriate, as well as the alternatives to
grade retention, when it is inappropriate.
108
Slide 50
When is Retention Appropriate?

Most of the studies cited by those against
retention are insufficiently sound to support the
contention that making students repeat a
grade is always wrong (Lorence, 2006).

There are no specific indicators that predict
which children could benefit from retention
(Jimerson et al., 2004).
Sample Presentation Language: A review of research conducted by Lorence (2006)
posited that most of the studies cited by those against retention are insufficiently sound to
support the contention that making students repeat a grade is always wrong. However,
at this time, there are no specific indicators that predict which children could benefit
from retention (Jimerson, Woehr, & Kaufman, 2007). There is obviously a need for
future research surrounding what appropriate criteria are needed to determine if
retention is worthwhile and what should be the goals of retention.
109
Slide 51
When is Retention Appropriate?


NASP (2003) also agrees that no study has been
able to predict accurately which children will
benefit from being retained.
According to the NASP position statement, under
some circumstances, retention is less likely to
yield negative effects for students who have:
relatively positive self-concepts;
good peer relationships;
 social, emotional, and behavioral strengths;
 fewer achievement problems.


Do: Pass out “When is Retention Appropriate?” Handout
Read: All bullets on the slide.
Say: These characteristics might be thought of as protective factors to buffer the possible
negative effects of retention.
110
Slide 52
When is Retention Appropriate?

NASP Position Statement (2003)
It may be appropriate to retain a student who has
difficulty in school due to a lack of opportunity for
instruction, rather than lack of ability; however,
retention is only appropriate if this lack of opportunity
is due to attendance and mobility, and these problems
have been resolved.
 Students should be no more than one year older than
his or her classmates.
 Students should receive specific remediation to
address skills or behavioral deficits, and promote
achievement and social skills during the repeated
grade.

Sample Presentation Language: NASP also recommends, when deciding to retain a
student…
Click and Read: Bullet 1
Click and Read: Bullet 2
Click and Read: Bullet 3
111
Slide 53
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Intermission
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: We’re nearing towards the end of our workshop today,
and one of the most important parts is providing you with ideas which can be successful
alternatives to retention and help reduce the rates of retention in your schools.
112
Slide 54
Alternatives to Grade Retention









Preschool
School-wide Social & Academic Programs
Summer and After-school Programs
Looping and Multi-age Classrooms
School-based Mental Health Programs
Parent Involvement
Early Reading Programs
Effective Instructional Strategies
Behavior and Cognitive-behavior Modification
Strategies
Sample Presentation Language: Here is a list of the alternatives we will cover.
Read: All bullets on slide.
113
Slide 55
Alternatives: Preschool


Poland (2009) suggests that implementation of
universal preschool programs benefits children and
reduces retention rates.
Jimerson, Pletcher, Graydon, Schnurr, Nickerson, and
Kundert (2006)



Basic literacy skills, pro-social behaviors, and
socioemotional development are emphasized in preschool
programs.
Early emphasis may assist at-risk students before they
experience academic challenges by providing a foundation
of skills.
By enhancing the necessary skills for academic success
through preschool programs, retention may be prevented.
Sample Presentation Language: I/We will now present possible alternatives to retention.
One alternative is early intervention, or attending pre-schools.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
114
Slide 56
Alternatives: Preschool

Kgobli and Sorlie (2008)

Key Components of Preschool Programs


Consultation
Training for teachers and preschool staff






teaching of common rules;
good directions;
encouragement;
negative consequences;
problem solving skills
Social skills training



emotion regulation;
problem solving;
anger management
Sample Presentation Language: A successful pre-school program should address the
following important factors to build a strong foundation and early skills set for children.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Early intervention programs can promote healthy relations among peers, and can
prevent the onset of problem behavior.
115
Slide 57
Alternatives: Preschool

Early Prevention & Intervention Programs
 Early
Intervention for Children at Risk for
Developing Behavioral Problems (EICR) (Kgobil
& Sorlie, 2008)
 Aimed
at preventing and treating problem behavior in
children as young as 3 years old.
Sample Presentation Language: And, here are some specific examples of pre-school
programs. This specific one was developed in Norway.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: A finding from this study showed that after one year of implementing the EICR,
problem behavior was lower in schools that implemented this in comparison to schools
that didn’t.
116
Slide 58
Alternatives: Preschool

Early Prevention & Intervention Programs

Incredible Years (IY) Basic Parent Training (PT)
Program (Jones, Daley, Hutchings, Bywater, &
Eames, 2007)
A community-based program implemented for preschool
children at risk of developing both conduct problems and
ADHD.
 Promotes positive parenting through the use of:






reinforcement through play and child-centered activities;
praise, reward, and incentives for appropriate behaviors;
guidance in the use of limit setting and structure;
strategies for managing non-compliance (Jones et al., 2007).
Parents attended a 12-week course for 2.5 hours per week,
lead by a certified facilitator.
Sample Presentation Language: Another example of a prevention program developed in
the UK is the Incredible Years Basic Parent Training (IYPT)
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Findings from this study concluded that the IYPT program was valuable to students
displaying early signs of ADHD.
117
Slide 59
Alternatives: Preschool

Early Prevention & Intervention Programs
 Federally
funded programs that focus on high-risk
families, who are identified by low income, low
parental IQ, and low education:
 Head
Start Project;
Carolina Abecedarian Project;
 The Milwaukee Project;
 The Perry Pre School Project
 The
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
118
Slide 60
Alternatives:
School-wide Social & Academic Programs

Definition:
“Establishing specific guidelines and providing
proactive prevention and support for all students
and faculty in a given school. The goal is to nurture
the emergence of a school culture that promotes
positive or appropriate behavior, and operates
through collaborative data-based decision making
to build a positive school climate” (George,
Harrower, and Knoster, 2003).
Sample Presentation Language: Another alternative to retention is school-wide social and
academic programs.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
119
Slide 61
Alternatives:
School-wide Social & Academic Programs

Implementation of comprehensive programs may
lead to reduction in retention (Jimerson, et al.,
2006).

School districts can offer more opportunities for
teachers to network and provide ongoing
professional development (Bowman, 2005).

Teacher preparation programs should also make
teachers aware of the current research on grade
retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
120
Slide 62
Alternatives:
School-wide Social & Academic Programs

George, Harrower, & Knoster (2003) recommend
six general steps that ensure success when
implementing a school-wide support system
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Establish a foundation for collaboration or
operation;
Build faculty involvement;
Establish a data-based decision-making system;
Brainstorm and select strategies within an action
planning process;
Implement school-wide program through an action
plan;
Monitor, evaluate, and modify the program.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
121
Slide 63
Alternatives:
School-wide Social & Academic Programs

Positive Behavior Support: Comprehensive
Assessment Tool (PBS-CAT) (George et al.,
2003).
 Provides
a series of prompts relevant to specific
action planning, stemming from the previously
mentioned six steps.
 Allows administrators to identify areas of need
within their school building.
 Schools can then develop specific action plans for
addressing relative areas of need.
Sample Presentation Language: One specific example of school wide programs is the
PBS-CAT.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: With the implementation of school-wide programs for prevention and early
interventions, schools can expect to see a decrease in behavior problems, and an
increase in academic achievement.
122
Slide 64
Alternatives:
Summer School & After School Programs

Research has shown additional time and exposure may help
struggling students master academic material (Jimerson et
al., 2006)

Cannon et al. (2011) suggest the following interventions to
increase exposure to academic material for at-risk students.




Trained instructional aides to work with students in small groups
on specific skills;
Learning centers and resource specialists for individual or small
groups in the classroom, or in “pull out” sessions;
After school tutoring led by trained school staff or volunteers;
Summer school or intersession classes.
Sample Presentation Language: Another alternative to retention is summer school.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
123
Slide 65
Alternatives:
Summer School & After School Programs

Smink (2011)
School leaders should invest in summer learning,
because when students aren’t engaged in learning
during the summer, they fall behind in math and
reading.
 Schools can partner with summer school programs
facilitated by libraries, parks, or youth employment
agencies, in order to stretch public funds.
 Providing students with summer school instruction
would save funds that would be spent on re-teaching
students throughout the year.

Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Smink found that 23 percent increase in students moving from basic to proficient or
advanced in math, and 18 percent increase in students basic to provident or advanced in
language arts.
124
Slide 66
Alternatives:
Summer School & After School Programs

Sherman & Catapano (2011)
 After
school programs provide opportunities:
 To
increase student learning, due to an increase in
time spent on academic activities.
 For k-12 students to experience additional academic
support in formats that are different from what they
experience during the school day.
 For middle, or high school students, to help tutor
younger children as well.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Sherman and Catapano evaluated after school programs and found that teachers
reported students were more confident when taking tests and improved computation
skills.
125
Slide 67
Alternatives:
Looping & Multi-Age Classrooms

Looping: students spend two or more years
with the same teacher.
Also called teacher rotation, family-style learning,
student-teacher progression, and multiyear
instruction.
 Cistone and Shneyderman (2004)

 Looping
sample substantially outperformed their
matched counterparts in both subject areas (reading
comprehension and mathematics applications).
 Number of students in the looping sample retained
after the 1999-2000 school year was significantly
lower.
Sample Presentation Language: Looping classrooms have students spend two or more
years with the same teacher. The practice of looping has been described under various
names, including teacher rotation, family-style learning, student-teacher progression,
and multiyear instruction.
Say: A study conducted by Cistone and Shneyderman (2004) analyzed the academic
performance and retention rates of two groups of students, one group participated in
looping and one did not.
Read: Last two bullets.
126
Slide 68
Alternatives:
Looping & Multi-Age Classrooms

Multi-Age: students from two consecutive
grades are in the same classroom and taught
by the same teacher.
 Can
help address the needs of diverse student
abilities and can serve as a viable alternative to
retention (Darling-Hammond, 1998).
 Provides flexibility for academic instruction.
 A child who is behind socially or behaviorally (a
common reason for retention) can take advantage
of the diverse peer resources.
Sample Presentation Language: Another alternate classroom structure which may serve
as a good alternative to retaining students is the multi-age, or combo class. In this
format, students from two consecutive grades are in the same classroom and taught by
the same teacher. Many times this classroom structure is used to address uneven
numbers of students in consecutive grades.
Click and Say: However, research has shown multi-age classes can also address the
needs of diverse student abilities and serve as a viable alternative to retention.
Click and Say: These classrooms can provide more flexibility for academic instruction,
such as, providing more options for ability grouping and access to different grade levels
of curriculum.
Click and Say: Lastly, many children are recommended for retention due to social and
behavioral issues. Multi-age classrooms provide diverse peer resources and older
students can model appropriate classroom routines and social interactions.
127
Slide 69
Alternatives:
School-Based Mental Health Programs

Students with mental health challenges often
fall behind their classmates (Jimerson et al.,
2006) and can end up being recommended for
retention.

Schools provide excellent settings for targeting
children’s mental health, their academic
performance, and the important connection
between the two (Greenwood, Kratochwill, &
Clements, 2008).
Sample Presentation Language: Successful implementation of school-based mental
health programs may be an effective way to decrease retention rates.
Read: All bullets on slide.
128
Slide 70
Alternatives:
School-Based Mental Health Programs

Teachers are an integral part of the success of
school-based mental health programs.
Implement Tier 1
Refer for Tier 2
 Should include effective training and ongoing
consultation for teachers.



Reinkie, Stormont, Herman, Puri, and Goel (2011)
Teachers view themselves as important participants in
addressing their students’ mental health.
 Only 34% of teachers reported that they felt they had
the necessary skills to support these needs in the
classroom.

Read: First bullet.
Say: Many universal, or Tier 1, evidenced-based interventions, which address schoolbased mental health needs, involve teacher implementation. Additionally, more specific
Tier 2 and 3 mental-health interventions often require teacher referral. Therefore,
teacher ‘buy-in’ is imperative to the success of any program.
Click and Say: These researchers recently investigated teacher perceptions around
supporting children’s mental health needs in schools. They found that teachers view
themselves as important participants in addressing their students’ mental health;
however, only 34% of teachers in this particular study reported that they felt they had the
necessary skills to support these needs in the classroom. Therefore, research suggests it
is necessary that the implementation of school-based mental health programs include
effective training and ongoing consultation for teachers.
129
Slide 71
Alternatives:
School-Based Mental Health Programs

School-Based Mental Health Interventions
 Raising
Healthy Children (Catalano, Mazza, &
Harachi, 2003)
 Universal
interventions targeting socialization in
classrooms, families, & peers.
 Social
Problem-Solving Curriculum (Gottfreson,
Jones, & Gore, 2002)
 Social
skills classes taught by graduate students in
psychology.
 27 lessons focused on social competency skills,
involved role playing and skill practice.
Sample Presentation Language: I/We will now give a quick overview of some recently
reviewed school-based mental health interventions. There are many programs available.
If your school is interested in implementing one, it would be best to consult with your
school psychologist as he or she will likely have access to various resources and research
which can guide you towards an evidenced-based program which will best fit the needs
and population of your school.
Say: Raising Health Children was developed in 2003 and involves universal
interventions targeting socialization in classrooms, families, and peers.
Say: The Social Problem-Solving Curriculum includes 27 social skills classes focused on
social competency skills and uses role playing for skill practice.
130
Slide 72
Alternatives:
School-Based Mental Health Programs

School-Based Mental Health Interventions
 Reaching
New Heights (Klein, 2004)
 13
sessions targeted at increasing stress
management skills and decreasing perfectionism,
levels of academic anxiety and social anxiety.
 Improve children’s self-efficacy to implement
successful situations.
 Increase students’ effectiveness in coping with
academic and social stressors.
Sample Presentation Language: Reaching New Heights includes 13 sessions targeted at
increasing stress management skills and decreasing perfectionism, levels of academic
anxiety and social anxiety. This program also works on improving children’s selfefficacy and effectiveness in coping with academic and social stressors.
131
Slide 73
Alternatives:
School-Based Mental Health Programs

School-Based Mental Health Interventions
 Comprehensive
School-Based Program (Nelson,
Martella, & Marchand-Martella, 2002)
 2-yr.
universal, selected, and indicated interventions
for disruptive behaviors consisting of 5 elements:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
School-wide Program
Ecological arrangements in school
Behavioral expectations, discipline policies, and
procedures
One-on-one tutoring in reading, family management,
conflict resolution
Individualized function-based behavioral interventions
& support
Sample Presentation Language: Lastly, the Comprehensive School-Based Program was
studied in 2002 and reported on 2 years of universal, selected, and indicated
interventions for disruptive behaviors. This program consists of five elements…
Read: Numbered bullets.
132
Slide 74
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Lack of parental involvement has been
identified as a risk factor for retention.

Schools are encouraged to make policy
changes that encourage and facilitate a strong
home-school connection.
Sample Presentation Language: Since parental involvement has been identified as a risk
factor for retention, schools are encouraged to make policy changes that encourage and
facilitate a strong home-school connection. Jimerson and colleagues recommend
increasing understanding among administrators, teachers, and staff regarding the
importance of parent involvement and consistently inviting parents to participate in all
aspects of their child’s education.
133
Slide 75
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Barriers to Parental Involvement (Lawson, 2003)
Language barriers, work schedules, and a sense of
disenfranchisement have generally resulted in lower
levels of (at least visible) parent involvement by
working-class parents; in particular, those from ethnic
and racial minorities.
 The perception of what parent involvement actually is,
can also be a barrier.

Parents described involvement as “keeping their children
safe and getting them to school punctually.”
 Teachers expected parents to be visible at school.
 Teachers can view parents as unwilling to help and has
resulted in parents feeling unappreciated.

Sample Presentation Language: In addition to understanding the importance of parental
involvement, educators should also have knowledge of what barriers may be impeding
parental involvement in their schools. Lawson (2003) suggests that…
Read: all bullets on slide [skip “Barriers to Parental Involvement (Lawson, 2003)”]
134
Slide 76
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Joyce Epstein's Framework of Six Types of
Involvement (1995)
1.
2.
Parenting: Parents create an environment in
the home that supports learning.
Communicating: This type of involvement is
characterized by communication between
parents and school personnel. This occurs
when parents regularly attend school
conferences and functions, including attending
parent-teacher association meetings
(Ballantine, 1999).
Sample Presentation Language: Although it is apparent that both teachers and parents
feel that involvement is important, the lack of agreement around what that involvement
actually looks like, should be addressed. Joyce Epstein developed a framework to define
different types parental involvement which I/we will briefly go through next.
Do: Pass out “Parental Involvement” handout
Say: The handout provides much more detail on each of these types of involvement,
including sample practices and challenges for each. For this part of the presentation,
I/we will just go through the definitions of each.
Click and Read: #1
Click and Read: #2
135
Slide 77
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Joyce Epstein's Framework of Six Types of
Involvement (1995)
3.
4.
Click and Read: #3
Click and Read: #4
Volunteering: Parents act as volunteers in their
child’s school. This includes parents tutoring
children in the classroom (Darch, Miao, & Shippen,
2004) or helping the teacher by reading and grading
papers (Ballantine, 1999).
Learning at Home: Parents assist their children with
homework and ensure that homework is completed.
Additionally, parents help their children set goals
that motivate the child to learn. This involves
parents having high expectations for their child.
136
Slide 78
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Joyce Epstein's Framework of Six Types of
Involvement (1995)
5. Decision Making: Parents are involved in school
decisions. One way parents accomplish this is by
serving as representatives on school committees.
6. Collaborating with Community: Identify and
integrate resources and services from the
community to strengthen school programs, family
practices, and student learning and development.
Click and Read: #5
Click and Read: #6
137
Slide 79
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in
Schools (Darch, Miao, & Shippen, 2004)
Communicate regularly, rather than just when a
problem has occurred.
 Initiate positive contact with parents at the beginning
of each school year, and maintain that contact all
year.
 Have parents complete an interest survey.
 Call the parents of children identified as having a
learning or behavior problem within the first two
weeks of school (before other problems surface).
 Have 3-4 conferences yearly with parents of children
with learning and behavior problems.

Sample Presentation Language: Multiple researchers have made recommendations for
ways to increase parent involvement in schools. For example, Darch, Miao, & Shippen
suggest teachers can…
Click and Read: 1st sub-bullet
Click and Read: 2nd bullet
Say: For example, an introduction letter can be sent home to parents that includes
information about the teacher, the goals for the year, and an invitation for parents to
become involved in the classroom.
Click and Read: 3rd bullet
Say: This can help teachers identify ways that the parent might enjoy being involved in
their child’s education.
Click and Read: 4th bullet
Say: This is a good way to proactively establish a positive relationship and discuss a
time when the teacher and parents can meet.
Click and Read: 5th bullet
138
Slide 80
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in
Schools (Pogoloff, 2004)
Communicate with parents in multiple ways.
Each interaction with parents should begin with a
positive statement, which will lessen defensiveness.
 Let parents know that their input is valued.
 Interact with students and their families in various
settings, such as attending the school’s athletic or
theatrical activities.
 Confidentiality must be respected to ensure a positive
relationship.


Click and Read: 1st sub-bullet
Say: The form of communication preferred by the parents should be determined, and
whenever possible that method should be used.
Click and Read: 2nd bullet
Click and Read: 3rd bullet
Click and Read: 4th bullet
Click and Read: 5th bullet
139
Slide 81
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in
Schools (Kyriakides, 2005)
 Give
parents meaningful jobs in the classroom.
Sample Presentation Language: Kyriakides found that parents are often assigned
cleaning up jobs, which may result in decreased parent motivation to continue active
involvement. If parents are engaged in more meaningful activities, such as reading to
students or helping students with assignments, they will be more motivated to continue
their involvement.
140
Slide 82
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs



Low reading achievement is commonly cited as a
reason for retention.
Reading interventions provide student’s with
additional support and instruction in order to gain
the skills necessary to succeed in school.
Research demonstrates evidence-based reading
programs to be an effective alternative to grade
retention.
Sample Presentation Language: Reading is an essential skill for subsequent knowledge
acquisition.
Read: Each bullet point on the slide.
141
Slide 83
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Key Components of Reading Programs
 Developmentally
appropriate, intensive, and use
direct instructional techniques.
 Evidence based reading programs should utilize
the following techniques:
 Small
group instruction
presentations
 Unison responding
 Pacing
 Corrections
 Praise
 Scripted
Sample Presentation Language: Reading programs that provide developmentally
appropriate, intensive, and direct instruction strategies to promote the reading skills of
low-performing students with reading problems may help to prevent the need for
struggling students to repeat a grade (Jimerson et al., 2006).
Read: Each bullet point on the slide.
Say: Research shows an increase in reading achievement, when reading interventions
utilize these various techniques.
142
Slide 84
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

National Reading Panel: “What Works” Basis
 Over
100,000 studies reviewed in the year 2000
to compile the “what works” basis.
 Identified the five key skills and methods central
to reading achievement:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Phonemic Awareness;
Phonics;
Fluency;
Vocabulary;
Reading Comprehension
Sample Presentation Language: The National Reading Panel also emphasizes the
importance of explicit and direct systematic instruction (e.g. scripted presentations,
small-group instruction, unison responding, signals, pacing, corrections, and praise) via
scientifically proven and evidenced based programs to help struggling readers.
Say: Due to the importance of using scientifically based programs, the National Reading
Panel reviewed over 100,000 studies in the year 2000, to identify key skills and methods
central to reading achievement. A review of research using a “what works” basis found
the need for instruction to target five areas essential for effective reading instruction: (1)
phonemic awareness; (2) phonics; (3) fluency; (4) vocabulary; and (5) reading
comprehension (Bursuck & Blanks, 2010). When using a “what works” basis, educators
can learn about and implement “methods and approaches that have worked well and
have caused reading improvement for large numbers of children” (National Institute for
Literacy, 2000, p. 8).
143
Slide 85
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Phonemic Awareness
 Definition:
The ability to hear, identify, and
manipulate individual sounds and phonemes in
spoken words.
 Importance: Improves children’s word reading,
reading comprehension, and improves skills
necessary for learning to spell.
Sample Presentation Language: I/We are going to discuss the various methods used to
address the five critical areas in order to improve reading achievement. I/We are going
to start with Phonemic Awareness.
Read: Definition and Importance content.
144
Slide 86
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Phonemic Awareness

Instructional Strategies
Utilize reading programs and intensive interventions to
target:
 Identification of phonemes;
 Categorization of phonemes;
 The practice of blending phonemes to form words;
 Segmentation of words into phonemes;
 The process of deleting or adding phonemes to form new
words, and substitute phonemes to make new words;
 Manipulation of phonemes by using the letters of the
alphabet;
 Focus on only one or two, rather than several types of
phoneme manipulations.

Sample Presentation Language: The various instructional strategies are very important
when choosing a reading intervention program to address Phonemic Awareness.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
145
Slide 87
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Phonics
 Definition:
Helps children learn the relationships
between the letters of written language and the
sounds of spoken language.
 Importance: Leads to an understanding of the
alphabetic principle—the systematic and
predictable relationships between written letters
and spoken sounds.
Sample Presentation Language: Phonics is another critical area of reading.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
146
Slide 88
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Phonics

Instructional Strategies
Utilize reading programs and intensive interventions to
target:
 Systematic Instruction: the plan of instruction includes a
carefully selected set of letter-sound relationships that are
organized into a logical sequence.
 Explicit Instruction: the programs provide teachers with
precise directions for the teaching of these relationships.
 Ample opportunities for children to apply what they are
learning about letters and sounds, to the reading of words,
sentences. This can significantly improves children’s word
recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension.

Sample Presentation Language: The various instructional strategies for phonics are also
very important when choosing a reading intervention program to address Phonics and
improve reading.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
147
Slide 89
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Fluency
 Definition:
The ability to read a text accurately
and quickly.
 Importance: Frees students to understand what
they read.
Sample Presentation Language: The third critical area to address is Fluency.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
148
Slide 90
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Fluency
 Instructional
 Utilize
Strategies
reading programs and intensive interventions to
target.
 Modeling
fluent reading by having students engage in
repeated oral reading.
 Evaluate instruction and set instructional goals to
motivate students.
Sample Presentation Language: Here are the various instructional strategies to improve
fluency.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
Say: Strategies that may help in improving fluency for example, include choral reading,
student-adult reading, tape assisted reading, partner reading, and readers’ theatre
(National Institute for Literacy, 2000).
149
Slide 91
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Vocabulary

Definition: The words we must know to communicate
effectively, which includes oral vocabulary and
reading vocabulary.
Oral Vocabulary: Words that we use in speaking or
recognize in listening.
 Reading Vocabulary: Words we recognize or use in print.


Importance: Beginning readers use their oral
vocabulary to make sense of the words seen in print;
therefore readers must know what most of the words
mean, before understanding what they are reading.
Sample Presentation Language: In addition to the three critical areas already discussed,
the fourth important area to address when improving reading is Vocabulary. However,
we must distinguish between reading vocabulary and oral vocabulary.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
150
Slide 92
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Vocabulary

Instructional Strategies
 Utilize
reading programs and intensive interventions to
target.
 The practice of indirectly, engaging students daily in
oral language; the opportunity to listen to adults read
to them; and the opportunity to read extensively on
their own.
 Directly, and explicitly teach students both individual
words and word-learning strategies.
Sample Presentation Language: When providing interventions for vocabulary,
specifically use indirect and direct teaching strategies.
Read: The last two bullet points on slide.
151
Slide 93
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Text Comprehension
 Definition:
The understanding of the text being
read.
 Importance: Comprehension is the reason for
reading.
Sample Presentation Language: Lastly, our final critical area for improving reading
achievement involves focusing on reading comprehension.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
152
Slide 94
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Text Comprehension
 Instructional
Strategies
 Utilize
reading programs and intensive interventions to
target the teaching of comprehension strategies
through:



Explicit instruction;
Cooperative learning;
Helping readers use strategies flexibly and in combination.
Sample Presentation Language: Instructional strategies to improve reading
comprehension are listed below.
Read: The last three bullet points on slide.
Say: These strategies will be explained in more detail, later on in the presentation.
153
Slide 95
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Reading Intervention Programs
 Intervention
services improve achievement and
reduce the need to retain.
 Specific Reading Programs
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Corrective Reading
Reading Mastery
Language!
Wilson Reading System
Read 180
Sample Presentation Language: Intervention programs provide the opportunity to
improve achievement, while reducing the need to retain. These various reading
programs provide intervention services to different age groups, as well as vary from
small group, to whole class implementation.
Read: The list of reading intervention programs numbered 1-5.
154
Slide 96
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Reading Intervention Program

Corrective Reading Description
 Implemented
in small groups of 4-5 students.
Includes 45-minute lessons, that are implemented for
four to five days.
 Focuses on decoding, fluency, and comprehension.
 Target Group

4th to 5th graders
Sample Presentation Language: The Corrective Reading program is designed for 4th
through 5th graders, and focuses on decoding, fluency, and comprehension. The program
is implemented in small groups, consisting of 4-5 students. Each lesson is 45-minutes
long, and implementation for the intervention should occur for 4-5 days.
155
Slide 97
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Reading Intervention Program

Reading Mastery Description
 Addresses
the five key areas of reading identified by
the National Reading Panel through a one year
curriculum.
 Contains fast paced and interactive lessons.
 Target Group

Curriculum for Kinder-6th grade
Sample Presentation Language: The Reading Mastery program has a one-year
curriculum designed for kindergarten through 6th grade. The program involves fast
paced and interactive, that address the five key areas of reading discussed previously.
156
Slide 98
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Reading Intervention Program

Language!
 Integrates
reading, writing, and other language arts
skills.
 Lesson is implemented over a two day period, for a
total of 90 minutes of instruction.
 Target Group

Primary to 9th grade reading levels
Sample Presentation Language: The Language! program is designed to integrate
reading, writing, and additional language arts skills. The program’s lesson plans are
implemented over a two-day period, for 90-minutes. Language! is designed to target
struggling readers from primary to 9th grade reading levels.
157
Slide 99
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Reading Intervention Program
 Wilson
Reading System
 Uses
a multisensory and synthetic phonics approach
for students with language based difficulties.
 Implemented in a 45-90 minute instructional period.
 Target Group:

2nd to 12th grade
Sample Presentation Language: The Wilson Reading System uses a multisensory and
synthetic phonics approach for students with language based difficulties. This program
can be best used with students who also have a reading disability. The program is
implemented within a 45- to 90-minute instructional period, and is designed to target 2nd
through 12th graders.
158
Slide 100
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Reading Intervention Program
 Read
180
 Designed
to meet the needs of students struggling
within the five areas identified by the National Reading
Panel.
 Implemented within a 90-minute lesson plan.
 Target Group:

4th to 12th grade
Sample Presentation Language: The Read 180 program is designed to assist students
who are struggling within the five areas discussed previously as well. The program is
implemented within a 90-minute lesson plan, and involves direct, small group, and
interactive technology instruction. The program can be used with 4th through 12th
graders.
159
Slide 101
Alternatives:
Effective Instructional Techniques & Assessment


Implementing effective, research-based
teaching strategies and assessment in the
classroom, is an important link to student
success.
Recommended teaching techniques and
assessment include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Direct instruction
Cooperative learning
Mnemonic strategies
Systematic Assessment
Read: Bullets one and two, saying the four strategies listed as well.
Say: I/We are going to further discuss these strategies.
160
Slide 102
Alternatives:
Effective Instructional Techniques & Assessment

Direct Instruction (DI)
 Model
for teaching that emphasizes welldeveloped and carefully planned lessons.
 Designed around small learning increments.
 Clearly defined and prescribed teaching tasks.
 Examples of programs that incorporate DI:
 Corrective
Reading, Language for Learning, and
Corrective Math.
Sample Presentation Language: Direct Instruction is a well proven teaching technique
that contributes to student achievement. Direct Instruction utilizes carefully planned
lessons, that are well-developed. The technique is designed to be used in small learning
increments, while clearly defining each teaching task.
Say: Examples of programs that incorporate DI: Corrective Reading, Language for
Learning, and Corrective Math.
161
Slide 103
Alternatives:
Effective Instructional Techniques & Assessment

Cooperative Learning
 Structuring
classes around small groups that work
together to meet a common goal.
 Allows




for students to:
work together;
have group processing;
incorporate individual accountability;
and provide positive interdependence.
Sample Presentation Language: Cooperative Learning structures classes around small
groups. These small groups are able to work together to meet common goals. This
technique allows for students to experience learning through various outlets and
responsibilities.
Say: Through this instructional technique, students are able to work together; have
group processing; incorporate individual accountability; and provide positive
interdependence.
162
Slide 104
Alternatives:
Effective Instructional Techniques & Assessment

Mnemonic Strategies
A
strategy for understanding and remembering
what one learns through creative restructuring of
learned material.
 Examples of Mnemonic Strategies:
 Rhyming
 Acronyms
 Singing
Sample Presentation Language: Mnemonic strategies allow students to be creative with
their learning. This strategy is used for understanding and remembering what one
learns, by restructuring the learned material.
Say: Examples of Mnemonic strategies include rhyming, singing, and the use of
acronyms.
163
Slide 105
Alternatives:
Effective Instructional Techniques & Assessment

Effective Assessment Techniques

Systematic Assessment
 To
evaluate a student’s response to intervention and
provide positive consequences for improvement.
 Example of Systematic Assessment:

Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM)
Sample Presentation Language: Systematic assessment strategies, such as continual
progress monitoring and formative evaluation, allow teachers to adapt instructional
strategies to assessment results of students’ progress. This evaluates a student’s
response to the intervention, so appropriate positive consequences for improvement can
occur.
Say: Progress monitoring, particularly Curriculum Based Measurement, is a researchvalidated assessment method that provides data critical for evaluating academic
performance across the entire spectrum of student achievement. These data provide
teachers with direct evidence to determine whether their students are benefiting from the
instructional program. Teachers who use progress monitoring procedures with lowperforming students, such as those at risk for retention, may better enable these students
to make adequate yearly progress.
164
Slide 106
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Maladaptive behavior commonly plays a role
in the decision to retain.

Behavior interventions can serve as
prevention and intervention for students atrisk for retention.

Use a combination of behavioral approaches
to reduce disruptive behaviors and increase
on-task time in the classroom.
Sample Presentation Language: When using a combination of behavioral and cognitivebehavioral approaches to intervene, a decrease in maladaptive behaviors can occur, this
may assist in avoiding retention. These techniques serve as both prevention, and
intervention, for students who engage in behaviors that affect their academic and social
performance at school. Therefore, the acquisition of these skills may reduce disruptive
behaviors and increase on-task time in the classroom.
165
Slide 107
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Can be provided by various trained staff
members within the school setting, while
attending to different behaviors that contribute
to student success.
Sample Presentation Language: Behavioral interventions can be provided by various
trained staff members within the school setting, while attending to different behaviors
that contribute to student success.
166
Slide 108
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Mason and McMahon (2009)
 School
counselors facilitated an intervention with
8th grade students at-risk of retention.
 Intervention included weekly meetings, both
group and individual, with the student’s school
counselor.
Sample Presentation Language: A study conducted by Mason and McMahon in 2009,
demonstrated the success that counseling approaches can have a student’s academic
performance.
Say: In this study school counselors facilitated an intervention for 8th grade students who
were at-risk of being retained. The intervention consisted of weekly meetings; once with
a group of students, and once on an individual basis with their counselor.
167
Slide 109
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Mason and McMahon (2009)
 Group
Meetings
 Occurred
for 30 minutes.
 Student’s shared positive achievements (e.g., tests,
quizzes, projects, etc.).
 Counselor shared a positive statement from a
student’s teacher and focused on a specific skill that
played a role in school success.

Examples: (a) using a student planner for assignments
and calendaring; (b) keeping track of grades; and (c)
managing time after school.
Sample Presentation Language: The group meetings provided support from the
counselor, but also allowed for student’s to gain insight from their peers; which can be
powerful for behavior change.
Say: The group meetings occurred for 30 minutes and allowed for student’s to share
positive achievements. These positive achievements involved grades on tests, quizzes,
projects, and so on. In addition, the counselor shared positive statements from a
student’s teacher. During these sessions, the counselor also focused on a specific skill
that played a key role in school success.
Read: Examples listed regarding specific skills.
168
Slide 110
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Mason and McMahon (2009)
 Individual
Meetings
 Students
discussed grades, shared frustrations,
concerns, and stressors.
 Promotion criterion for passing 5 of the 7 classes was
reviewed.
 Counselor reinforced the skills discussed earlier in the
group session and provided additional encouragement
and motivation.
Sample Presentation Language: The individual meetings provided one-to-one attention
with their counselor.
Say: During the individual meetings, student’s discussed grades, shared their
frustrations, concerns, and stressors. Promotion criterion was also reviewed. This
meeting also allowed for counselors to reinforce the skills discussed earlier in the group
session, as well as provide additional encouragement and motivation.
169
Slide 111
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Mason and McMahon (2009)
 Results
 Participating
student’s received 23 less failing grades
than received in the first quarter; 15 more A’s and B’s
in the 4th quarter.
 64% (21) of students improved their overall academic
average between the 1st and 4th quarters.
 Group and individual meetings offered additional
support to help change behavior, and increase
academic performance.
Sample Presentation Language: The results of this study showed overall improvement
among the student’s grades.
Say: Of the 1400 students enrolled at this middle school, 33 students participated in the
study. Data was taken at the end of two grading periods.
Read: Bullets one through three.
170
Slide 112
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Specific Strategies to Improve Behavior
 Peer
and adult modeling;
 Peer and adult monitoring;
 Feedback;
 Reinforcement (e.g., token reinforcement
systems);
 Group and Individual counseling.
Sample Presentation Language: Additional behavioral and cognitive-behavioral
modification approaches, can help in reducing classroom behavior problems that
interfere with learning.
Say: Specific approaches are listed here.
Read: The five bulleted approaches.
171
Slide 113
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques


Effective in teaching anger control and selfmanagement.
Ideas can be generated through the use of a
Student Study Team (SST).
 Provides
a collaborative team approach
(Jimerson et al., 2004).
 Assists in identifying an approach that would be
most appropriate for a student’s specific
behavioral and cognitive needs.
Sample Presentation Language: It is important to identify techniques specific to the
student’s needs.
Say: When identifying and providing support, ideas can be generated through the use of
a Student Study Team (SST) as well, which will provide a collaborative team approach.
The SST can assist in identifying the approach that would be most appropriate for a
student’s specific behavioral and cognitive needs.
172
Slide 114
Conclusion
The goal of this presentation was to help you,
as educators, to become more versed in the
research surrounding retention, and in turn, be
better able to differentiate between when
retention is inappropriate and when it may be
appropriate for select students. Lastly, it was
imperative that we provide you with alternative
strategies to address the needs of struggling
students.
Sample Presentation Language: Recent reviews of research conclude that there are no
clearly identified benefits to retaining students, and in fact, the practice may have
deleterious effects on students’ achievement, self concept, and attitude toward school,
and can increase engagement in high-risk behavior, and the likelihood of dropping out of
school. Despite the ineffectiveness of this practice that has been found by the majority of
current research, the rate of retention continues to increase.
Say: The goal of this presentation was to help you, as educators, become more versed in
the research surrounding retention. It is hoped that this will better equip you with the
knowledge necessary to differentiate between when retention is inappropriate and when
it may be appropriate for select students. In order to fully support the students who may
be struggling, and the educators who are looking for ways to provide effective teaching
strategies to these students, it was imperative that we provide you with alternative
strategies as well. As a concluding activity, I/we would like you to complete the “Learn”
column of your KWL chart.
Do: Give participants 2 minutes to complete this activity.
173
Slide 115
Questions?
Say: Thank you so much for your participation in this workshop. At this point, I/we
would be happy to answer any questions you might have.
174
Slide 116
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178
APPENDIX C
Handouts: Educators
179
KWL Chart
What I Know About
Grade Retention
What I Want to Know
About Grade Retention
What I Learned About
Grade Retention
180
Compare and Contrast PPR Policy
1. In the first column, record what the current policy/practice is in your district.
2. Check the appropriate box (“in line” or “not in line”).
3. In the last column, record what suggested changes could be made to your current policy.
Our District’s
Policy/Practice
In line
with Ed
Code
Not in
line with
Ed Code
Criteria for promotion & retention at specific grades:
Data used in the decision to retain:
Suggested Changes
181
Teacher’s role in the decision:
Programs provided to students at risk:
Parental notification:
Additional policy:
182
Parental Involvement
Table adapted from Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement
I. Parenting
Definition:
Sample
Practices
Benefits for
Students
Benefits for
Parents
Benefits for
Teachers
Help all
families
establish a
home
environment
to support
children as
students.
Workshops, videotapes,
computerized phone
messages on parenting
and child rearing at each
age and grade level.
Awareness of
family
supervision;
respect for
parents.
Parent education and
other courses or training
for parents (e.g., GED,
college credit, family
literacy.)
Positive personal
qualities, habits,
beliefs, and
values, as taught
by family.
Understanding
families'
background,
cultures,
concerns, goals,
needs, and
views of their
children.
Family support programs
to assist families with
health, nutrition, and
other services.
Balance between
time spent on
chores, on other
activities, and on
homework.
Understanding
of and
confidence
about
parenting,
child and
adolescent
development,
and changes in
home
conditions for
learning as
children
proceed
through
school.
Home visits at transition
points to pre-school,
elementary, middle, and
high school.
Neighborhood meetings
to help families
understand schools and
to help schools
understand families.
Good or
improved
attendance.
Awareness of
importance of
school.
Awareness of
own and
others'
challenges in
parents.
Feeling of
support from
school and
other parents.
Respect for
families'
strengths and
efforts.
Understanding
of student
diversity.
Awareness of
own skills to
share
information on
child
development.
183
II. Communicating
Definition:
Design
effective
forms of
school-tohome and
home-toschool
communications
about school
programs
and
children’s
progress.
Sample
Practices
Conferences with every
parent at least once a year,
with follow-ups as needed.
Language translators to
assist families as needed.
Weekly or monthly folders
of student work sent home
for review and comments.
Parent/student pickup of
report card, with
conferences on improving
grades.
Regular schedule of useful
notices, memos, phone
calls, newsletters, and other
communications.
Clear information on
choosing schools or
courses, programs, and
activities within schools.
Benefits for
Students
Awareness of own
progress and of
actions needed to
maintain or
improve grades.
Understanding of
school policies on
behavior,
attendance, and
other areas of
student conduct.
Informed
decisions about
courses and
programs.
Awareness of own
role in
partnerships,
serving as courier
and
communicator.
Benefits for
Parents
Understanding
school
programs and
policies.
Monitoring and
awareness of
child’s progress.
Responding
effectively to
students’
problems.
Interactions
with teachers
and ease of
communication
with school and
teachers.
Benefits for
Teachers
Increased
diversity and
use of
communications
with families
and awareness
of own ability to
communicate
clearly
Appreciation
for and use of
parent network
for
communications
Increased ability
to elicit and
understand
family views on
children’s
programs and
progress.
Clear information on all
school policies, programs,
reforms, and transitions.
III. Volunteering
Definition:
Recruit and
organize
parent help
and support.
Sample
Practices
School and classroom
volunteer program to help
teachers, administrators,
students, and other parents.
Parent room or family
center for volunteer work,
meetings, resources for
Benefits for
Students
Skill in
communicating
with adults.
Increased learning
of skills that
receive tutoring or
targeted attention
Benefits for
Parents
Understanding
teacher's job,
increased
comfort in
school, and
carry-over of
school activities
Benefits for
Teachers
Readiness to
involve families
in new ways,
including those
who do not
volunteer at
school.
184
families.
from volunteers.
at home.
Annual postcard survey to
identify all available talents,
times, and locations of
volunteers.
Awareness of
many skills,
talents,
occupations, and
contributions of
parent and other
volunteers.
Self-confidence
about ability to
work in school
and with
children or to
take steps to
improve own
education.
Class parent, telephone
tree, or other structures to
provide all families with
needed information.
Awareness that
families are
welcome and
valued at
school.
Parent patrols or other
activities to aid safety and
operation of school
programs.
Awareness of
parents' talents
and interests in
school and
children.
Greater
individual
attention to
students, with
help from
volunteers.
Gains in specific
skills of
volunteer work.
IV. Learning at Home
Definition:
Provide
information
and ideas to
families
about how
to help
students at
home with
homework
and other
curriculumrelated
activities,
decisions,
and
Sample
Practices
Information for families on
skills required for students
in all subjects at each grade.
Information on homework
policies and how to monitor
and discuss schoolwork at
home.
Regular schedule of
homework that requires
students to discuss and
interact with families on
what they are learning in
class.
Calendars with activities for
parents and students at
Benefits for
Students
Benefits for
Parents
Gains in skills,
abilities, and test
scores linked to
homework and
classwork.
Know how to
support,
encourage, and
help student at
home each year.
Homework
completion.
Discussions of
school,
classwork, and
homework.
Positive attitude
toward
schoolwork.
View of parents as
more similar to
teacher and of
home as more
similar to school.
Understanding
of instructional
program each
year and of
what child is
learning in each
subject.
Benefits for
Teachers
Better design of
homework
assignments.
Respect for
family time.
Recognition of
equal
helpfulness of
single-parent,
dual-income,
and less
formally
educated
families in
motivating and
reinforcing
185
planning.
home.
Family math, science, and
reading activities at school.
Self-concept of
ability as learner.
Summer learning packets
or activities.
Appreciation of
teaching skills.
Awareness of
child as a
learner.
student
learning.
Satisfaction with
family
involvement and
support.
Family participation in
setting student goals each
year and in planning for
college or work.
V. Decision Making
Definition:
Include
parents in
school
decisions,
developing
parent
leaders and
representatives.
Sample
Practices
Benefits for
Students
Benefits for
Parents
Active PTA/PTO or other
parent organizations,
advisory councils, or
committees (e.g.,
curriculum, safety,
personnel) for parent
leadership and
participation.
Awareness of
representation of
families in school
decisions.
Input into
policies that
affect child’s
education.
Understanding
that student rights
are protected.
Feeling of
ownership of
school.
Independent advocacy
groups to lobby and work
for school reform and
improvements.
Specific benefits
linked to policies
enacted by parent
organizations and
experienced by
students.
Awareness of
parents’ voices
in school
decisions.
District-level councils and
committees for family and
community involvement.
Shared
experiences and
connections
with other
families.
Awareness of
school, district,
and state
policies.
Benefits for
Teachers
Awareness of
parent
perspectives as
a factor in policy
development
and decisions.
View of equal
status of family
representatives
on committees
and in
leadership roles.
186
VI. Collaborating with Community
Definition:
Identify and
integrate
resources
and services
from the
community
to
strengthen
school
programs,
family
practices,
and student
learning and
development
Sample
Practices
Benefits for
Students
Information for students
and families on community
health, cultural,
recreational, social
support, and other
programs or services.
Increased skills
and talents
through enriched
curricular and
extracurricular
experiences.
Information on
community activities that
link to learning skills and
talents, including summer
programs for students.
Awareness of
careers and of
options for future
education and
work.
Service integration through
partnerships involving
school; civic, counseling,
cultural, health, recreation,
and other agencies and
organizations; and
businesses.
Specific benefits
linked to
programs,
services,
resources, and
opportunities that
connect students
with community.
Service to the community
by students, families, and
schools (e.g., recycling, art,
music, drama, and other
activities for seniors or
others).
Participation of alumni in
school programs for
students.
Benefits for
Parents
Knowledge and
use of local
resources by
family and child
to increase
skills and
talents or to
obtain needed
services
Interactions
with other
families in
community
activities.
Awareness of
school's role in
the community
and of
community's
contributions to
the school.
Benefits for
Teachers
Awareness of
community
resources to
enrich
curriculum and
instruction.
Openness to and
skill in using
mentors,
business
partners,
community
volunteers, and
others to assist
students and
augment
teaching
practices.
Knowledgeable
helpful
referrals of
children and
families to
needed
services.
187
When is Retention Appropriate?
A Guide for Educators and Parents
Adapted from the National Association of School Psychologists Position Paper (2003)
Under some circumstances, retention is less likely to yield negative
effects for students who have particular characteristics. These
characteristics may include:




Relatively positive self-concepts
Good peer relationships
Social, emotional, and behavioral strengths
Fewer achievement problems
In addition to the characteristics mentioned above, specific guidelines to
consider for students at risk are as follows:
 It may be appropriate to retain a student who has difficulty in
school due to a lack of opportunity for instruction, rather than
lack of ability; however, retention is only appropriate if this lack of
opportunity is due to attendance and mobility, and these
problems have been resolved.
 Students should be no more than one year older than his or her
classmates.
 Students should receive specific remediation to address skills or
behavioral deficits, and promote achievement and social skills
during the repeated grade.
188
APPENDIX D
Presentation Slides: Parent Workshop
189
Slide 1
RETENTION: CURRENT
RESEARCH AND BEST
PRACTICES
By Megan Andrew,
Maryam Scaffidi, and
Kimberly Tzikas
190
Slide 2
Welcome Parents!

KWL chart
 In
the first column, record what you KNOW about
retention.
 In the second column, record what you WANT to
know about retention.
Do: Pass out KWL chart to all participants.
Sample Presentation Language: To begin, I/we would like to do a KWL chart in order to
tap your prior knowledge about the practice of grade retention and get our brains
thinking about what we want to learn in this workshop.
Read: All bullets on the slide.
Do: Give group approximately 5 minutes to record on their chart.
Say: Can I/we have a few volunteers share what they wrote?
191
Slide 3
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Break
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: Here is my/our workshop outline. I/We will be referring
back to this throughout the training to keep you aware of what I/we have, and will be,
covering.
Read: Roman numerals.
192
Slide 4
Audiences’ Personal Perceptions:

Discussion
Sample Presentation Language: At this time, talk to your neighbor about what your
perceptions of retention are. For example, does it work? And, when is it appropriate?
What are your experiences with children who have been retained?
Do: Give participants 1 minute to talk to their neighbor.
Say: What did you come up with? Can I/we have some volunteers to share?
Do: List perceptions on a whiteboard, poster board, or chalkboard.
193
Slide 5
Common Perceptions in Research:
Parents & Students


Parents
Students
Sample Presentation Language: Now, I/we are going to discuss the perceptions of both
parents and students regarding retention. This is an important point of view that can
often be overlooked.
194
Slide 6
Parent Perceptions on
Grade Retention

Akmal and Larsen (2004)
Some parents agreed with the decision to retain, or
asked for their child to be retained.
 Parents requested their child be retained, it was a way
of showing punishment for “failing to show initiative or
cooperation.”


Jimerson et al. (2004)
Information should be given to parents in order to
provide them with a better understanding regarding
the possible effects of retention on their child.
 Schools should provide effective interventions and
resources that parents can access to further their
understanding of grade retention.

Sample Presentation Language: I/We will discuss how parents viewed retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: According to Akmal and Larsen, parents did not have an understanding regarding
the research on retention, and they weren’t provided with information regarding the
possible effects that grade retention may have on their child. Some parents used retention
as a way a punishment or negative consequence for failing.
195
Slide 7
Student Perceptions on
Grade Retention

Yamamoto & Byrnes, 1987
the time a student was in the 6th grade, only
the loss of a parent and going blind would create a
more stressful event than grade retention.
 By
Sample Presentation Language: The following illustrates what many students may think
about retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Clearly, retention is very scary and stressful to students; they don’t view it as a
positive solution to them struggling in school.
196
Slide 8
Student Perceptions on
Grade Retention

Penna & Tallerico, 2005
Not much changed the second or third time around;
rather they received the same instruction, textbooks,
and assignments that they failed the previous year.
 Redundant routine in the classroom was ultimately
boring and frustrating.
 Students reported receiving less help, and at times,
being the subject of public humiliation by the teacher.
 Ridiculed by their peers through both verbal remarks
and demeaning behaviors.
 Mocked, picked on, bullied, and berated because of
their age and retained status.

Sample Presentation Language: Here is more research stating student’s experience on
retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: On another study by Penna &Tollerico retained students were later interviewed
about their experience. Overall, students stated the negative effects of retention:
academically, socially, and their own immediate and longer-term emotional reactions to
these academic setbacks and peer pressures.
197
Slide 9
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Break
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: At this point, we will move on to current research
findings on different aspects of retention.
198
Slide 10
Current Research:
Statistics on Grade Retention

Rates of grade retention

Demographics of those at risk for retention

Effects of age at time of retention
Sample Presentation Language: More specifically, I/we will address the following.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
199
Slide 11
Rates of Grade Retention



Approximately three million children each year fail
a grade (Poland, 2009).
Rates are as high as 15%, demonstrating that
within school populations of about 48 million
students, more than 5.5 million students have
been retained (Griffith, Lloyd, Lane, & Tankersley,
2010).
The National Association of School Psychologists
(NASP) (2003) also approximates that 15% of all
American students are retained each year, with
30-50% being held back at least once before the
ninth grade.
Sample Presentation Language: Here are nation-wide statistics of retention rates.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
200
Slide 12
Increase In Retention Rates

The percentage of students retained has
shown a steady increase over the last 25
years to about 40% (Rafoth & Knickelbein,
2008).
 No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, led to an
increase in retention rates, making all students
meet minimum academic standards.
Sample Presentation Language: Retention rates have increase over the past few decades.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Prior to the implementation of NCLB, students who did not meet grade level
standards were promoted on to the next grade level, rather than retained.
201
Slide 13
Who is at Risk?

Characteristics such as age, gender,
socioeconomic background, and race/ethnicity
are risk factors for early grade retention.
 Relatively
younger students, especially grades
kindergarten through third grade, and boys, are
more likely to be held back (Cannon, Lipscomb,
Public Policy Institute of California, 2011).
 More African Americans than Caucasians, more
boys than girls, and more students from low SES
households (Griffith, Lloyd, Lane, Tankersley,
2010).
Sample Presentation Language: There is no systematic method or criteria for deciding
whether a student would be retained. Certain characteristics place students at risk of
retention.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Students with specific learning disabilities are retained at least once prior to the
time when they are determined to be eligible for special education.
202
Slide 14
Who is at Risk?

Students with (Griffith et al., (2010):
 low
academic performance;
 failure to meet grade level standards;
 social immaturity;
 behavior problems;
 English as a second language;
 lack of parental involvement;
 lack of attendance and missed instruction.
Sample Presentation Language: Other risk factors are as follow:
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Physical size- simply being physically “small” in comparison to same age peers.
203
Slide 15
Grade Retention: Effects of Age

Research regarding when retention is most
effective is inconclusive.

Early grade retention (kindergarten through
second grade) did not yield advantages in reading
from first to eighth grade, relative to students
retained later (third through fifth grades)
(Silberglitt, Appleton, Burnes, Jimerson, 2006).

Retention may decrease in effectiveness as grade
level increases (Pomplun, 1998).
Sample Presentation Language: There have been many questions regarding the age at
which a student should be retained. It is assumed that the younger a student is when
retained, the more likely he or she is to succeed academically, both short-and long-term.
Say: A study conducted by Silberglitt, Appleton, Burns, & Jimerson in 2006, found that
early grade retention, occurring in kindergarten through second grade, did not yield
advantages in reading from first to eighth grade; this was relative to students retained
later, in the third through fifth grades. However, in 1998 Pomplun noted that retention
may decrease in effectiveness as grade level increases. Due to these differing viewpoints,
it is apparent that research regarding at what age retention is most effective, is
inconclusive.
204
Slide 16
Academic Redshirting

Definition:
 Intentional
delay of school entry into kindergarten
in order to give the child extra time to mature and
gain skills.
 Delay is generally an additional year.
Sample Presentation Language: Academic redshirting is the intentional delay of school
entry into kindergarten in order to give the child extra time to mature and gain skills.
The delay is generally an additional year. Deciding if their child is ready to start
kindergarten can be a daunting decision for many parents.
205
Slide 17
Effects of Academic Redshirting
•
•
•
Delayed entrants into kindergarten had lower
achievement test scores later on, in addition to
higher rates of high risk behaviors in adolescence
(Rafoth & Knickelbein, 2008).
Late entry into kindergarten also denies children
an opportunity for cognitive growth through social
interaction with their age-mates (National
Association of Early Childhood Specialists, 2000).
A study conducted by Loeb (2007), found young
kindergarten students made similar progress
during their kindergarten year, when compared to
their older peers.
Sample Presentation Language: Your district most likely has a cut-off date to determine
when children enter kindergarten based on their birth date. When helping parents with
this decision, it is important to keep the following research in mind.
Click and Read: Bullet 1
Click and Read: Bullet 2
Click and Read: Bullet 3
206
Slide 18
Effects of Academic Redshirting

Quirk, Furlong, Lilles, Felix, and Chin (2011)
 The
practice of redshirting was not associated
with school readiness or accelerated
achievement.
 The strongest predictor of school readiness is
high quality preschool.
 The youngest children within the sample with
preschool, were rated more ready for
kindergarten than the oldest students without
preschool.
Sample Presentation Language: These researchers have done recent research on the
practice of redshirting with similar findings to the researchers on the previous slide.
Read: Each bullet point on slide.
Say: The sum of this research suggests delayed entry should not be used as a means of
intervention.
207
Slide 19
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Break
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: At this point, we will move on to the policy of grade
retention, as written in educational law. This will be a brief overview so you, as parents,
are knowledgeable on what an appropriate policy should include.
208
Slide 20
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

Read: Bullet
Current state law in California requires every
school district to have a written Pupil
Promotion and Retention (PPR) policy
approved by the district’s governing board.
209
Slide 21
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

PPR (2010) policies must include criteria for
promotion and retention at the following
specific grade levels:
2nd and 3rd grade;
 between 3rd and 4th grade;
 between 4th and 5th grade;
 between the end of the elementary grades and
the beginning of middle school;
 between the end of the middle school grades and
the beginning of high school.
 between
Sample Presentation Language: Ed Code states that school districts PPR policies must
include criteria for promotion and retention at the following specific grade levels.
Click and Read: Bullet 1
Click and Read: Bullet 2
Click and Read: Bullet 3
Click and Read: Bullet 4
Click and Read: Bullet 5
210
Slide 22
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

Identification of students who should be
retained or who are at the risk of being
retained should be based primarily on:
proficiency in reading between the 2nd and 3rd
grades and between the 3rd and 4th grades;
 proficiency in reading, English-language arts, and
mathematics for the remaining grade levels.


EC does not prohibit school districts from
retaining a child in more than one grade.
Sample Presentation Language: In addition to what specific grade levels need to have
retention policy in place, Ed Code also states what retention should be based on at
different grades.
Read: All bullets on slide.
211
Slide 23
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

What data should be used in the decision?
 Students’
grades
 Other indicators of academic achievement
 Standardized
Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program
results may be included as one indicator of academic
achievement; however, STAR testing results may not
be the exclusive criterion for promotion or retention.
Sample Presentation Language: A district’s PPR policy needs to include students’ grades
and other indicators of academic achievement in the decision making process. Students’
results on the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program may be included as
one indicator of academic achievement; however, STAR testing results may not be the
exclusive criterion for promotion or retention.
212
Slide 24
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

Who makes the initial recommendation?



If a pupil is identified as performing below the minimum
standard for promotion, the pupil shall be retained unless
their general education classroom teacher determines that
retention is inappropriate.
If the teacher deems it is inappropriate, the teacher
should specify recommendations for intervention other
than retention.
School districts are also required to provide “programs
of direct, systematic, and intensive supplemental
instruction to pupils enrolled in grades two through
nine who have been recommended for retention or
who have been retained.”
Sample Presentation Language: Teachers play a pivotal role the decision to retain a
student.
Read: All bullets (except first question) on slide.
213
Slide 25
Current Policy:
California Education Code (EC)

How are parents involved?
 District’s
policy shall provide for parental
notification when a pupil is identified as being at
risk of retention.
 Notice shall be provided as early in the school
year as practical.
 School can retain or promote a student without
parent or guardian approval.
 Policy shall provide a process whereby the
decision of the teacher to retain or promote a
pupil may be appealed.
Sample Presentation Language: As we have seen, Ed Code specifies that educators have
an integral part in the decision to retain. Parents also play a very important role,
however, a school can retain or promote a student without parent or guardian approval.
That being said, this decision cannot be made without first notifying the parent and
providing information regarding the process to appeal the decision.
214
Slide 26
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Break
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: Let’s now look at the positive and negative outcomes
found by various researchers.
215
Slide 27
Current Research:
Outcomes of Grade Retention


Positives
Negatives
 Academic
 Social-Emotional
 Economic
Sample Presentation Language: We will first go through the positive outcomes, then the
negative academic, social-emotional, and economic consequences.
216
Slide 28
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes

Cannon et al., (2011)
who were retained in the 1st or 2nd
grade, can significantly improve their grade-level
skills during the repeated year.
 Although all groups achieved educationally
meaningful gains, students who repeated a grade
did not catch up to their original peers’ level of
performance.
 Students
Sample Presentation Language: There are some studies that support the benefits of
retention, and the academic success it promotes.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
217
Slide 29
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes
•
Witmer, Hoffman, and Nottis
(2004)
Any
small positive effects that have
been seen with the retained students
usually have not been sustained
beyond a few years.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Gains or progress, in this case, were short term.
218
Slide 30
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes

Wu, Hughes, and West, 2010
 Students
benefited from retention in both shortand long-term, as reported by teacher-rated
behavioral observations.
 Noted significant academic competence and
social improvement.
 Teacher’s perceive a decrease in hyperactivity
and an increase in behavioral engagement.
 Possible Limitation: Despite benefits through 4th
grade, retention may create vulnerabilities which
may not appear until the middle grades.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: As students approach pre-teen years, they may become more self-conscious about
being over-age for a grade.
219
Slide 31
Grade Retention:
Positive Outcomes

Lorence (2006)

Positive effects of grade retention were specific to the
instructional practices students received during their
repeated grade.



If a student is covering the same material from the previous
year, retained students are likely to experience little progress,
if any.
With supplemental educational support for students who
have been retained, retained students’ academic
performance increased.
Overall, any gains made by low-performing students
can be attributed to the number of hours spent in, as
well as the intensity of, the intervention, not retention
per se (Abbott, Wills, Greenwood, & Kamps, 2010).
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Lorence suggests teachers should prepare individual education plans to address the
academic needs of the students who repeat a grade. So overall, positive outcome won’t
necessary come from being retained. Instead it’s the instruction and support that’s
implemented for the retained child.
220
Slide 32
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Academic
 Jimerson,
Woehr, and Kaufman (2004)
 Found
that using retention as an intervention for
academic failure does not improve academic
performance.
 Although initial academic improvement may occur
during the year the student is retained, achievement
gains decline within 2-3 years of retention.
Sample Presentation Language: And now we will look at negative effects and outcomes
of retention. First, we will look at negative academic outcomes.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
221
Slide 33
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Academic

Abbott et al., (2010)



Rafoth & Knickelbein (2008)


Retained students either show declines in achievement over
several years after retention, or have academic outcomes that
are no better after repeating a grade than those of lowachieving promoted students.
It is unwise to return students to the same insufficient
academic environment that failed them in the first place.
If a student is not given additional instruction to help him/her
learn material missed the previous year, there is little reason to
expect simply repeating the curriculum will enhance student
learning.
Retention is the single most powerful predictor of dropping
out of school (Penna & Tallerico, 2005).
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Academically, students who have been retained are at risk of not graduating.
222
Slide 34
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Social Emotional

The National Association of School Psychologists
(NASP) supports conclusions regarding negative
social and emotional consequences experienced by
retained students.


Significant increases in behavior problems;
Increased risk of health-compromising behaviors:






Emotional distress
Cigarette use
Alcohol use
Drug abuse
Suicidal intentions
Violent behaviors
Sample Presentation Language: Before I/we go into the research around the negative
social emotional outcomes experienced by students who are retained, it is important to
also recognize some of the limitations of this research. According to Jimerson, Pletcher,
& Graydon (2006), a review of research has revealed there are relatively few studies that
have addressed the social and emotional outcomes of retention. In addition to being
somewhat scarce, research in this area is very heterogeneous with regard to objectives,
design, measuring instruments, and longevity of the resulting effects (Bonvin, Bless, &
Schuepback, 2008). Thus, some researchers have concluded it is inappropriate to draw
any firm conclusions from the available studies (Bonvin et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2010;
Lorence, 2006). That being said, other researchers and the National Association of
School Psychologists do support conclusions regarding negative social and emotional
consequences experienced by retained students.
Say: Such as… Read: smaller bullets after NASP statement.
223
Slide 35
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Social Emotional
 In
a longitudinal study of grade retention
conducted by Jimerson & Ferguson (2007),
results suggested that retained students
displayed more aggression than the promoted
group of students.
 Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber (1994) and Smalls
(1997) reported students associate being retained
with “flunking”; this association is hard on their
self-esteem and resulted in teasing from their
peers.
Read: Two bullets on slide.
224
Slide 36
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Social Emotional
 Holmes
(1989)
 A highly
published meta-analysis, which concluded
that on average, retained students displayed:




Poorer social adjustment;
More negative attitudes toward school;
Less frequent attendance;
More problem behaviors in comparison to control groups.
Sample Presentation Language: Lastly, a very well known study conducted by Holmes
(1989) concluded that on average, retained students displayed…
Read: Last 4 bullets on slide.
Say: Overall, despite the previously mentioned limitations, it is clear there is evidence to
support the contention that students who are retained are at risk for many negative social
emotional effects.
225
Slide 37
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes

Economic
 School
districts around the country spend an
estimated $10 billion a year to provide an extra
year of schooling for all retainees (Center for
Policy Research in Education, 1990).
 Cost is based on the extra money spent by the
tax-payers to educate a student for an additional
year, as well as the delayed entry into the
workforce (Eide & Goldhaber, 2005).
Sample Presentation Language: The implementation of retention is not an inexpensive
practice. There are various aspects where extra expense is created, when implementing
retention.
Say: As stated by the Center for Policy Research in Education in 1990, it is estimated
that school districts around the country spend nearly ten billion dollars a year to provide
an extra year of schooling for all retainees. The cost of retention can be significant
depending on the amount spent locally, as well the cost of additional educational
programs, such as tutoring and summer school. The costs of academic interventions are
expensive, and typically are the responsibility of the school district; however, the cost of
grade retention falls largely on the state as well.
Read: Last Bullet
226
Slide 38
Grade Retention:
Negative Outcomes
•
Economic
 High
correlation between grade retention and
high school dropout rates.
 Students
who don’t graduate are ill-equipped for the
modern workforce and ultimately pay less taxes,
adding cost to welfare programs, and are
disproportionately represented in crime and
incarceration statistics (Rumberger, 1987).
 From
the societal level, the cost associated with
grade retention and high school dropout rates, is
estimated to exceed $240 billion annually
(Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007).
Sample Presentation Language: There is a high correlation between grade retention and
high school drop-out rates, which can add to the societal cost associated with retention.
Say: The cost to the individual, an opportunity cost, associated with delayed entry into
the job market, depends ultimately on how much the individuals would have earned in the
year that they did not enter the labor market. In addition, as stated earlier, studies show
a high correlation between grade retention and high school dropout rates. The increase
in dropout rates make students ill-equipped for the modern workforce and ultimately
paying less tax, adding cost to welfare programs, and being disproportionately
represented in crime and incarceration statistics. From the societal level, the cost
associated with grade retention and high school drop-out rates, is estimated to exceed
$240 billion dollars annually.
227
Slide 39
Break


15 minutes
Questions
Sample Presentation Language: At this time, we are going to take a 15-minute break.
I/we appreciate everyone’s contribution and attention up to this point. If you would like
to ask any questions on your way out, please feel free to talk to me/us as well we be here
for the duration of the break.
228
Slide 40
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Break
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: Welcome back. The second half of this workshop will
focus on the cases when retention may be appropriate, as well as the alternatives to
grade retention, when it is inappropriate.
229
Slide 41
When is Retention Appropriate?

Most of the studies cited by those against
retention are insufficiently sound to support the
contention that making students repeat a
grade is always wrong (Lorence, 2006).

There are no specific indicators that predict
which children could benefit from retention
(Jimerson et al., 2004).
Sample Presentation Language: A review of research conducted by Lorence (2006)
posited that most of the studies cited by those against retention are insufficiently sound to
support the contention that making students repeat a grade is always wrong. However,
at this time, there are no specific indicators that predict which children could benefit
from retention (Jimerson, Woehr, & Kaufman, 2007). There is obviously a need for
future research surrounding what appropriate criteria are needed to determine if
retention is worthwhile and what should be the goals of retention.
230
Slide 42
When is Retention Appropriate?


National Association of School Psychologists
(NASP) (2003) also agrees that no study has
been able to predict accurately which children will
benefit from being retained.
According to the NASP position statement, under
some circumstances, retention is less likely to
yield negative effects for students who have:
relatively positive self-concepts;
good peer relationships;
 social, emotional, and behavioral strengths;
 fewer achievement problems.


Sample Presentation Language: If you are notified that your student is at risk for
retention, the following slides should help you decide if your student is an appropriate
candidate for this controversial practice.
Do: Pass out “When is Retention Appropriate?” Handout
Read: All bullets on the slide.
Say: These characteristics might be thought of as protective factors to buffer the possible
negative effects of retention.
231
Slide 43
When is Retention Appropriate?

NASP Position Statement (2003)
It may be appropriate to retain a student who has
difficulty in school due to a lack of opportunity for
instruction, rather than lack of ability; however,
retention is only appropriate if this lack of opportunity
is due to attendance and mobility, and these problems
have been resolved.
 Students should be no more than one year older than
his or her classmates.
 Students should receive specific remediation to
address skills or behavioral deficits, and promote
achievement and social skills during the repeated
grade.

Sample Presentation Language: NASP also recommends, when deciding to retain a
student…
Click and Read: Bullet 1
Click and Read: Bullet 2
Click and Read: Bullet 3
232
Slide 44
Retention: Current Research & Best Practices
Workshop Outline
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Perceptions
Current Research
Policy
Outcomes
Break
When is retention appropriate?
Alternatives
Sample Presentation Language: We’re nearing towards the end of our workshop today,
and one of the most important parts is providing you with ideas which can be successful
alternatives to retention.
233
Slide 45
Alternatives to Grade Retention

Parent Centered
Preschool
School-wide Social & Academic Programs
 Summer and After-school Programs
 Parent Involvement



School Centered
Looping and Multi-age Classrooms
School-based Mental Health Programs
 Early Reading Programs
 Effective Instructional Strategies
 Behavior and Cognitive-behavior Modification
Strategies


Sample Presentation Language: This portion of the workshop is specifically categorized
into alternatives that can be done by parents, and alternatives that can be done by
schools. As parents, having the knowledge of alternative used in the schools, will
increase your awareness on the different school-based interventions available.
234
Slide 46
Alternatives: Preschool


Poland (2009) suggests that implementation of
universal preschool programs benefits children and
reduces retention rates.
Jimerson, Pletcher, Graydon, Schnurr, Nickerson, and
Kundert (2006)



Basic literacy skills, pro-social behaviors, and
socioemotional development are emphasized in preschool
programs.
Early emphasis may assist at-risk students before they
experience academic challenges by providing a foundation
of skills.
By enhancing the necessary skills for academic success
through preschool programs, retention may be prevented.
Sample Presentation Language: I/We will now present possible alternatives to retention.
One alternative is early intervention, or attending pre-schools.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
235
Slide 47
Alternatives: Preschool

Kgobli and Sorlie (2008)

Key Components of Preschool Programs


Consultation
Training for teachers and preschool staff






teaching of common rules;
good directions;
encouragement;
negative consequences;
problem solving skills
Social skills training



emotion regulation;
problem solving;
anger management
Sample Presentation Language: A successful pre-school program should address the
following important factors to build a strong foundation and early skills set for children.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Early intervention programs can promote healthy relations among peers, and can
prevent the onset of problem behavior.
236
Slide 48
Alternatives: Preschool

Early Prevention & Intervention Programs
 Federally
funded programs that focus on high-risk
families, who are identified by low income, low
parental IQ, and low education:
 Head
Start Project;
Carolina Abecedarian Project;
 The Milwaukee Project;
 The Perry Pre School Project
 The
Sample Presentation Language: And, here are some specific examples of pre-school
programs. This specific one was developed in Norway.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: A finding from this study showed that after one year of implementing the EICR,
problem behavior was lower in schools that implemented this in comparison to schools
that didn’t.
237
Slide 49
Alternatives:
School-Wide Social & Academic Programs

Definition:
“Establishing specific guidelines and providing
proactive prevention and support for all students
and faculty in a given school. The goal is to nurture
the emergence of a school culture that promotes
positive or appropriate behavior, and operates
through collaborative data-based decision making
to build a positive school climate” (George,
Harrower, and Knoster, 2003).
Sample Presentation Language: Another alternative to retention is school-wide social and
academic programs.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
238
Slide 50
Alternatives:
School-wide Social & Academic Programs

George, Harrower, & Knoster (2003) recommend
six general steps that ensure success when
implementing a school-wide support system
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Establish a foundation for collaboration or
operation;
Build faculty involvement;
Establish a data-based decision-making system;
Brainstorm and select strategies within an action
planning process;
Implement school-wide program through an action
plan;
Monitor, evaluate, and modify the program.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
239
Slide 51
Alternatives:
Summer School & After School Programs


Research has shown additional time and exposure
may help struggling students master academic
material (Jimerson et al., 2006)
Cannon et al. (2011) suggest the following
interventions to increase exposure to academic
material for at-risk students.




Trained instructional aides to work with students in small
groups on specific skills;
Learning centers and resource specialists for individual or
small groups in the classroom, or in “pull out” sessions;
After school tutoring led by trained school staff or
volunteers;
Summer school or intersession classes.
Sample Presentation Language: Another alternative to retention is summer school.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
240
Slide 52
Alternatives:
Summer School & After School Programs

Smink (2011)
School leaders should invest in summer learning,
because when students aren’t engaged in learning
during the summer, they fall behind in math and
reading.
 Schools can partner with summer school programs
facilitated by libraries, parks, or youth employment
agencies, in order to stretch public funds.
 Providing students with summer school instruction
would save funds that would be spent on re-teaching
students throughout the year.

Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Smink found that 23 percent increase in students moving from basic to proficient or
advanced in math, and 18 percent increase in students basic to provident or advanced in
language arts.
241
Slide 53
Alternatives:
Summer School & After School Programs

Sherman & Catapano (2011)
 After
school programs provide opportunities:
 To
increase student learning, due to an increase in
time spent on academic activities.
 For k-12 students to experience additional academic
support in formats that are different from what they
experience during the school day.
 For middle, or high school students, to help tutor
younger children as well.
Read: All bullet points on the slide.
Say: Sherman and Catapano evaluated after school programs and found that teachers
reported students were more confident when taking tests and improved computation
skills.
242
Slide 54
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Lack of parental involvement has been
identified as a risk factor for retention.

Schools are encouraged to make policy
changes that encourage and facilitate a strong
home-school connection.
Sample Presentation Language: Since parental involvement has been identified as a risk
factor for retention, schools are encouraged to make policy changes that encourage and
facilitate a strong home-school connection. Jimerson and colleagues recommend
increasing understanding among administrators, teachers, and staff regarding the
importance of parent involvement and consistently inviting parents to participate in all
aspects of their child’s education.
243
Slide 55
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Barriers to Parental Involvement (Lawson, 2003)
Language barriers, work schedules, and a sense of
disenfranchisement have generally resulted in lower
levels of (at least visible) parent involvement by
working-class parents; in particular, those from ethnic
and racial minorities.
 The perception of what parent involvement actually is,
can also be a barrier.

Parents described involvement as “keeping their children
safe and getting them to school punctually.”
 Teachers expected parents to be visible at school.
 Teachers can view parents as unwilling to help and has
resulted in parents feeling unappreciated.

Sample Presentation Language: In addition to understanding the importance of parental
involvement, educators should also have knowledge of what barriers may be impeding
parental involvement in their schools. Lawson (2003) suggests that…
Read: all bullets on slide [skip “Barriers to Parental Involvement (Lawson, 2003)”]
244
Slide 56
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Joyce Epstein's Framework of Six Types of
Involvement (1995)
1.
2.
Parenting: Parents create an environment in
the home that supports learning.
Communicating: This type of involvement is
characterized by communication between
parents and school personnel. This occurs
when parents regularly attend school
conferences and functions, including attending
parent-teacher association meetings
(Ballantine, 1999).
Sample Presentation Language: Although it is apparent that both teachers and parents
feel that involvement is important, the lack of agreement around what that involvement
actually looks like, should be addressed. Joyce Epstein developed a framework to define
different types parental involvement which I/we will briefly go through next.
Do: Pass out “Parental Involvement” handout.
Say: The handout provides much more detail on each of these types of involvement,
including sample practices and challenges for each. For this part of the presentation,
I/we will just go through the definitions of each.
Click and Read: #1
Click and Read: #2
245
Slide 57
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Joyce Epstein's Framework of Six Types of
Involvement (1995)
3.
4.
Click and Read: #3
Click and Read: #4
Volunteering: Parents act as volunteers in their
child’s school. This includes parents tutoring
children in the classroom (Darch, Miao, & Shippen,
2004) or helping the teacher by reading and grading
papers (Ballantine, 1999).
Learning at Home: Parents assist their children with
homework and ensure that homework is completed.
Additionally, parents help their children set goals
that motivate the child to learn. This involves
parents having high expectations for their child.
246
Slide 58
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Joyce Epstein's Framework of Six Types of
Involvement (1995)
5. Decision Making: Parents are involved in school
decisions. One way parents accomplish this is by
serving as representatives on school committees.
6. Collaborating with Community: Identify and
integrate resources and services from the
community to strengthen school programs, family
practices, and student learning and development.
Click and Read: #5
Click and Read: #6
247
Slide 59
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in
Schools (Darch, Miao, & Shippen, 2004)
Communicate regularly, rather than just when a
problem has occurred.
 Initiate positive contact with parents at the beginning
of each school year, and maintain that contact all
year.
 Have parents complete an interest survey.
 Call the parents of children identified as having a
learning or behavior problem within the first two
weeks of school (before other problems surface).
 Have 3-4 conferences yearly with parents of children
with learning and behavior problems.

Sample Presentation Language: Multiple researchers have made recommendations for
ways to increase parent involvement in schools. For example, Darch, Miao, & Shippen
suggest teachers can…
Click and Read: 1st sub-bullet
Click and Read: 2nd bullet
Say: For example, an introduction letter can be sent home to parents that includes
information about the teacher, the goals for the year, and an invitation for parents to
become involved in the classroom.
Click and Read: 3rd bullet
Say: This can help teachers identify ways that the parent might enjoy being involved in
their child’s education.
Click and Read: 4th bullet
Say: This is a good way to proactively establish a positive relationship and discuss a
time when the teacher and parents can meet.
Click and Read: 5th bullet
248
Slide 60
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in
Schools (Pogoloff, 2004)
Communicate with parents in multiple ways.
Each interaction with parents should begin with a
positive statement, which will lessen defensiveness.
 Let parents know that their input is valued.
 Interact with students and their families in various
settings, such as attending the school’s athletic or
theatrical activities.
 Confidentiality must be respected to ensure a positive
relationship.


Click and Read: 1st sub-bullet
Say: The form of communication preferred by the parents should be determined, and
whenever possible that method should be used.
Click and Read: 2nd bullet
Click and Read: 3rd bullet
Click and Read: 4th bullet
Click and Read: 5th bullet
249
Slide 61
Alternatives:
Parent Involvement

Strategies to Increase Parent Involvement in
Schools (Kyriakides, 2005)
 Give
parents meaningful jobs in the classroom.
 Educationally
related activities
Sample Presentation Language: Kyriakides found that parents are often assigned
cleaning up jobs, which may result in decreased parent motivation to continue active
involvement. If parents are engaged in more meaningful activities, such as reading to
students or helping students with assignments, they will be more motivated to continue
their involvement.
250
Slide 62
Alternatives:
Looping & Multi-Age Classrooms

Looping: students spend two or more years
with the same teacher.


Also called teacher rotation, family-style learning,
student-teacher progression, and multiyear
instruction.
Multi-Age: students from two consecutive
grades are in the same classroom and taught
by the same teacher.
Sample Presentation Language: Looping classrooms have students spend two or more
years with the same teacher. The practice of looping has been described under various
names, including teacher rotation, family-style learning, student-teacher progression,
and multiyear instruction. Another alternate classroom structure which may serve as a
good alternative to retaining students is the multi-age, or combo class. In this format,
students from two consecutive grades are in the same classroom and taught by the same
teacher. Many times this classroom structure is used to address uneven numbers of
students in consecutive grades.
Say: However, research has shown multi-age classes can also address the needs of
diverse student abilities and serve as a viable alternative to retention. These classrooms
can provide more flexibility for academic instruction, such as, providing more options for
ability grouping and access to different grade levels of curriculum. Lastly, many
children are recommended for retention due to social and behavioral issues. Multi-age
classrooms provide diverse peer resources and older students can model appropriate
classroom routines and social interactions.
251
Slide 63
Alternatives:
School-Based Mental Health Programs

Students with mental health challenges often
fall behind their classmates (Jimerson et al.,
2006) and can end up being recommended for
retention.

Schools provide excellent settings for targeting
children’s mental health, their academic
performance, and the important connection
between the two (Greenwood, Kratochwill, &
Clements, 2008).
Sample Presentation Language: Successful implementation of school-based mental
health programs may be an effective way to decrease retention rates.
Read: All bullets on slide.
252
Slide 64
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs



Low reading achievement is commonly cited
as a reason for retention.
Reading interventions provide student’s with
additional support and instruction in order to
gain the skills necessary to succeed in school.
Research demonstrates evidence-based
reading programs to be an effective alternative
to grade retention.
Sample Presentation Language: Reading is an essential skill for subsequent knowledge
acquisition.
Read: Each bullet point on the slide.
253
Slide 65
Alternatives:
Early Reading Programs

Reading Intervention Programs
 Intervention
services improve achievement and
reduce the need to retain.
 Specific Reading Programs
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Corrective Reading
Reading Mastery
Language!
Wilson Reading System
Read 180
Sample Presentation Language: Intervention programs provide the opportunity to
improve achievement, while reducing the need to retain. These various reading
programs provide intervention services to different age groups, as well as vary from
small group, to whole class implementation.
Read: The list of reading intervention programs numbered 1-5.
254
Slide 66
Alternatives:
Effective Instructional Techniques & Assessment


Implementing effective, research-based
teaching strategies and assessment in the
classroom, is an important link to student
success.
Recommended teaching techniques and
assessment include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Direct instruction
Cooperative learning
Mnemonic strategies
Systematic Assessment
Read: Bullets one and two, saying the four strategies listed as well.
Say: I/We are going to further discuss these strategies.
255
Slide 67
Alternatives:
Effective Instructional Techniques & Assessment
•
•
•
•
Direct Instruction (DI): Model for teaching that
emphasizes well-developed and carefully planned
lessons.
Cooperative learning: Structuring classes around small
groups that work together to meet a common goal.
Mnemonic strategies: A strategy for understanding and
remembering what one learns through creative
restructuring of learned material (e.g., rhyming,
acronyms, singing, etc.).
Systematic assessment: To evaluate a student’s
response to intervention and provide consequences for
improvement.
Sample Presentation Language: Direct Instruction is a well proven teaching technique
that contributes to student achievement. Direct Instruction utilizes carefully planned
lessons, that are well-developed. The technique is designed to be used in small learning
increments, while clearly defining each teaching task. In addition, Cooperative Learning
structures classes around small groups. These small groups are able to work together to
meet common goals. This technique allows for students to experience learning through
various outlets and responsibilities. Another technique involves, Mnemonic strategies
allow students to be creative with their learning. This strategy is used for understanding
and remembering what one learns, by restructuring the learned material. Lastly,
Systematic assessment strategies, such as continual progress monitoring and formative
evaluation, allow teachers to adapt instructional strategies to assessment results of
students’ progress. This evaluates a student’s response to the intervention, so
appropriate positive consequences for improvement can occur.
256
Slide 68
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques



Maladaptive behavior commonly plays a role
in the decision to retain.
Behavior interventions can serve as
prevention and intervention for students atrisk for retention.
Use a combination of behavioral approaches
to reduce disruptive behaviors and increase
on-task time in the classroom.
Sample Presentation Language: When using a combination of behavioral and cognitivebehavioral approaches to intervene, a decrease in maladaptive behaviors can occur, this
may assist in avoiding retention. These techniques serve as both prevention, and
intervention, for students who engage in behaviors that affect their academic and social
performance at school. Therefore, the acquisition of these skills may reduce disruptive
behaviors and increase on-task time in the classroom.
257
Slide 69
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques

Specific Strategies to Improve Behavior
 Peer
and adult modeling;
 Peer and adult monitoring;
 Feedback;
 Reinforcement (e.g., token reinforcement
systems);
 Group and Individual counseling.
Sample Presentation Language: Additional strategies for intervention include behavior
and cognitive-behavior techniques.
Read: All bullet points on slide.
258
Slide 70
Alternatives:
Behavior & Cognitive-Behavior Techniques


Effective in teaching anger control and selfmanagement.
Ideas can be generated through the use of a
Student Study Team (SST).
 Provides
a collaborative team approach with
educators and parents (Jimerson et al., 2004).
 Assists in identifying an approach that would be
most appropriate for a student’s specific
behavioral and cognitive needs.
Sample Presentation Language: It is important to identify techniques specific to the
student’s needs.
Say: When identifying and providing support, ideas can be generated through the use of
a Student Study Team (SST) as well, which will provide a collaborative team approach.
The SST can assist in identifying the approach that would be most appropriate for a
student’s specific behavioral and cognitive needs.
259
Slide 71
Conclusion
The goal of this presentation was to help you,
as parents, to become more versed in the
research surrounding retention, and in turn, be
better able to advocate for your child. Lastly, it
was imperative that we provide you with
alternative strategies, if and when, your child is
at risk for retention.
Sample Presentation Language: Recent reviews of research conclude that there are no
clearly identified benefits to retaining students, and in fact, the practice may have
deleterious effects on students’ achievement, self concept, and attitude toward school,
and can increase engagement in high-risk behavior, and the likelihood of dropping out of
school. Despite the ineffectiveness of this practice that has been found by the majority of
current research, the rate of retention continues to increase.
Say: The goal of this presentation was to help you, as parents, become more versed in
the research surrounding retention. It is hoped that this will better equip you with the
knowledge necessary to advocate for your child, and differentiate between when retention
is inappropriate and when it may be appropriate. In order to fully support the students
who may be struggling, and the educators who are looking for ways to provide effective
teaching strategies to these students, it was imperative that we provide you with
alternative strategies as well. As a concluding activity, I/we would like you to complete
the “Learn” column of your KWL chart.
Do: Give participants 2 minutes to complete this activity.
260
Slide 72
Questions?
Say: Thank you so much for your participation in this workshop. At this point, I/we
would be happy to answer any questions you might have.
261
Slide 73
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Akmal, T. T. & Larsen, D. E. (2004). Keeping history from repeating itself: Involving parents about retention decisions to support student achievement. RMLE Online: Research in Middle Level
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265
APPENDIX E
Handouts: Parents
266
KWL Chart
What I Know About
Grade Retention
What I Want to Know
About Grade Retention
What I Learned About
Grade Retention
267
Parental Involvement
Table adapted from Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement
I. Parenting
Definition:
Sample
Practices
Benefits for
Students
Benefits for
Parents
Benefits for
Teachers
Help all
families
establish a
home
environment
to support
children as
students.
Workshops, videotapes,
computerized phone
messages on parenting
and child rearing at each
age and grade level.
Awareness of
family
supervision;
respect for
parents.
Parent education and
other courses or training
for parents (e.g., GED,
college credit, family
literacy.)
Positive personal
qualities, habits,
beliefs, and
values, as taught
by family.
Understanding
families'
background,
cultures,
concerns, goals,
needs, and
views of their
children.
Family support programs
to assist families with
health, nutrition, and
other services.
Balance between
time spent on
chores, on other
activities, and on
homework.
Understanding
of and
confidence
about
parenting,
child and
adolescent
development,
and changes in
home
conditions for
learning as
children
proceed
through
school.
Home visits at transition
points to pre-school,
elementary, middle, and
high school.
Neighborhood meetings
to help families
understand schools and
to help schools
understand families.
Good or
improved
attendance.
Awareness of
importance of
school.
Awareness of
own and
others'
challenges in
parents.
Feeling of
support from
school and
other parents.
Respect for
families'
strengths and
efforts.
Understanding
of student
diversity.
Awareness of
own skills to
share
information on
child
development.
268
II. Communicating
Definition:
Design
effective
forms of
school-tohome and
home-toschool
communications
about school
programs
and
children’s
progress.
Sample
Practices
Conferences with every
parent at least once a year,
with follow-ups as needed.
Language translators to
assist families as needed.
Weekly or monthly folders
of student work sent home
for review and comments.
Parent/student pickup of
report card, with
conferences on improving
grades.
Regular schedule of useful
notices, memos, phone
calls, newsletters, and other
communications.
Clear information on
choosing schools or
courses, programs, and
activities within schools.
Benefits for
Students
Awareness of own
progress and of
actions needed to
maintain or
improve grades.
Understanding of
school policies on
behavior,
attendance, and
other areas of
student conduct.
Informed
decisions about
courses and
programs.
Awareness of own
role in
partnerships,
serving as courier
and
communicator.
Benefits for
Parents
Understanding
school
programs and
policies.
Monitoring and
awareness of
child’s progress.
Responding
effectively to
students’
problems.
Interactions
with teachers
and ease of
communication
with school and
teachers.
Benefits for
Teachers
Increased
diversity and
use of
communications
with families
and awareness
of own ability to
communicate
clearly
Appreciation
for and use of
parent network
for
communications
Increased ability
to elicit and
understand
family views on
children’s
programs and
progress.
Clear information on all
school policies, programs,
reforms, and transitions.
III. Volunteering
Definition:
Recruit and
organize
parent help
and support.
Sample
Practices
School and classroom
volunteer program to help
teachers, administrators,
students, and other parents.
Parent room or family
center for volunteer work,
Benefits for
Students
Skill in
communicating
with adults.
Increased learning
of skills that
receive tutoring or
Benefits for
Parents
Understanding
teacher's job,
increased
comfort in
school, and
carry-over of
school activities
Benefits for
Teachers
Readiness to
involve families
in new ways,
including those
who do not
volunteer at
school.
269
meetings, resources for
families.
targeted attention
from volunteers.
Annual postcard survey to
identify all available talents,
times, and locations of
volunteers.
Awareness of
many skills,
talents,
occupations, and
contributions of
parent and other
volunteers.
Class parent, telephone
tree, or other structures to
provide all families with
needed information.
at home.
Self-confidence
about ability to
work in school
and with
children or to
take steps to
improve own
education.
Awareness that
families are
welcome and
valued at
school.
Parent patrols or other
activities to aid safety and
operation of school
programs.
Awareness of
parents' talents
and interests in
school and
children.
Greater
individual
attention to
students, with
help from
volunteers.
Gains in specific
skills of
volunteer work.
IV. Learning at Home
Definition:
Provide
information
and ideas to
families
about how
to help
students at
home with
homework
and other
curriculumrelated
activities,
decisions,
and
planning.
Sample
Practices
Information for families on
skills required for students
in all subjects at each grade.
Information on homework
policies and how to monitor
and discuss schoolwork at
home.
Regular schedule of
homework that requires
students to discuss and
interact with families on
what they are learning in
class.
Calendars with activities for
parents and students at
home.
Family math, science, and
reading activities at school.
Benefits for
Students
Benefits for
Parents
Gains in skills,
abilities, and test
scores linked to
homework and
classwork.
Know how to
support,
encourage, and
help student at
home each year.
Homework
completion.
Discussions of
school,
classwork, and
homework.
Positive attitude
toward
schoolwork.
View of parents as
more similar to
teacher and of
home as more
similar to school.
Understanding
of instructional
program each
year and of
what child is
learning in each
subject.
Self-concept of
ability as learner.
Appreciation of
teaching skills.
Benefits for
Teachers
Better design of
homework
assignments.
Respect for
family time.
Recognition of
equal
helpfulness of
single-parent,
dual-income,
and less
formally
educated
families in
motivating and
reinforcing
student
learning.
Satisfaction with
270
Summer learning packets
or activities.
Awareness of
child as a
learner.
family
involvement and
support.
Family participation in
setting student goals each
year and in planning for
college or work.
V. Decision Making
Definition:
Include
parents in
school
decisions,
developing
parent
leaders and
representatives.
Sample
Practices
Benefits for
Students
Benefits for
Parents
Active PTA/PTO or other
parent organizations,
advisory councils, or
committees (e.g.,
curriculum, safety,
personnel) for parent
leadership and
participation.
Awareness of
representation of
families in school
decisions.
Input into
policies that
affect child’s
education.
Understanding
that student rights
are protected.
Feeling of
ownership of
school.
Independent advocacy
groups to lobby and work
for school reform and
improvements.
Specific benefits
linked to policies
enacted by parent
organizations and
experienced by
students.
Awareness of
parents’ voices
in school
decisions.
District-level councils and
committees for family and
community involvement.
Shared
experiences and
connections
with other
families.
Awareness of
school, district,
and state
policies.
Benefits for
Teachers
Awareness of
parent
perspectives as
a factor in policy
development
and decisions.
View of equal
status of family
representatives
on committees
and in
leadership roles.
271
VI. Collaborating with Community
Definition:
Identify and
integrate
resources
and services
from the
community
to
strengthen
school
programs,
family
practices,
and student
learning and
development
Sample
Practices
Benefits for
Students
Information for students
and families on community
health, cultural,
recreational, social
support, and other
programs or services.
Increased skills
and talents
through enriched
curricular and
extracurricular
experiences.
Information on
community activities that
link to learning skills and
talents, including summer
programs for students.
Awareness of
careers and of
options for future
education and
work.
Service integration through
partnerships involving
school; civic, counseling,
cultural, health, recreation,
and other agencies and
organizations; and
businesses.
Specific benefits
linked to
programs,
services,
resources, and
opportunities that
connect students
with community.
Service to the community
by students, families, and
schools (e.g., recycling, art,
music, drama, and other
activities for seniors or
others).
Participation of alumni in
school programs for
students.
Benefits for
Parents
Knowledge and
use of local
resources by
family and child
to increase
skills and
talents or to
obtain needed
services
Interactions
with other
families in
community
activities.
Awareness of
school's role in
the community
and of
community's
contributions to
the school.
Benefits for
Teachers
Awareness of
community
resources to
enrich
curriculum and
instruction.
Openness to and
skill in using
mentors,
business
partners,
community
volunteers, and
others to assist
students and
augment
teaching
practices.
Knowledgeable
helpful
referrals of
children and
families to
needed
services.
272
When is Retention Appropriate?
A Guide for Educators and Parents
Adapted from the National Association of School Psychologists Position Paper (2003)
Under some circumstances, retention is less likely to yield negative
effects for students who have particular characteristics. These
characteristics may include:




Relatively positive self-concepts
Good peer relationships
Social, emotional, and behavioral strengths
Fewer achievement problems
In addition to the characteristics mentioned above, specific guidelines to
consider for students at risk are as follows:
 It may be appropriate to retain a student who has difficulty in
school due to a lack of opportunity for instruction, rather than
lack of ability; however, retention is only appropriate if this lack of
opportunity is due to attendance and mobility, and these
problems have been resolved.
 Students should be no more than one year older than his or her
classmates.
 Students should receive specific remediation to address skills or
behavioral deficits, and promote achievement and social skills
during the repeated grade.
273
References
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(2010). The combined effects of grade retention and targeted small-group
intervention on students' literacy outcomes. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 26(1),
4-25. doi: 10.1080/10573560903396876
Akmal, T. T. & Larsen, D. E. (2004). Keeping history from repeating itself: Involving
parents about retention decisions to support student achievement. RMLE Online:
Research in Middle Level Education, 27(2), 1-14.
Alexander, K., Entwisle, D. & Dauber, S. (1994). On the success of failure. New York,
NY: Cambridge University Press.
American Federation of Teachers (AFT). (1997). Passing on failure: District promotion
policies and practices. Retrieved September 24, 2011 from
http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED421560.pdf.
Ballantine, J. H. (1999). Getting involved in our children's education. Childhood
Education, 75(3), 170-71.
Balow, I. & Schwager, M. (1990). Retention in grade: A failed procedure. Report
presented to the California Educational Research Cooperative, University of
California, Riverside.
Bonvin, P. P., Bless, G. G. & Schuepbach, M. M. (2008). Grade retention: Decisionmaking and effects on learning as well as social and emotional development.
School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19(1), 1-19. doi:
10.10802F09243450701856499
274
Bowman, L. J. (2005). Grade retention: Is it a help or hindrance to student academic
success?. Preventing School Failure, 49(3), 42-46. Retrieved September 24, 2011
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