BUILDING SCHOOLWIDE PARTNERSHIPS
TO SUPPORT STUDENT SOCIAL COMPETENCY
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, School
Psychology, and Deaf Studies
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
SPECIALIST in EDUCATION
in
School Psychology
by
Catherine Anne Teller
Danielle Nicole Harrington
SPRING
2012
©2012
Catherine Anne Teller
Danielle Nicole Harrington
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
BUILDING SCHOOLWIDE PARTNERSHIPS
TO SUPPORT STUDENT SOCIAL COMPETENCY
A Project
by
Catherine Anne Teller
Danielle Nicole Harrington
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Catherine Christo, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
iii
Students: Catherine Anne Teller
Danielle Nicole Harrington
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and
credit is to be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Department Chair ___________________
Bruce A. Ostertag, Ed.D
Date
Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, School Psychology, and Deaf Studies
iv
Abstract
of
BUILDING SCHOOLWIDE PARTNERSHIPS TO SUPPORT STUDENT SOCIAL
COMPETENCY
by
Catherine Anne Teller
Danielle Nicole Harrington
The authors collaborated and shared equal responsibility in all aspects of the
development of this project. The project focuses on social competency from a
developmental perspective and the role of educators in supporting student social,
emotional, and behavioral needs. Students who lack social competency are at risk for
long-term negative outcomes; however, many educators do not feel that they have the
training needed to support student social, emotional, and behavioral needs. The purpose
of this project is to provide educators with an understanding of current research on social
competency and its development. In addition, the project provides specific intervention
from a tiered approach in a straightforward and practical format. Altogether, this project
aims to educate and empower teachers, administrators and other school staff members so
that they can recognize and support students who may lack social competency.
The prepared project is a series of five 75-minute training presentations with a
presenter’s manual, slides, presenter’s notes, and handouts. Any school psychologist
v
may deliver the presentations. Workshop participants will have a better understanding of
social competency development and effective interventions to help struggling students.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Catherine Christo, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank our wonderful professor and supervisor, Catherine
Christo, for her support and guidance in creating this project. In addition , we would like
to thank our professors Stephen E. Brock, Leslie A. Cooley, and Melissa A. Holland, for
not only providing us with the foundational knowledge to become effective school
psychologists, but also for encouraging us to use our own strengths to promote the wellbeing of all students.
Finally, a warm thanks to our families for your never-ending encouragement and
patience for the last three years!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................... vii
Software Specifications .................................................................................................x
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1
Background of the Problem ...............................................................................1
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................1
Purpose of the Project ........................................................................................2
Definition of Terms............................................................................................3
Assumptions.......................................................................................................4
Limitations .........................................................................................................4
Statement of Collaboration ................................................................................5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................6
Positive Effects of Social-Emotional Support ...................................................6
Absence of Social-Emotional Support ...............................................................7
Social Competency ............................................................................................8
Social Skills .......................................................................................................9
Development of Social Competency ...............................................................10
Signs of Social Deficits or Dysfunction...........................................................16
Internalizing Disorders.....................................................................................18
Externalizing Disorders ...................................................................................21
Autism Spectrum Disorders .............................................................................25
Intervention at School ......................................................................................26
3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................36
Research ...........................................................................................................36
Development of the Presentation .....................................................................37
viii
4. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS ..............................................................39
Workshop Objectives .......................................................................................40
Recommendations ............................................................................................40
Conclusions ......................................................................................................40
Appendix A. Presentation Slides ..............................................................................43
Appendix B. Presenter’s Manual ...............................................................................76
Appendix C. Targeted Intervention: Bibliotherapy ...................................................81
Appendix D. Supporting Student Social Competency: Special Populations .............84
Appendix E. Initial Consultation Request Form ........................................................88
References ....................................................................................................................90
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SOFTWARE SPECIFICATIONS
The presentations in this project were created using Microsoft® PowerPoint 2007
software. Slides should be viewed using Microsoft® PowerPoint 2007 or PowerPoint
Viewer 2007 (or newer editions of this software).
x
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
There is growing emphasis in schools on educating the “whole child,” which
extends farther than educating the child academically. A fundamental part of this “whole
child” approach is addressing students’ mental health, which includes students’ social,
emotional, behavioral, and environmental needs.
Background of the Problem
Developing social competency is instrumental in navigating the social and
academic world in school and beyond. Social competence is typically built as a part of
social development in childhood and adolescence. When a child possesses social
competence, he or she is thought to have the skills and knowledge necessary to
successfully navigate the social world and to build and maintain positive relationships
with others. Successful peer relations can have a lasting positive impact on the student’s
self-esteem, ability to recover from stress and other setbacks, and perception of school
and learning (Doll, Zucker, & Brehm, 2004; Howard & Landau, 2010a). In contrast,
children who have difficulty developing age-appropriate social skills and emotional
coping skills, and therefore lack social competency, are at risk for negative outcomes
such as dropping out of school or developing learning, behavioral, or mental health
problems (McClelland, Morrison, & Holmes, 2000; Whelley, Cash, & Bryson, 2002).
Statement of the Problem
Given the time that students spend in school environments during development,
teachers and other school staff are in an excellent position to support basic mental health
2
and social skills development. Furthermore, due to the time that teachers and other
school staff spend with students, there are ample opportunities to recognize socially
struggling students and to intervene. However, several recent research studies have
found that many teachers do not feel adequately trained or prepared to support students
who struggle with social-emotional or behavioral problems (Reinke, Stormont, Herman,
Puri, & Goel, 2011). With this in mind, there appears to be a need for training for
teachers and other school staff regarding how to best support student social competency.
Purpose of the Project
This project aims to deliver straightforward, useful information to educators that
will enable them to support student social competency. The primary goal of the project is
to identify and consolidate relevant research and present it in a format that is easily
understood and relevant to teachers and other school staff. A secondary purpose of this
project is to improve peer relations among students in an effort to reduce negative
outcomes for students who struggle socially, emotionally, and behaviorally. The
trainings within this project are organized in a developmental context as to ensure that the
information provided is relevant to the attendees. Trainings containing specific
information pertaining to age groups from Pre-K through 12th grade are included. These
targeted trainings can be selected for use based on the needs of the school. In all, these
trainings allow school psychologists to efficiently disseminate knowledge and practical
intervention ideas on a broad scope.
3
Definition of Terms
Social Competence
Social competence is a broad term that involves using specific social skills and
past experience and knowledge to navigate the social world. Siegler, DeLoache, and
Eisenberg (2003) define social competence as “the ability to achieve personal goals in
social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others”
(p.386). Margaret Semrud-Clikeman (2007) defines social competence as the “ability to
take another’s perspective concerning a situation, to learn from past experience and to
apply that learning to the ever-changing social landscape” (p. 1).
Social Skills
The term social skills refers to a set of “socially acceptable learned behaviors that
enable a person to interact with others in ways that elicit positive responses and assist in
avoiding negative responses” (Gresham, 2002, p. 406).
Internalizing Disorders
Merrell (2008) defines internalizing disorders as covert, over-controlled
behaviors, social withdrawal, somatic (i.e., physical) problems, anxious symptoms, and
depressive symptoms. Two of the most common groups of internalizing disorders are
depression and anxiety.
Externalizing Disorders
Externalizing disorders is a classification of disorders characterized by behavioral
symptoms. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiant
Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD) are included in this group of disorders.
4
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Autism Spectrum Disorders refers to a group of pervasive developmental
disorders that range in severity from very low to very high functioning (Ruble &
Gallagher, 2010). Under the broad term of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs), the two
most commonly seen in schools are autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder.
Assumptions
There is a substantial body of research indicating that school-wide interventions
with teacher training components are effective for not only promoting positive peer
relations, but also for creating a positive school climate (Battistich, Solomon, &
Deluchhi, 1990; Battistich, 2001; Durlak, Weissenberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger,
2011; Siegler et al., 2003). Training presentations are an effective way to provide lasting
knowledge and skills within a short period of time. A person’s social competence can
essentially shape his or her ability to handle social challenges that arise as well as to
define expectations for future interactions (Semrud-Clikeman, 2007). Research has
demonstrated that social competence has a strong relationship with overall socialemotional well-being and positive peer group adjustment (Smith & Hart, 2005). Given
this, school-based interventions aimed at improving social competence may improve both
interpersonal relationships and internal well-being.
Limitations
This training program is designed for an audience of teachers and other school
staff that has regular contact with students, such as para-educators, instructional
assistants, administrators and specialists. The presenter’s manual included in the
5
appendix of this project allows the workshops to be delivered by any trained school
psychologist.
In an effort to research interventions to support and boost social competency, the
authors encountered some difficulty in locating ample sources. Although there is much
attention given to the need for socially-based interventions for students, most
interventions center on specific social skill deficits rather than a broader social
competency deficit.
Statement of Collaboration
The authors of this project collaborated on all aspects of the project. In designing
the training program and related materials, each author contributed equally in the
research for and writing of the final product. Specific sections and subtitles were divided
between the two individuals and were then edited collaboratively. For instance, the two
presenters collaboratively researched, created, and edited all of the content in the training
presentation for grades 3 to 5, and the rest of the presentations were divided equally
between the two presenters and then finally edited together. All work put into the
development of the final project and training program was shared equally.
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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
A primary goal of education is for each student to gain the basic knowledge and
skills to someday become a productive and independent member of society. While
schools have traditionally focused on preparing students academically, more recently,
there is growing emphasis on educating the “whole child.” This approach recognizes the
importance of addressing students’ mental health. Mental health is commonly
understood as the presence or absence of diagnosable disorders, but good mental health
also refers to the possession of skills necessary to navigate through life’s challenges
(Whelley, Cash, & Bryson, 2002). Thus, educating the “whole child” includes students’
social, emotional, behavioral, and environmental needs.
Positive Effects of Social-Emotional Support
There is little doubt that the quality of a child’s social interactions can greatly
impact his or her life. Successful peer relations are recognized as one of the most
significant developmental tasks with the most enduring consequences (Howard &
Landau, 2010). Positive peer relations help students enjoy daily activities in the
classroom, foster self-esteem, build resiliency, serve as protective factors against mental
illness, alleviate the effects of stress, and can even serve as an alternative to parental
support (Howard & Landau). They can also make it easier for students to ask for help in
times of stress and make it more likely that they will receive help when it is asked for
(Doll, Zucker, & Brehm, 2004; Heller & Swindle, 1983). Friendships can play a role in
the promotion of academic success as well. As students’ peer groups become more
7
influential, friends can impact students’ perception of and commitment to school and
learning (Doll et al.).
Absence of Social-Emotional Support
McClelland, Morrison, and Holmes (2000) found that children who struggle
socially or behaviorally when they enter school are at risk for later learning problems.
Furthermore, many students who lack social-emotional competencies become less and
less connected to their schools as they progress from elementary through high school.
This lack of connection can create serious problems for these students by impacting their
behavior, their mental health, and their academic performance. Moreover, when a
student is poorly connected to the school community, efforts to intervene are impeded
(Durlak et al., 2011). If efforts to address students’ social-emotional struggles fail or
these struggles go unaddressed, the consequences can be quite serious. Special education
referrals, school violence, increased dropout rates, suicide, and criminal activity are all
outcomes that have been found to be associated with schools’ failure to address socialemotional struggles in their students (Whelley et al., 2002).
In addition, social problems in childhood can become a lifelong issue because the
presence of such early struggles may predict academic, social, or psychological problems
in adolescence and even adulthood (Howard & Landau, 2010). According to Howard
and Landau’s research, “disturbed peer relations may be one of the most important
factors associated with child psychopathology” (p. 69). Among students with disabilities,
persistent and marked difficulties with peers is one of the most common reasons for
placing students in self-contained special education classrooms rather than receiving
8
services while still in general education classrooms (Doll et al., 2004). Given the range
and severity of these outcomes, schools have clear motivation to take part in prevention
and intervention for social-emotional difficulties.
Social Competency
Social Competency is a concept tying together peer relations and social-emotional
well-being. Siegler et al. (2003) define social competence as “the ability to achieve
personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive
relationships with others” (p.386). With this in mind, being socially competent can be
equated with knowing how to successfully navigate the social world. Margaret SemrudClikeman (2007) defined social competence as “an ability to take another’s perspective
concerning a situation, to learn from past experience and to apply that learning to the
ever-changing social landscape” (p.1). An individual’s social competence shapes his or
her ability to handle social challenges that arise as well as define expectations for future
interactions (Semrud-Clikeman). Essentially, a socially competent person is someone
who makes use of internal and environmental resources in order to achieve positive social
outcomes (Waters & Stroufe, 1983). Research has demonstrated that social competence
has a strong relationship with social-emotional well-being and positive peer group
adjustment (Smith & Hart, 2005). Given this, interventions targeting social competency
may improve both interpersonal relationships and internal well-being. With this in mind,
the impact that social competency can have on social functioning is monumental.
Cavell, Meehan, and Fiala (2003) suggested a three-tiered model for
conceptualizing the development of social competence. The most basic level, called
9
social skills, consists of the specific skills a child uses in a particular social situation, such
as sharing a toy. The next level, called social performance, involves a child’s style of
interaction and how well he or she performs in social situations. In the most advanced
level, called “social adjustment,” the child is meeting social goals for his or her
developmental level, and is also meeting expectations of parents, teachers, and society.
Social Skills
Since possessing and using social skills is an integral part of developing social
competence, understanding the term social skills is critical. This term has been re-framed
many times by different schools of thought within psychology. One definition, termed
the peer acceptance definition, states that a person is socially skilled if accepted by peers
(Asher & Hymel, 1981; Gresham, 2002). Although this view was prominent historically
in child development research, it is limited because it does not identify specific behaviors
or skills that lead to peer acceptance (Gresham). Another definition comes from research
in applied behavioral analysis and defines social skills as behaviors that are situation
specific and are likely to be reinforced and unlikely to be punished or extinguished
(Bellack & Hersen, 1979; Foster & Ritchey, 1979; Gresham). This definition too has
significant limitations because of its focus on high frequency behaviors without
consideration of their social validity (Gresham). A definition that does take into account
the behavior outcomes is termed the social validity definition, and is based on the 1982
work of McFall. This definition says that social skills are “specific behaviors or behavior
patterns that predict or otherwise result in important social outcomes for children and
youth. Socially important outcomes are those that make a difference in terms of an
10
individual’s functioning or adaptation to societal expectations” (Gresham, p.406).
Examples of “socially important outcomes” might include: peer acceptance and
friendships, teacher and parental acceptance, and school adjustment (Gresham). Another,
more general, definition conceives social skills as “socially acceptable learned behaviors
that enable a person to interact with other in ways that elicit positive responses and assist
in avoiding negative responses” (Gresham, p.406). Gresham and Elliot (1990) identified
five major clusters of social skills consistently found to be in socially competent
individuals, creating the acronym CARES: cooperation, assertion, responsibility,
empathy and self-control.
Interacting with others is an essential part of human development. Learning to
interact effectively is a complex process dependent on the development of social
competency. After gaining a general understanding of social competency and social
skills, it is important to examine how each are typically acquired throughout
development. This knowledge provides a basis for understanding how disruption or
dysfunction of social development can manifest itself during childhood and adolescent
development.
Development of Social Competency
Research has illuminated core skills necessary for developing social competence
that are acquired during typical development (Calderella & Merrell, 1997; Gresham,
2002; Semrud-Clikeman, 2007). These core skills generally include: emotional
awareness, emotional self-regulation, empathy, the ability to correctly perceive and
interpret social situations (including nonverbal cues), and the ability to work
11
cooperatively with others (Semrud-Clikeman). Many of these skills build on one another
as the way a child thinks about and approaches social situations changes over time (Smith
& Hart, 2005). Similarly, social skills deficits at certain points in childhood may impact
later functioning and development (Semrud-Clikeman). If a child does not meet social
expectations, he or she may be seen as “different” and may experience rejection or
isolation from peers. Therefore, it is important to begin fostering social competence from
a young age and to continue to support children in an increasingly complex social world
as they grow. It is equally important to understand the typical stages of social
development and signs of a breakdown in these stages in order to intervene in appropriate
ways.
Early Childhood (Preschool-Age 6)
Young children initially develop beliefs, values, and attitudes about social concept
and self-concept mostly through primary caregivers (Slaughter-DeFoe, 1995). Once in
school, the preschooler’s primary challenge is meeting the expectations of his or her
teacher, peer group and parents. Preschool is the developmental stage at which children
typically begin to learn play skills such as sharing, emotional regulation, conflict
management, and assertiveness (Semrud-Clikeman, 2007). Preschoolers typically
develop these skills through group activities, exercises in conflict management, shared
pretend play, and an emphasis on cooperation and harmony (Smith & Hart, 2005).
Toddlers are able to engage in simple cooperative play mostly with adults, while
kindergarteners are typically able to join a peer play group and have a sense of another
student’s likability and friendliness (Howard & Landau, 2010). Emotional understanding
12
and quality of play are two factors that can greatly impact peer relationships during these
years (Semrud-Clikeman). In the school environment, specific behaviors such as the
ability to take turns, follow directions and to be empathic towards others have all been
rated by kindergarten teachers as more important than knowledge of colors, letters and
numbers (Diener & Kim, 2003).
Emotional regulation is also critical for social competence development during
early childhood. Young children are beginning to understand the consequences of their
emotions and actions and eventually begin to recognize that their ability to regulate these
emotions and behaviors can impact interactions with others (Semrud-Clikeman, 2007).
Understanding the emotions of others can also influence a young child’s social success.
For example, young children who react to perceived anger in another, when no anger is
actually present, have limited social success (Barth & Bastiani, 1997). Children who are
unable to regulate emotions, adjust behavioral reactions, or are aggressive or withdrawn
may become socially isolated, rejected outright by peers and tend to have low self-esteem
(Semrud-Clikeman).
Middle Childhood (Ages 6-12)
In middle childhood, roughly ages 6 to 12, the child’s social sphere shifts from
focusing on family relationships to peer relationships (Smith & Hart, 2005). Children
become aware of a wide social network of friends, acquaintances, teachers, caregivers,
and others (DeBord, 2004). There are more complex social norms for social acceptance,
with a desire for inclusion and avoidance of rejection and embarrassment (Lavoie, 2005).
Emotional regulation continues to be integral to the development of social competence
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and basic social skills are becoming more important (Wang, He, & Liu, 2002). Play is
the cornerstone of social interaction and friendships during these years. While there do
appear to be gender differences in types of play, most games are rule governed and the
ability to remember and abide by these rules is an important aspect of social competence
in middle childhood (Samter, 2003). In the later years of middle childhood, friendship
connections deepen. Being able to confide in friends becomes more important than
simply sharing participation in activities and games (Semrud-Clikeman, 2007).
Perspective taking and the recognition that others have thoughts, ideas and feelings
separate from one’s own are two skills emerging during these years. Children may be
able to understand the point of view of a peer, but may not yet be able to put that
knowledge to use in the heat of a conflict or other problem situation (Samter).
Middle childhood is also when brain structures used for problem solving develop,
which aides in emotional regulation, learning to listen to others and take turns, and
learning to compromise (Semrud-Clikeman, 2007). During these years children are
better able to negotiate solutions to problems and to recognize when to disengage
themselves when conflict threatens friendships (Putallaz & Sheppard, 1990). Language
also plays an important role, as language itself is acquired through social means, and the
knowledge and understanding that children gain about how to perform social interactions
is verbally mediated (Semrud-Clikeman). Likewise, conversational ability becomes
important. Socially competent children show a sense of humor, can be entertaining, and
are able to handle teasing (Howard & Landau, 2010). Children who are able to
successfully integrate their behavior and verbalizations into ongoing conversations and
14
activities experience higher levels of social success than their peers who tend to talk
solely about themselves, interrupt or disagree (Black & Hazenm 1990; SemrudClikeman).
Children may still have difficulty managing failure or loss and their feelings can
become hurt easily during middle childhood (Semrud-Clikeman, 2007). They may feel
more self-conscious about differences than preschoolers, and some stressful situations
may have a negative impact on their self-esteem (DeBord, 2004). Also during these
years, children who are excessively shy, become angry easily and are not able to handle
playful teasing can become socially isolated through peer avoidance or outright rejection
(Parker & Seal, 1996). Specific social and emotional problems with anxiety and
aggression have been found to negatively impact social competence during middle
childhood and this impact often continues into adolescence (McGee & Williams, 1991).
Adolescence (Ages 13-19)
During adolescence, becoming independent, establishing an identity, and forming
close relationships with significant others are ongoing processes (Steinberg, 2007).
Adolescents desire more autonomy from their parents and more acceptance from their
peers (Howard & Landau, 2010). They begin to create an identity through integrating
others’ perceptions of them with their own opinions and preferences. Successful
integration of these influences produces a clear sense of beliefs, goals, and relationship
expectations. As Ruffin (2009) states, “people with secure identities know where they fit
(or where they don’t want to fit) in their world” (p.4). Adolescents are better able than
younger children to make decisions about how to begin, maintain, and end friendships
15
(Lavoie, 2005). As with earlier stages of development, emotional regulation continues to
be important for social competence. Adolescents who struggle to regulate their emotions,
especially negative ones, may overreact to emotionally charged situations, leading to
inappropriate reactions or behaviors (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000).
Specific social skills also remain important. Adolescents who lack social skills may
continue to be isolated socially. This isolation is partly due to the lack of social skills,
but is also influenced by peer perceptions that these individuals are not approachable or
sociable (Semrud-Clikeman, 2007). An especially critical social skill developed during
adolescence is the ability to remove oneself from a situation in order to objectively
interpret what is happening. This allows the individual to understand another’s
motivations and perspective, so that he or she can adjust behavior and reactions
accordingly. Development of this skill coincides with brain development that is
associated with abstract thinking (Semrud-Clikeman).
As children enter adolescence, there is an even greater importance placed on peer
relationships. Friendships in adolescence have evolved from relationships built on shared
interests to a bond strengthened by self-disclosure and mutual support. The ability to
open up and confide in close friends is important to the formation and maintenance of
friendships in adolescence, as is feeling supported and understood by friends (SemrudClikeman, 2007). Trust, empathy, companionship, positive regard, understanding, and
support are all characteristics of adolescent friendships (Howard & Landau, 2010).
Friends help each other navigate the trials of adolescence, and adolescents typically
choose friends who share common interests, talents, and behavioral interests (Howard &
16
Landau). Adolescents seek to not be alone and research has shown that teens tend to
describe themselves as less happy when alone (Semrud-Clikeman). Similarly, teens are
highly vulnerable for negative outcomes if they experience little social support and are
victimized by peers (Murdock & Bolch, 2005).
Signs of Social Deficits or Dysfunction
Unfortunately, children and adolescents sometimes struggle to acquire the skills
necessary for social competence at developmentally appropriate stages. In early
childhood, children who cannot regulate their behavior or emotions, or are extremely shy
are at-risk for lasting social and emotional problems. In middle childhood, children who
are shy, are easily angered, or have difficulty communicating are at-risk. And across
developmental stages, lacking specific social skills can be quite problematic. Gresham
(2002) noted that there can be deficits in the areas of social skills acquisition,
performance, or fluency. Whereas an acquisition deficit is something that the child
“can’t do,” a performance deficit is something the child knows how to do but “won’t do.”
A child may have a fluency deficit if he or she knows how to perform the behavior but
has a lack of practice in using it or has a lack of exposure to competent models. Children
at-risk for disrupted or delayed social competence development may exhibit the
following signs of dysfunction: excessive aggression, disruptive behavior, a lack of
friends, social awkwardness, difficulty identifying and recognizing emotions, and
difficulty seeing a situation from another person’s perspective (Howard & Landau, 2010).
Children who display disruptive behavior at school are often the students most in need of
intervention, as their behavior may interfere with the learning of others.
17
Aggressive children may have deficits in their ability to process information,
providing them with a lowered ability to adapt to frustrating situations. This can lead
them to act aggressively as a method of coping with frustration and solving social
problems (Pakaslahti & Keltikangas-Jarvinen, 2000). Environmental influences that
contribute to aggression include low parental support, poor monitoring of behavior,
abusive or inconsistent discipline, and stress or conflict in the home (Siegler et al., 2003).
These children, if rejected by their peers as a result of their aggressive behavior, may in
turn display more aggressive behavior, have achievement delays, be victims of teasing,
be stigmatized and develop a bad reputation, or develop low self-esteem (Howard &
Landau, 2010).
The acquisition of appropriate social behaviors can also be significantly impeded
by the presence of mental or behavioral disorders. While positive peer relationships
promote self-esteem and psychological well-being, significant difficulties in forming and
maintaining peer relationships are associated with childhood development of mental or
behavioral disorders and long-lasting negative outcomes (Howard & Landau, 2010).
About one in five children suffer from a significant mental health problem, and about 70
percent of those who would benefit from mental health services do not receive the
treatment they need (Whelley et al., 2002).
Children with certain disorders and diagnostic characteristics are more likely to
have difficulties navigating the social world than their typically developing peers. These
include internalizing disorders, externalizing disorders, and autism spectrum disorders.
Internalizing disorders are characterized by internal distress and relatively subtle
18
observable symptoms. Externalizing disorders are characterized by overt behavioral
symptoms such as aggression or difficulty with self-regulation. The term autism
spectrum disorders refers to pervasive developmental disorders characterized by
impairments in communication, social functioning, and perception (Semrud-Clikeman,
2007). These disorders and their impacts on social development will be discussed in turn.
Internalizing Disorders
The term internalizing disorders refers to a group of disorders that are
characterized by covert, over-controlled behaviors, depression, anxiety, social withdrawal
and somatic (i.e., physical) problems (Merrell, 2008). As the signs and symptoms of
internalizing disorders are not always observable, they sometimes go unnoticed and
undiagnosed (Miller & Jome, 2010). Two of the most common internalizing disorders
experienced in childhood are depression and anxiety. In addition, there are other
disorders that have symptoms of anxiety or depression as associated features, such as
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or autism spectrum disorders.
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive worry, fear, or distress that may
manifest in both physical and emotional symptoms. Anxiety is estimated to be the most
common internalizing problem, with 8 percent of referrals for mental health help among
the general population due to anxiety symptoms (Merrell, 2008). The prevalence rate for
diagnosable anxiety disorders is estimated to be between 3 and 4 percent (Merrell). The
anxiety disorders most commonly seen in schools are: Generalized Anxiety Disorder,
Social Phobia, Separation Anxiety, and Specific Phobia Disorder (commonly in the form
19
of school phobia) (Merrell). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR), Generalized Anxiety
Disorder is marked by persistent and excessive anxiety and worry for a period of at least
6 months (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 2000). Social Phobia is
characterized by extreme anxiety provoked by specific social or performance situations,
which often leads to behaviors to avoid such situations. Among anxiety disorders,
specific symptoms include excessive worrying, restlessness, irritability, sleep
disturbance, avoidance of activities or certain situations, or somatic symptoms such as
headaches or nausea (APA). While many children may experience some anxiety at one
time or another, diagnosable anxiety disorders are set apart by their duration (usually at
least 6 months) and their severity, as individuals with anxiety have little control over their
symptoms.
Children with high levels of anxiety often have difficulty approaching and solving
problems, which may increase the disruption to social and academic functioning (Hanie
& Stanard, 2009). For instance, a child with test anxiety may become so distressed
before an exam that he or she may avoid coming to school or may develop headaches or
stomach aches severe enough to be sent home. Though students with mild symptoms of
anxiety can function well with persistence and hard work, about half of students with
anxiety disorders have difficulty functioning at school. Anxiety can lead to school
avoidance, perfectionism, academic failure, and problems relating to others (Hanie &
Stanard; Huberty, 2010).
20
Depression
Depression is characterized by a pervasive feeling of sadness or hopelessness that
adversely affects one’s ability to function (Miller & Jome, 2010). A conservative
estimate of the prevalence of depression among children and adolescents is 4 to 6 percent
(Merrell, 2008). Though depression may affect people of all ages and backgrounds, there
are certain populations with higher rates of depression. These include: teen girls, gay and
bisexual youth, and American Indians (Cash, 2003). The DSM-IV-TR includes two types
of Major Depressive Disorder: Single Episode and Recurrent. These disorders share
similar symptoms, but differ in terms of frequency. Major Depressive Disorder,
Recurrent is the appropriate diagnosis when more than one Major Depressive Episode is
experienced (APA, 2000).
Students with depression may have difficulty paying attention in class, drop out of
activities they once enjoyed, argue more with friends, or withdraw from friends. In
addition, depression in children is often associated with poor academic performance,
disruptive behavior, poor social relationships, school absenteeism, dropping out of
school, and school violence (Cash, 2003). Although many teens experience symptoms of
depression, those with major depressive disorder have these symptoms for a longer
duration and with increased intensity, which causes more dysfunction in their lives
(Cash).
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Another disorder that has associated features of anxious or depressive symptoms
is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Individuals with PTSD have experienced a
21
traumatic event (either directly or indirectly) such as abuse, assault, loss of a loved one,
or a disaster that continues to affect their daily lives for longer than one month after the
event (Nickerson, Reeves, Brock, & Jimerson, 2009). Symptoms of PTSD include: reexperiencing the trauma due to reminders of it; increased arousal (e.g., exaggerated
startle response, hypervigilance); and avoiding reminders of the trauma or emotional
numbing (Huberty, 2010). In children, these symptoms can manifest as anxious
behaviors, social withdrawal, inattention, somatic complaints (e.g., stomach aches),
developmental regression (e.g., bedwetting), or aggressive play (Nickerson et al.). For
instance, a young child with PTSD whose house burned down may have an intense fear
reaction during a school fire drill, or a child with PTSD who has been abused at home
may play hit other children while playing “house.”
Autism Spectrum Disorders
It is also common for children with autism spectrum disorders to have anxiety that
revolves around the inability to cope with changes or stress. This group of disorders, as
well as specific symptoms and their relation to social development, will be discussed later
in the chapter.
Externalizing Disorders
Externalizing disorders is a classification of disorders characterized by behavioral
symptoms and includes Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional
Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD). Combined, these three disorders
account for the majority of clinical referrals in childhood (Brinkmeyer & Eyberg, 2003;
Matson, 2010). Research has established that there is a strong link between social
22
competence deficits and externalizing disorders. Social competence deficits are not only
accompanied often by externalizing behavior patterns, but they are even involved in the
development and maintenance of externalizing disorders (Gresham, 2002).
According to the DSM-IV-TR, ADHD is estimated to be present in 3 to 7 percent
of children in the United States (APA, 2000). There are three types of ADHD: Primarily
Inattentive Type, Primarily Hyperactive/Impulsive Type, and a Combined Type.
Examples of behaviors associated with the Primarily Inattentive Type include: having
difficulty sustaining attention; struggling to follow through on instructions; having
difficulty with organization; becoming easily distracted; avoiding or disliking tasks
requiring sustained mental effort; and failing to focus attention on details, or making
careless mistakes. Behaviors associated with the Primarily Hyperactive/Impulsive Type
include: fidgeting with hands or squirming while seated; having difficulty remaining
seated; running around or climbing excessively; talking excessively; having difficulty
waiting or taking turns; and blurting out answers before questions have been completed.
When behaviors are present from both Hyperactive/Impulsive ADHD and Inattentive
ADHD, a diagnosis of ADHD-combined type is made (APA). Additionally, in order for
an ADHD diagnosis to be made, the behaviors must have been present before the age of
7, must be present across multiple settings (for example: home and school), and cannot be
explained by any other psychiatric condition (APA).
Although not a clinical aspect of ADHD, individuals with the disorder often
experience some degree of social impairment. Research indicates that children with
ADHD frequently experience conflicts with peers and adults, peer rejection, and social
23
isolation (de Boo & Prins, 2007). Children with ADHD also frequently exhibit
significant deficits in social competence (Gresham, 2002). Many of the social problems
experienced by children with ADHD are a result of the core symptoms of the disorder;
however, there is also research that indicates that the commonly associated features of
ADHD, such as verbal and physical aggression, can lead children with ADHD to be
misunderstood and rejected by peers (Lavoie, 2005).
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a disorder with an estimated prevalence
rate of 2 to 15 percent of children in the United States (Loeber, Burke, Lahey, Winters, &
Zera, 2000). ODD is characterized by a pattern of persistent hostile, defiant and other
negative behaviors associated with noncompliance. Symptoms of ODD, as outlined in
the DSM-IV-TR, include arguing with adults, losing one’s temper, defiance or
noncompliance with rules, purposefully annoying others, blaming others for mistakes,
and being “angry and resentful” or “spiteful or vindictive.” Since these symptoms can be
experienced by many people on occasion, the DSM-IV-TR also specifies that symptoms
must be present for at least six months to warrant a diagnosis (APA, 2000).
ODD is also considered a precursor, or less severe form of Conduct Disorder
(CD). In fact, it is estimated that if left untreated, one quarter of children with ODD will
develop CD (Hinshaw & Lee, 2003). Conduct Disorder is described as a persistent
pattern of deviant behavior that involves serious violation of social norms. The definition
alone demonstrates the link between Conduct Disorder and social impairment. The
behaviors of CD, as outlined in the DSM-IV-TR, fall into four categories: aggressive
behaviors (e.g., threatening or harming other people or animals); non-aggressive
24
behaviors (e.g., defacing or destroying property, setting fires); deceitful behaviors (e.g.,
lying and stealing); and rule violations (e.g., disobeying rules at home and school)
(McCurdy, 2010). As with ODD, the DSM-IV-TR also specifies that symptoms of CD
must be present for at least six months to warrant a diagnosis (APA, 2000).
Each externalizing disorder by itself can significantly stifle development of social
competency, and these effects become increasingly serious when externalizing disorders
occur together. Gresham (2002) found that children who exhibit behavior patterns of
hyperactivity-impulsivity-inattention (i.e., ADHD), along with conduct problems
characterized by fighting, stealing, truancy, noncompliance, and arguing (i.e., CD), are at
extreme high risk for developing a lifelong pattern of antisocial behavior. Gresham also
determined that these children with ADHD and CD are significantly more at risk than
children with ADHD or CD alone (Lynam, 1996; Gresham, 2002). Antisocial behavior
patterns become a lifetime issue for these children because they likely exhibit the most
negative features of both domains. They tend to be “more physically aggressive, persist
longer in antisocial behavior, display more severe achievement deficits, and have higher
levels of peer rejection” than children with ADHD and CD alone (Gresham, 2002).
Although all three types of externalizing disorders can significantly impact social
functioning, the school’s role in intervening to help improve social competency needs to
be determined on a case by case basis. Due to the aggressive and hostile nature of ODD
and CD in particular, intervention would likely need to involve specialized programs led
by specially trained professionals. Among students with ADHD, however, teachers and
25
other school staff can be more involved in supporting and intervening to help improve
social competency.
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Autism Spectrum disorders are a group of pervasive developmental disorders that
range in severity from very low to very high functioning (Ruble & Gallagher, 2010).
Under the broad term of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs), the two most commonly
seen in schools are autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder. Autistic Disorder (also
known as “classic” autism) is categorized by the DSM-IV-TR into three core areas:
deficits in social interaction; impairments in communication (including a severe delay in
language acquisition); and restrictive, repetitive or stereotyped behaviors. Asperger’s
disorder is also defined by impairment in social interaction and the presence of repetitive
and stereotyped patterns of behavior, but does not include language deficits (APA, 2000).
As evident by their definitions, social competency is greatly affected when any of these
disorders is present (Stichter, Randolph, Gage & Schmidt, 2007).
As previously noted, children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often
show symptoms of internalizing disorders. It is common for children with an ASD to
exhibit anxious or nervous behaviors such as picking at clothes or reluctance to try
something new (Whelley et al., 2002). As these children grow into adolescence, it is also
common for them, especially for the higher-functioning adolescents, to experience
depression due to difficulties relating to peers. They may also exhibit avoidance and
withdrawal; however, in the child with autism, this is most likely due to limitations in
social skills (Cadigan & Estrem, 2010).
26
As mainstreaming into general education classrooms has become increasingly
common for students with ASDs, their social deficits have become more evident, and
also more relevant to general education teachers (Fisher & Meyer, 2002). Without
interventions aimed to build social competency in students with ASDs, they are likely to
become socially withdrawn or to exhibit problematic social behavior (Weiss & Harris,
2001). This increased social isolation, combined with social competence deficits, can
significantly impact the quality of these students’ lives as well as lead to deficits in other
areas, such as language and cognition (Lavoie, 2005).
Intervention at School
The School’s Role
A major advantage that schools have in helping struggling students is the nature of
the school environment and the way it lends itself to the intervention process. First, the
sheer time that children spend at schools gives educators the unique opportunity to both
observe and address children’s needs (Whelley et al., 2002). In addition to time, the
school environment also provides ample opportunity for social learning to occur, as
learning occurs through collaboration with teachers and peers (Durlak et al., 2011). This
allows for intervention to be folded into the many interactions that naturally occur
throughout the school day. Students with social-emotional difficulties can get support
and practice in a more naturalistic environment within the school rather than in a more
clinical setting.
There are three types of supports that schools can provide to students who
experience social-emotional struggles: environmental, programmatic and individual
27
(Whelley et al., 2002). Environmental supports are school-wide and involve creating a
school climate that is supportive and encourages traits such as respect for others,
connectedness, and self-esteem. Programmatic supports are more targeted to students
with specific needs and might include implementing programs or curricula for bullying
prevention or social skills. Individual supports should be used for those students who
either have needs that cannot be met through environmental or programmatic supports, or
who do not respond to either of these approaches. Individual supports might include
individual counseling for students with chronic or acute mental health needs. Each of
these support types can impact students by simultaneously building and fostering
protective factors, which in turn can increase positive behavior, social competency,
academic achievement, and emotional well-being (Whelley et al.).
Addressing resiliency at any level of support is a powerful way that schools can
help students build social competence. All people encounter adversity and conflict, and
they draw on the social-emotional resources available in order to handle these difficulties.
These resources can include an external network of support as well as internal factors,
such as resiliency. Resiliency is “the ability to bounce back from defeat by resetting
one’s compass, redefining goals, and continuing on course” (Whelley et al., 2002, p.3).
Resiliency has also been described as a way of coping that can help prevent negative
outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, or low achievement (Smith Harvey, 2007).
Research shows that children who encounter similar obstacles in life may have different
outcomes depending on how resilient they are (Whelley et al.).
28
Research has shown that resilient children often possess two factors that
strengthen their resiliency. First, they experience consistent, responsive care from
someone. Secondly, they possess certain personal characteristics, including intelligence,
responsiveness to others, and a sense of competence (Siegler et al., 2003). There are
certain factors that make some individuals at-risk for low resiliency. Research indicates
that children who come from unstable homes or are victims of any form of abuse or
neglect are at especially high risk for low resiliency (Werner, 1993). However, there is
hopeful research that indicates that the presence of just one caring adult in the lives of
these at-risk children can boost resiliency significantly. Most famous is Werner’s 1989
study among children in Kauai. Werner’s research demonstrated that one of the most
crucial factors in the outcome of at-risk children who had experienced a problematic start
in life was whether at least one person took an active interest in their welfare (Werner,
1989). According to her research, this pivotal person could be any caring and supportive
adult. There are ample opportunities for caring and supportive adults in schools to foster
resiliency in children. Efforts that schools make to enhance resiliency can have great
benefits for all students. Those with low resiliency can clearly benefit greatly, and since
resiliency is a limitless quality, students who already show strong resilience can continue
to build their supply. Efforts targeted at building resilience can also have other indirect
positive benefits as well. When resilience is promoted, positive peer relationships and
prosocial behaviors are also promoted, thereby creating a more positive school climate
(Smith Harvey, 2007).
29
Smith Harvey’s (2007) work outlined a number of specific ways that schools can
help students build resiliency. First, schools can help by providing a caring and
supportive learning environment through the promotion of positive social connections
between staff and students, among students themselves, and also between families and
the school. Improving relationships in the school’s community and creating opportunities
for students to help each other can help create such a climate. When teachers,
administrators, and parents have positive relationships with each other, children’s and
adolescents’ resilience is boosted (Smith Harvey). Fostering positive attitudes and
emotions in students can also increase resiliency. This can be accomplished by:
encouraging students to believe that they can succeed if they try; framing failure as an
opportunity from which to learn; and modeling respect for others, optimism, and
forgiveness. Creating environments with consistent, clear expectations that aim to foster
academic competence is another way educators can boost resiliency. These can all be
characterized as environmental, or universal, supports.
Programmatic supports to boost resiliency might include programs that have
children helping each other, such as with peer mediation groups and programs aimed at
preventing bullying or violence (Smith Harvey, 2007). On the individual level,
promoting positive stress control strategies such as meditation, yoga, and physical
exercise can also boost resiliency (Smith Harvey,).
Aside from building resiliency, there are a number of other avenues that schools
can take to support students who are struggling socially. Teachers in particular can play a
pivotal role in fostering social competence. As teachers are with their students for most
30
of the day and witness countless social interactions, they can take advantage of naturally
occurring situations to incorporate social skills trainings on an environmental level. In
addition, these informal environmental interventions cost less – in terms of both
resources and time – than more intensive interventions (Gresham, 2002; Merrell, 2008).
They can be more efficient in addressing problems on a large scale and have the added
benefit of increasing the likelihood of preventing problem behaviors from escalating in
the future. However, students at high risk for developing social problems may still need
more intensive intervention (Gresham).
Through effective, research-based teaching practices, teachers can provide a
structured and caring environment from which all students may benefit (Hanie & Stanard,
2009). Students do not need special education services or an official diagnosis to receive
support at school. Teachers can strive to create a nonjudgmental, accepting learning
environment in which students are considered a “community of learners.” In addition,
teachers can encourage students to use a wide variety of resources and work together to
learn; efforts that can promote personal responsibility and mutual respect (Siegler et al.,
2003).
Other strategies that teachers and other staff members can use to promote social
skills in the classroom and on the playground involve modeling, coaching, and practicing
prosocial behaviors (Bandura, 1977; Gresham, 2002). Modeling can be an extremely
effective and efficient method of teaching social behavior. It involves learning an
integrated sequence of behaviors, or a behavior pattern, through the observation of
another person performing the behavior (Gresham). Coaching is actively teaching a child
31
what to do or say in a particular situation, such as how to join a group of peers (Siegler et
al., 2003). Once a child learns a behavior, it is important that the child be able to practice
the behavior on a regular basis to ensure that he or she will be able to use it fluently in the
future. Teachers can play a role in actively looking for situations in which a child can
practice a learned social skill, and can encourage the child to use the skill (Gresham).
A more structured way to conceptualize the acquisition of social skills is an
information processing model, which contains six steps in developing social competence.
These steps are: (a) encoding relevant stimuli (i.e., perceiving subtle and overt verbal or
nonverbal cues), (b) interpreting cues (i.e., what happened, cause, and intent), (c)
establishing goals (i.e., what the child wants and how he or she will achieve it), (d)
developing a representation of the situation (i.e., comparing current experience with
similar past experiences, reactions, and outcomes), and (e) selecting possible responses
based on the event and the child’s skill set, and acting on a choice or evaluating the
outcome (Crick & Dodge, 1994). Many effective social and emotional learning programs
utilize similar processes in teaching social skills, such as problem solving or conflict
resolution (Durlak et al., 2011). Using these programmatic supports, teachers can be
trained to guide students through these steps so that they understand the processes
involved in social competence and will be more likely to use prosocial strategies in the
future.
Some studies suggest that schools involved in programs designed to promote a
caring community produce many positive lasting outcomes for students (Durlak et al.,
2011; Siegler et al., 2003). These programs emphasize supporting one another, sharing
32
values and goals, fostering a sense of belonging, and participating in group decisions.
Battistich and others conducted several studies in the 1990’s designed to implement and
evaluate these types of schoolwide interventions (Siegler et al., 2003). The interventions
were used at elementary schools with children from a variety of cultural and economic
backgrounds. They found that schools that participated in these interventions reported a
decrease in behavior problems and drug use and an increase in academic motivation,
spontaneous use of prosocial behavior, use of conflict resolution skills, and use of ethical
reasoning (Battistich et al, 1990; Battistich, 2001). Similarly, Durlak et al. (2011), in a
meta-analysis of over 200 social and emotional learning programs in schools, found that
students who participated in the programs significantly improved in academic
performance, behavior, attitude, and social and emotional skills. As discussed
previously, the risks involved in not implementing schoolwide interventions to build
social competence may include lasting negative consequences for students, such as
increases in dropout rates, school violence, and criminal activity (Whelley et al., 2002).
It is clear from the research that the benefits of developing and implementing these
interventions far outweigh the risks. Such interventions should be an integral part of the
school’s responsibility in educating the whole child.
If a student has participated in a classroom or schoolwide intervention to promote
social competence and his or behaviors continue to interfere with academic or social
functioning, the teacher should make a referral to trained mental health professionals
such as the school psychologist or school counselor (Whelley et al., 2002). In addition,
Hanie & Stanard (2009) state that the threshold from normal to problematic behavior is
33
crossed when the problem is present for an extended period of time (i.e., at least one
month), causes distress, disrupts routines and typical functioning, and is disproportionate
to the situation. In these circumstances, it is appropriate to refer the student to the school
psychologist or counselor to proceed with the next steps in individualized treatment and
diagnosis (Hanie & Stanard).
Training program for school staff
As discussed previously, there is a clear need for intervention with students who
struggle socially and schools are prime environments in which effective interventions can
occur; however, there is no clear protocol of how to do so. From district to district and
even from school to school within the same district, what is done to help such students
varies. There is abundant research that points to numerous approaches to help students
with social difficulties, yet often teachers feel unprepared to help the students for whom
they have concerns (Reinke et al, 2011). School psychologists are in a unique position to
train teachers and other school staff due to their knowledge of the learning process as
well as mental health issues, behavior, and effective interventions across these areas.
With this knowledge and background, school psychologists can help school staff to be
aware of and be able to effectively address the social challenges that their students face.
While this kind of knowledge transfer happens on a daily basis through consultation with
individual teachers regarding individual students, taking a more proactive approach by
giving teachers and other school staff information and interventions as a group can be
more effective. According to Merrell, Ervin, and Gimpel (2006), a major advantage of
group education is that it extends the school psychologist’s sphere of influence beyond
34
the traditional model of treating one child at a time. This project addresses this via a
series of brief trainings that have been developed to educate and empower teachers and
school staff to be able to help students who are struggling socially. Though research is
limited on the effectiveness of such trainings, the outlook is promising (Robinson, 2011;
Tompkins, Witt, & Abraibesh, 2009). Research does indicate that professional
development programs can impact and enhance teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes
in the workplace (Brown, 2008).
Because the amount of time available for staff development may be limited,
school psychologists must make presentations as efficient and effective as possible. With
this in mind, a series of five, 75-minute training presentations have been developed under
the theme of social competency. These presentations focus on children and adolescents,
grouped by grade level, and are designed to be given to teachers and school staff
members who work with each group. The specific groups are: Pre-K and Kindergarten,
1st and 2nd grade, 3rd through 5th grade, middle school (6th through 8th grade), and high
school (9th through 12th grade). Each of these grade specific presentations follows a
similar outline, beginning with an overview of social competency and its importance.
Next, for each grade range, specific social skills and signs of social competency
development are covered. Finally, the presentations cover how to recognize socially
struggling students, how teachers and other school staff can help these struggling
students, and when to refer them for further help. Each presentation also includes
information about specific diagnosable disorders that can significantly impact social
functioning. Altogether, these trainings aim to help teachers and school staff members
35
feel empowered and educated to support socially struggling students and to recognize
when problems are outside their scope of training.
Overall, this project focuses on developing a training program that delivers
straight-forward, useful information organized in brief training presentations, allows for
certain age groups to be targeted based on the needs of the school, and provides options
to choose from for staff development. Furthermore, these trainings allow school
psychologists to efficiently disseminate knowledge and intervention ideas on a broad
scope.
36
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Research
Several source types were used as the research basis for this project. These
sources included books, informational handouts used in professional practice, and
scholarly and professional journal articles, both print and electronic. To locate these
sources, several techniques were utilized. EBSCO online article databases including
PsychInfo, Academic Search Premier, PsychArticles and ERIC databases were the main
source of scholarly journal articles. Within these databases, many different combinations
of key words were used to refine the search. The term “social competency” was the main
term that was used in conjunction with other key words that included: definition, deficits,
signs, interventions, social skills, social development, externalizing disorders,
internalizing disorders, and autism spectrum disorders. Several texts used in graduate
level courses and in professional practice were used as sources for this project. In
addition, books that were cited as sources in utilized scholarly journal articles were also
located and used. These titles include Social Behavior and Skills in Children (Matson,
2010) and Resilient Classrooms: Creating Healthy Environments for Learning (Doll,
Zucker & Brehm, 2004).
A general outline was created for the project and all sources were then
appropriately distributed within the project outline where they best fit. Some sources
applied to multiple sections within the outline while others were narrower in scope.
During this process the outline was adapted and adjusted as needed. The final outline
37
was used as a guide to develop the literature review and each author took the lead on
evenly divided specific sections.
Development of the Presentation
The in-service training program was developed to provide age-specific
information about social competency, its importance, signs of social competency
struggles and specific interventions to increase social competency. Research
demonstrating the positive outcomes for strong social competency and the possible
negative outcomes of poor social competency were summarized in order to give weight
to the importance of fostering social competency and to motivate intervention efforts.
Each grade-specific in-service includes an overview of what social competency is, and
what it “looks like” in the specific age range. Next, specific signs of possible problems
with a student’s social competency were outlined, including when these signs warrant
intervention. Then, specific interventions and approaches to giving support were
provided to teachers and other school staff. Finally, specifics regarding when social
competency difficulties warrant interventions from a trained professional were supplied.
Each of the training presentations is designed to be a stand-alone training, 75 minutes in
length, to be presented to the teachers and school staff members that work with the
specific grade range. Each presentation includes lecture and interactive activities. These
activities include small group discussion and brainstorming, case study vignettes and
guided role play practice.
The intended audience for these training presentations includes teachers,
administrators, instructional assistants, para-educators, yard duties, and any other school
38
staff members who regularly interact with students and could provide support to them.
During the development of this training program, an overview of the research basis and
the program itself was presented to a group of fellow school psychologist graduates with
completed master’s degrees along with a graduate program faculty member. Feedback
was provided by this group along with feedback from several practicing school
psychologists and school psychology faculty members during later stages of
development. All materials needed by presenters to implement these trainings including
PowerPoint slides, handouts, and a presenter’s manual are included as appendices at the
end of this project. All presenter materials are also included on a CD in order for the
trainings to be presented using a computer-linked projector.
39
Chapter 4
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
The training program for Supporting Social Competency at School was developed
from the literature review to create a series of practical and user-friendly training
presentations designed to enhance the knowledge and skills of individuals who work with
students from pre-kindergarten through high school. The training program consists of
five stand-alone interactive presentations that are designed to last approximately 75
minutes each. The materials contained in this project (i.e., the presenter’s manual, slides
with presentation notes, and handouts) are designed to be straight-forward and
manageable for any trained school psychologist to act as presenter.
Each training presentation will help attendees be able to recognize when a
student’s social difficulties may warrant intervention and also to recognize that they have
the tools to help such students. A tiered approach to intervention is presented, with
emphasis on the large majority of students who can be helped with environmental,
naturalistic, and specific targeted interventions, which can be provided by any adult who
has regular contact with the students. These presentations also include information about
specific diagnosable disorders that commonly impact social competency, and how this
impact typically manifests. Lastly, the presentations outline when it may be necessary to
seek outside help from other professionals, such as school psychologists, and how to go
about finding that extra help. The supplemental handouts in Appendices C, D, and E
provide additional easy-to-use tools and recommendations for educators.
40
Workshop Objectives
The ultimate goal of these presentations is to provide educators with the
knowledge and skills to effectively support student social competency at school.
Specifically, the presentations are designed to help attendees (a) have a clear
understanding of what social competency is; (b) be able to identify students who are
struggling socially; (c) be able to use research-based interventions to support these
students; and (d) be able to recognize the limits of their training and refer students who
may need more intensive support. It is hoped that the strategies and skill practice
provided in the training workshops will help teachers and other school staff to feel
empowered to engage in the early identification of, and intervention for students who
would benefit from extra support in developing social competency.
Recommendations
It is important for educators to understand that the contents of this project were
developed using current knowledge of research-based practices for promoting social
competency in the school setting. With this in mind, presenters and educators may need
to adapt or modify the recommended intervention strategies to meet the diverse needs of
each school or community. Therefore, it is imperative that educators be aware of how to
adapt these interventions without compromising the integrity of the recommended
practices.
Conclusions
Social connectedness and support are vital to student well being and success in
school and beyond. Students who lack social competency lack positive interpersonal
41
relationships that can provide social-emotional support. The absence of social-emotional
support has been linked to negative outcomes ranging from poor academic achievement
to serious mental health problems lasting into adulthood. In evaluation of this project, it
is hoped that it contains information that provides teachers and other school staff with
foundational knowledge to recognize students who may lack social competency and skills
to support and intervene with these students.
42
APPENDICES
43
APPENDIX A
SUPPORTING SOCIAL COMPETENCY AT SCHOOL
PRESENTATION SLIDES
44
A Note to Readers
The slides and corresponding presenter’s notes only from the Grades 3-5 presentation are
included in this appendix. Given the uniformity of this training program and the overlap
of much of the contained information, the decision was made to include just one
presentation in print to provide readers with a better idea of what this training program
actually looks like. Slides containing information that varies by age group will be
designated with an asterisk (*) next to the slide number. Please note that the slide
numbers may vary between presentations. All five grade group-specific presentations are
included on the accompanying CD.
45
Slide 1*
Supporting Social Competency
at School: Grades 3-5
PRESENTATION CREATED BY:
CATHERINE TELLER, M.A. & DANIELLE HARRINGTON, M.A.
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
PRESENTED BY: [NAME]
Sample language: "Today I will be leading you through a training focusing on social competency
in middle childhood and more specifically in the 3rd through 5th grades.”
Slide 2
Presentation Overview
 Introduction
 Social Competency in Middle Childhood (Grades 3-5)
 Signs of Social Problems
 What Can I Do to Help?
 When to Seek Outside Help
Sample language:
“This training will follow this outline of topics. We will begin with an introduction of the concept
of social competency, followed by a look at how social competency develops in early childhood.
Next, we cover what behaviors or signs suggest there may be a problem in the development of
social competency.
Then, a variety of approaches and interventions that you can use to support social competency
development will be covered and opportunities to discuss and practice some strategies will be
included.
Finally, instances when outside help may be needed to help students will be discussed."
46
Slide 3
Proposed Outcomes
The goal of this training is to help you to:

Have a clear understanding of what social competency is.

Be able to recognize students lacking social competency who
may need your support & guidance.

Learn strategies to support students who are struggling
socially.

Better understand when students may need more intensive
help beyond what you can provide.
Feel empowered to support student social
competency at school!
(Paraphrase each outcome on this slide)
Slide 4
Introduction
Sample language: “With those outcomes in mind, let’s get started.”
47
Slide 5
Educating the “Whole Child”
A growing approach to
education recognizing that…
 Academic preparation is one of
many important pieces to
preparing students to become
successful, independent
members of society
 Addressing social, emotional,
behavioral & environmental
needs can lead to long-lasting,
positive outcomes
SAY:
1) There is an ever-increasing need to educate the “whole child” so that each student will
someday be a productive and independent member of society.
2) This includes social, emotional, behavioral, and environmental needs.
Slide 6
Powerful Implications
Presence of social-emotional support has been
shown to boost:

Enjoyment of daily activities in the classroom

Commitment to school and learning

Self-esteem

Protection against mental illness

Recovery from setbacks (resiliency)
Sample language: "Extensive research has linked the presence of social-emotional support to
many positive effects and outcomes including…" (read/paraphrase/elaborate on each bullet)
48
Slide 7
Powerful Implications
Absence of social-emotional support puts students at
greater risk for:
Learning problems
Feeling disconnected from school
 Disruptive behavior
 Peer rejection
 Development of mental illness
 Long-term negative outcomes (e.g., dropping out of high
school, criminal activity, social or mental health problems
in adulthood)


Sample language: “On the flipside, there is also broad research linking the absence of socialemotional support to many quite serious negative effects and outcomes, including…”
(read/paraphrase/elaborate on each bullet)
Slide 8
With this in mind…
How can we make a difference?
Sample language: “So now the question becomes, what can we do? Or how can we make a
difference?”
49
Slide 9
Targeting Intervention Efforts
Research indicates that there is a strong relationship
between the presence of social competency and:
 Positive peer group adjustment
 Social-emotional well-being
(Smith & Hart, 2005)
SAY: Given this, interventions targeting social competency may improve both interpersonal
relationships and internal well-being.
Slide 10*
What is Social Competency?
Sample language: "Now we will take a closer look at the concept of social competency."
50
Slide 11
What is Social Competency?
Social Competency involves:
1) Possessing and appropriately using social skills
2) Learning from past experience and applying that
learning to the ever-changing social landscape
Essentially: Combining social skills and past
knowledge to build and maintain
interpersonal relationships
(paraphrase information on this slide)
Slide 12
What is Social Competency?
The acronym C.A.R.E.S. identifies five major clusters
of social skills that socially competent people have:
• Cooperation
• Assertion
• Responsibility
• Empathy
• Self-control
(Gresham & Elliot, 1990)
Sample language: “While there are numerous social skills that are acquired and used by socially
competent people, the CARES acronym provides an easy was to remember five social skills that
are core for social competency”
Supplemental information that can be used for clarification as desired:
Assertion is the ability to use emotional language, such as “I” statements
Self-control involves behavior & emotions, including awareness of your emotional state and
motivations, coping with distressing emotions, and managing your own behavior
51
Slide 13*
Typical Social Development:
What should we be seeing?
SAY: Social competence develops over time. Social skills emerge at various points during
development and build on previously learned skills and knowledge. Conversely, a breakdown
along the way in social development will have a ripple effect on the development of social
competency.
Slide 14*
Typical Social Development in Middle Childhood
In 3rd-5th grade, typically developing children…
 Act nurturing and commanding with younger children but
follow and depend on older children
 Are beginning to see the point of view of others more
clearly
 Define themselves in terms of their appearance,
possessions and activities
 Enjoy group adventures and cooperative play
 Are more able to endure frustration while accepting delays
in getting things they “want.”
(read/paraphrase each bullet, then CLICK mouse/pointer to show the next)
52
Slide 15*
Typical Social Development in Middle Childhood
Specific social skills that should be developed at or
before this age:
 Ability to take turns, cooperate and compromise
 Recognizing and acknowledging the feelings and
viewpoints of others
 Listening to another person speaking and nonverbally
showing understanding/comprehension
 When social conflict inevitably arises children can usually
distinguish between minor and major arguments, can
resolve problems and can disengage when a conflict
threatens a friendship.
(read/paraphrase each bullet, then CLICK mouse/pointer to show the next)
Information for clarification:
Understanding comprehension nonverbally can involve nodding or appropriate facial expressions
Slide 16*
Typical Social Development in Middle Childhood
Characteristics of friendships at this age:
 Same gender groups form based on commonalities
 Friendships increase in number and stability
 However, friendships
can be terminated for no identifiable
reason or for minor slights
 Reciprocity becomes more important
 The label of “best friend” emerges
 Towards the end of middle childhood, confiding in friends
becomes more important than just “doing something”
together
(read/paraphrase each bullet, then CLICK mouse/pointer to show the next)
Supplemental information that can be used for clarification as desired:
Commonalities: likes and dislikes, abilities and personality traits
Reciprocity: children do favors for each other and expect favors in return
Resolving social problems: At this age,the necessary brain structures for developing problem
solving strategies are formed. Children can resolve problems on their own, or with minimal adult
support.
53
Slide 17*
Typical Social Development in Middle Childhood
The desire to belong and be accepted becomes very
important during these years.
 Children at this age may appear more self-conscious about
having friends and are more worried about being
accepted, fearing rejection, and embarrassment.
 A large amount of time is spent thinking about the
formation and maintenance of friendships.
(read/paraphrase each bullet, then CLICK mouse/pointer to show the next)
Slide 18
Cultural Considerations
 “Typical social development” can look different from
culture to culture.
 Cultures can vary in their:

Social norms

Expectations for behavior (i.e., A behavior desired in one
culture may be frowned upon in another)

Interpretation of others’ behavior/ social cues
 Become familiar with the cultural makeup of your school
and community, and keep this in mind when
determining whether student behaviors are “typical.”
(read/paraphrase each bullet) then… SAY: If social concerns are present for a child whose family
is from another culture, talking with the family about the behaviors you are seeing, or not
seeing, can help to determine if there are cultural implications for the child’s behavior.
54
Slide 19*
Recognizing Children Who are
Struggling Socially
Sample Language: “Now we will take a look at specific behaviors and observable signs that may
tell you that a student is struggling socially”
Slide 20
Signs of Social Competency Problems
 Aggressive/hostile behavior
 Misinterpretation/overreaction to social situations
 Failure to convey empathy for others
 Difficulty regulating behavior
 Withdrawal from peers or social situations
 Poor, undeveloped sense of humor
 Excessive shyness/embarrassed easily
 Bossy, controlling, and/or dominating
Sample Language: “Behavior patterns such as excessive shyness, bossiness, aggressive/hostile
behavior, and withdrawn behavior leading to social isolation, are common indications of social
competency problems.”
55
Slide 21
Signs of Social Competency Problems
Other signs that intervention may be needed:
 Lack of friends
 Rejection from peers
 Rejected-withdrawn
 Rejected-aggressive
 Frequent teasing by peers
 Changes in physical appearance (e.g., grooming, dress)
 Crying in class
Sample language: “Social isolation through withdrawn behavior or peer rejection are common
indications of social competency problems.
Supplemental information that can be used for clarification as desired:
Peer rejection: can lead to low self-esteem, achievement delays, stigmatization. And peer
rejection is not the same as friendship problems.”
Rejected-withdrawn:
-passive, submissive, lonely, vulnerable, and having low self-esteem
-Their socially awkward nature prevents successful, appropriate interactions with peers, and
makes them easy targets for teasing/name calling/exclusion/bullying
-They are aware of their rejected status and hold negative expectations for how they will be
treated by peers.
Rejected-aggressive: (the more common subgroup)
-Disliked because of their aggressive, argumentative, disruptive, impulsive, hostile, and
confrontational nature
-These children tend to be unaware of their rejected status and may even inflate their selfperception of social competence
(in other words, they think they have good social skills and believe that the problem lies with
their peers, not them)
56
Slide 22
Signs of Social Competency Problems
Social Skills Deficits:

Acquisition Deficits
 The
student does not have the knowledge to perform a particular
social skill. (“Can’t do”)

Performance Deficits
 The
student has the particular skill in his/her repertoire but rarely
performs the skill or does not have the motivation to perform it.
(“Won’t do”)

Fluency Deficits
 The
student has the skill in his/her repertoire but performs it
inconsistently or awkwardly.
SAY: Many students who are struggling socially have some type of social skill deficit. There are
three types… (explain each) The type of deficit helps determine what kind of intervention is
necessary.
Elaborations for bullets:
-Fluency deficits are usually due to lack of practice, lack of exposure to competent models, or
inadequate rehearsal for newly learned skills.
Slide 23
Signs of Social Competency Problems
What else have you seen while working in schools
that tells you a student is struggling socially?
Ask members of the audience the question on the slide and allow for a few minutes of sharing
from their experience. Encourage those who do share to keep their contributions to the
discussion brief and general.
57
Slide 24
What Can I do to Help?
Sample language: "Now that we’ve looked at what we should be seeing in young children and
what signs may tell us individuals may lack age-appropriate social competency, we will examine
how students struggling socially can be helped."
Slide 25
Tiered Approach to Intervention
 80% of students will not exhibit major behavior problems
because of previous successful learning experiences.

These children should respond to Environmental Supports (Core
Interventions)
 15% of students will be at-risk for severe behavior problems.
These students engage in problem behaviors beyond acceptable
levels and will not respond to basic school wide interventions.

These students should respond to Programmatic Supports (Targeted
Interventions)
 About 1 to 5% of students display chronic patterns of violent,
disruptive, and destructive behavior that do not respond to either
of the above approaches.

These students need Individual Support (Intensive Interventions)
(read/paraphrase each bullet and then CLICK mouse/pointer to reveal next bullet)
Once all slide content is visible SAY: Social competence deficits are characteristic of the second
and third groups of students described above.
58
Slide 26
Tiered Approach to Intervention
Used by permission of School Specialty Inc., (800) 225-5750, http://eps.schoolspecialty.com
SAY: Here is a visual representation of a tiered approach to intervention
Slide 27
Positive Effects of Intervention
In addition to boosting social competency,
intervention efforts at each level can lead to increases
in:
 Resiliency
 Positive behavior
 Positive relationships with peers and adults
 Academic achievement
 Emotional well-being
Read the information on this slide and then to clarify… SAY: Resiliency is the ability to recover
from setbacks and a way of coping that can prevent negative outcomes (e.g., depression,
anxiety, low achievement)
59
Slide 28*
What Can I do to Help? Core Interventions
Environmental Supports (Tier I: helping 80% of students)
 Create a supportive school climate
 Promote positive social connections
 Encourage students to believe they can succeed if they try

Frame failure as an opportunity from which to learn
 Model respect for others, optimism, and forgiveness
 Create an environment with clear, consistent expectations
 Encourage students to work together to learn, using a variety of
resources
(read/paraphrase the information on this slide) then…SAY: Environmental support strategies
should be used on a school-wide level AND within each classroom environment.
Elaborations for bullets:
-Creating a supportive climate that encourages respect for others, connectedness, and selfesteem
-Promote positive social connections between staff and students, among students, between
families and school, and school-community
-Create an environment with clear, consistent expectations (e.g., school-wide rules for behavior,
worded positively)
Nonjudgmental, accepting learning environment: a “community of learners”
-Encourage students to work together to learn, using a variety of resources (can promote
personal responsibility and mutual respect)
60
Slide 29
What Can I do to Help? Core Interventions
Naturalistic Intervention
“Informal social skills intervention . . . takes
advantage of naturally occurring behavioral incidents or
events to teach prosocial behavior . . . There are literally
thousands of behavioral incidents that occur in home,
school and community settings, thereby creating rich
opportunities for using these behavioral incidents as the
basis for social skills trainings.”
(Gresham, 2002)
This quote should be read in its entirety and then… SAY: Interventions folded into the course of
the school day are also known as naturalistic interventions.
Supplemental information tat can be used for clarification as desired:
Naturalistic interventions can sometimes be more powerful than more intensive interventions
(such as social skills groups) because they use real-life situations as learning opportunities as
they occur throughout the day. It is important that these skills are consistently reinforced and
practiced for them to “stick.”
Slide 30*
What Can I do to Help? Core Interventions
Naturalistic strategies (Tier I: helping 80% of students)
 Encourage non-competitive games and help children set
individual goals.
 Talk about self-control and making good decisions.
 Talk about why it is important to be patient, share, and respect
others’ rights and what each “looks like” (e.g., taking turns).
 Teach children to learn from criticism. Ask, “How could you do
that differently next time?”
 Have students evaluate their choices/actions by asking
themselves: “Is it safe?” “Is it fair?” “Is it respectful?”
Reinforce that these strategies can help 80% of students
Sample language: “Specific examples of naturalistic strategies include…”
(read/paraphrase/elaborate on each bullet)
61
Slide 31*
What Can I do to Help? Targeted Interventions
Programmatic supports (Tier II: helping 10-15% of
students)
 Bibliotherapy

As a preventative strategy

To start a general discussion after an incident has occurred
 Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) curricula that can be used in
a whole-class setting or in smaller groups
 Peer mediation groups
 Bullying/violence prevention programs
 Counselor or Psychologist-led social skills groups that students
can be referred to
(Refer back to the tiered approach to intervention and reinforce that these strategies can
help those 15% of students who don’t respond to core/environmental/naturalistic
interventions)
Paraphrase/read all content, then …SAY: Included in the handouts, there is one that includes
additional information on the bibliotherapy process and specific recommended resources
Slide 32*
What Can I do to Help? Targeted Interventions
Specific Strategies promoting social skill acquisition (Tier
II: helping 10-15% of students)
 Modeling
 Coaching
 Behavioral Rehearsal
 The 4 R’s
SAY: When social skills are lacking, Modeling, Coaching and Behavioral Rehearsal are specific
strategies that can help students learn and practice these skills. We will now review each of
these strategies.
62
Slide 33*
What Can I do to Help? Targeted Interventions
Modeling involves learning by observing another person
perform a behavior
 One of the most effective and efficient ways of teaching
social behavior
Steps for Modeling:
Present the entire sequence of behaviors involved in a
particular social skill
1.
1.
2.
2.
First, demonstrate each step or part
Next, model entire sequence together as it should look
Teach the student how to integrate the behavior into their
social interactions
(read/paraphrase information from each bullet and CLICK mouse/pointer to reveal more
information)
Slide 34*
What Can I do to Help? Targeted Interventions
Coaching involves using verbal instructions to teach
social behavior
Steps for Coaching:
1.
2.
3.
Explain social concepts or rules
Provide opportunities for practice or rehearsal in controlled
situation
Provide specific informational feedback on the quality of
behavioral performances
(read/paraphrase information from each bullet and CLICK mouse/pointer to reveal more
information)
63
Slide 35*
What Can I do to Help? Targeted Interventions
Behavioral Rehearsal involves practicing a newly
learned behavior in a structured, protective situation of
role playing
Steps for Behavioral Rehearsal:
Explain and model a new behavior
Provide a role play prompt for students to practice the skill in
3. Have students switch roles within the role play to help reinforce
learning
1.
2.
 Example -- Say: “Greg, you and Max are playing handball at recess
and you see Julian sitting by himself. I want you to practice the
‘inviting a friend to play’ skill we just learned.”
(read/paraphrase each bullet and CLICK mouse/pointer to reveal more information)
Once all content is visible and has been reviewed, SAY: in these “role plays,” students can
become more proficient and fluent with specific social skills without experiencing negative
consequences.
Slide 36*
What Can I do to Help? Targeted Interventions
The 4 R’s: a four-step process to teach and reinforce
social rules
Steps of the 4 R’s:
1. Reason: provide a reason for the rule
2. Rule: state the rule
3. Reminder: provide the student with a hint about the rule
4. Reinforce: recognize and praise
(read/paraphrase info from each bullet and CLICK mouse/pointer to reveal more information)
Example: A student, Julie, is having difficulty allowing others to take turns on a computer in the
classroom. First, tell the student that the classroom computer is for everyone to use (reason), so
one person can’t have it for the whole time. So, we need to take turns to be fair to the other
students (rule). So, when Carlos comes over that means your time is up and it’s her turn on the
computer (Reminder). If Julie steps aside when Carlos comes over, give her recognition/praise
(reinforce).
64
Slide 37
A Note on Behavior Change
Remember…
 Developing or learning a new social skill is a form of
behavior change.
 Changing behavior takes time and is a gradual
process.
With this in mind, each step towards the goal behavior
should be praised and reinforced.
In other words . . .
reward DIRECTION to guide towards PERFECTION
Sample language: “When helping a student develop their social skills, keep in mind that this is a
form of behavior change….” (read the remainder of the slide. Emphasize the rhyme of
DIRECTION and PERFECTION to be used as a reminder of this information when helping a
student)
Slide 38
Vignettes & Practice
Sample language: “Now you will have a chance to put what you have learned so far into action.”
65
Slide 39*
Lucas
Lucas is a 9 year-old, 4th grade boy. He loves being
around other kids, but does not seem to have any
consistent friends. While on yard duty at lunch, you
notice that when he goes to play with other children he
often becomes aggressive, pushing and bumping into
other children more than the game calls for. Usually,
the other children end up moving the game away from
him. He then walks away, looking upset. This pattern
repeats over several days with several different groups
of children.
(read the vignette and encourage the participants to read along to themselves on the slide in
their handout)
Slide 40*
Vignette Discussion
In your groups discuss the following:
 Based on what you have learned today…

Is this a problem warranting intervention?

Is there something you could do to help Lucas?

If so, what do you think might help him?
Instruct participants to break into small groups of 2-3 people to discuss the vignette and
questions
66
Slide 41*
Kiara
Kiara is a 8 year-old 3rd grade girl who is new to the
school this year and seems to be very shy. When the class
does group work she never seems able to find a group on
her own. At recess, she stands to the side and watches the
other children play. When you ask her why she isn’t playing
with the other children, she says, “They didn’t invite me.”
 Take turns practices one of the 3 strategies for building
social skills:



Modeling
Coaching
Behavior Rehearsal
Stay in small groups for this practice. Again, read the vignette and then give help as needed to
participants to complete the practice activity.
Slide 42
When to Seek Outside Help
Sample language: “Some students may have more severe social problems that may require more
specialized supports and interventions “
67
Slide 43
Tiered Approach to Intervention
 For those 1-5% of students who do not respond to
core interventions and targeted interventions, more
individualized intervention and support is likely
needed.
Used by permission of School Specialty Inc., (800) 225-5750, http://eps.schoolspecialty.com
(read information on slide, referring to the tiered graphic), then… SAY: These more
individualized interventions and supports should be handled by school psychologist or counselor
Slide 44
Seeking Outside Help
Make contact with school psychologist or counselor.
 Contact via email or other designated avenue (e.g.:
observation/consultation form)
 Ask for an observation to be made of the student
 Make appointment to meet to talk about your concerns for
the student
read/paraphrase information on slide), then included supplemental information as desired…
SAY: Background information related to specific concerns plus observational information can
inform decisions as to what supports/interventions may help the student
Mention handout: sample Initial Consultation Request form (optional).
68
Slide 45
At-Risk Populations
Special populations at risk for significant deficits in
social competency:
 Children with diagnosable disorders:

Internalizing Disorders

Externalizing Disorders

Autism Spectrum Disorders
 Children with disabilities (physical, learning, etc.)
 Children with a lack of resiliency
(read/paraphrase information on slide), then… SAY: a note about resiliency, studies have shown
that children with low resiliency who may not have positive adult role models benefit from the
support of at least one caring adult. Caring adult can be teacher, coach, principal, girl/boy scout
leader, etc. and it only takes one person to make positive and lasting impact.
Slide 46
Externalizing Disorders
Externalizing Disorders include:
 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
 Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD)
 Conduct Disorder (CD)
Each of these disorders is:
 Marked by acting-out (externalizing) behaviors
 Set apart from typical development by the intensity,
duration and frequency of such behaviors
(read/paraphrase information on slide), then… SAY: We will go over specific examples of
externalizing behaviors.
69
Slide 47
Externalizing Disorders: ADHD
Children with ADHD can experience social difficulties
due to excessive:
• Distractibility
• Hyperactivity
• Impulsivity
 These behaviors affect a child’s ability to observe,
understand, and respond to the social environment.
 Children with ADHD are often isolated and rejected from
their peers
(read/paraphrase information on slide), then…SAY: These behaviors are seen in small doses
among most children during development. Diagnosable when the behaviors have been present
since early childhood, across setting (school & home) and to a degree that it interferes with daily
functioning (academic, social etc.)
Slide 48
Externalizing Disorders: CD & ODD
Children with Conduct Disorder & Oppositional
Defiance Disorder can experience social difficulties
due to:
 Excessive aggression and hostility
 The use of inappropriate social problem-solving
strategies (e.g., aggressive actions) due misreading social
situations
 Peers reject these children frequently due to their
aggression and defiant rule-breaking behavior
(read/paraphrase information on slide)
SAY: The intensity and frequency of acting out behaviors negatively influence these children’s
ability to form relationships.
Supplemental information that can be used for clarification as desired:
Example of misreading social situation: A student laughs at a joke his friend told him and a
student with ODD interprets this as laughing at him. He approaches the students, yells at them
for laughing at him, and threatens to “beat them up.”
70
Slide 49
Internalizing Disorders
Internalizing Disorders include:
 Depression
 Anxiety
Each of these disorders is:
 Marked by patterns of less observable (internalized)
symptoms
 It is normal to experience depression & anxiety in smaller
doses, diagnosable disorders are set apart by their
intensity, duration and frequency
(read/paraphrase information on slide)
Supplemental information that can be used for clarification as desired:
Clarifying Internalizing symptoms—thoughts, worries and fears
Slide 50
Internalizing Disorders: Depression
Signs of depression include:
Excessively critical attitude about self or others
Feelings of incompetence and/or inadequacy
 Withdrawal from social situations
 Significant changes in eating or sleeping habits
 Chronic fatigue
 Refusal to accept advice, help or constructive criticism


 Many of these symptoms can directly impact a child’s
social functioning
(read/paraphrase information on slide) then…SAY: Many people experience depression at one
time or another, but when these feelings/behaviors persist and /or are severe enough to
interfere with daily functioning, outside help is needed
Supplemental information that can be used for clarification as desired:
Example of social impact: increased arguing with friends, withdrawal from social activities
71
Slide 51
Internalizing Disorders: Anxiety
Most Common Anxiety Disorders




Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Specific phobias (for example: school or social situations)
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
 Each of the above involve severe reactions of worry and fear
caused by situations or events that are typically perceived
as harmless.
 These worries and fears can become so consuming that
these students may avoid social situations and are unable to
build or maintain friendships.
read/paraphrase information on slide), then…
SAY: The extreme degree and frequency of the worry or fears is what sets it apart from the
normal anxiety that all people can experience.
SAY: Children with anxiety disorder can also experience school avoidance, physical symptoms
and an unrealistic need for perfection
Slide 52
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs)
Autism Spectrum Disorders include:
 Autism
 Asperger’s Syndrome
 Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise
Specified (PDD-NOS)
Each of these disorders is:
 Characterized by deficits in communication and social
functioning and patterns of stereotyped/ritualistic
behaviors
(read/paraphrase information on slide)
72
Slide 53
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs)
Social deficits among children with ASDs can include
difficulties with:
 Understanding social rules such as taking turns and
sharing
 Understanding and reading the emotions of others
 Taking the perspective of other people
 Initiating and maintaining interactions and conversations
with other people
(read/paraphrase information on slide), then…SAY: Children with ASDs may avoid eye contact
and often display behaviors that are perceived as “odd” by their peers, this can impact the social
success of these children. Please note that in your handout packet there is information about
working with all of the special populations that we have just discussed.
Slide 54
A note on diagnosable disorders…
Keep in mind that Internalizing, Externalizing and
Autistic Spectrum Disorders all range in severity and
often look quite different in different children.
Understanding the severity of a individual’s disorder
may help determine what level of social support or
intervention may be most appropriate.
(read/paraphrase information on slide) then…SAY: If you have students with any of the
mentioned diagnoses that have an IEP or 504 plan, reviewing their levels of functioning and
accommodations is essential in providing appropriate levels of support.
73
Slide 55
Conclusion
Keep in mind that most children, even those with
diagnosable disorders, who are struggling socially can
respond to core (school or classroom-wide) interventions
and targeted interventions…
Bottom Line:
These types of interventions should
always be tried first. YOU have the skills
and knowledge to use these interventions
and make a positive impact!
(read/paraphrase information on slide)
Slide 56
Questions/ Comments?
[INSERT PRESENTER NAME, TITLE AND
CONTACT INFORMATION]
(Ask for questions and point out your contact information that can be used later if
questions/concerns arise)
74
Slide 57
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76
APPENDIX B
PRESENTER’S MANUAL
77
Supporting Social Competency at School
Introduction
Developing social competency is instrumental to navigating the social and academic
world in school and beyond. Social competence is typically built as a part of social development
in childhood and adolescence. When a child possesses social competence, he or she is thought to
have the skills and knowledge necessary to successfully navigate the social world and to build
and maintain positive relationships with others. Successful peer relations can have a lasting
positive impact on the student’s self-esteem, ability to recover from stress and other setbacks, and
perception of school and learning (Doll, Zucker, & Brehm, 2004; Howard & Landau, 2010).
Research has demonstrated that social competence has a strong relationship with overall socialemotional well-being and positive peer group adjustment (Smith & Hart, 2005). Given this,
school-based interventions aimed at improving social competence may improve both
interpersonal relationships and internal well-being. The information is based on a literature
review performed between September and December of 2011.
Nature of the Presentation
The presentation is designed for an audience of teachers and other school staff who have
regular contact with students and regular opportunities to support and intervene with socially
struggling students. This training program is comprised of five stand-alone presentations that are
developmentally organized by grade groups from Pre-K to 12th grade. Each presentation is
designed to last for about 75 minutes. Interactive activities and audience participation are integral
aspects of all presentations. To successfully deliver these presentations, presenters should
incorporate presentation techniques such as encouraging and facilitating discussion, pausing for
questions, and validating input from participants. Being properly prepared before these
presentations is also important for successful training delivery. Preparing should include
78
familiarizing oneself with the content by thoroughly reading slides, presenter’s notes and citations
beforehand and also photocopying handouts for all participants. In addition, it is recommended
that presenters become familiar with the information cited and referenced at the end of the
presentation. The presenter’s name and contact information should be added to the first and last
presentation slides and the participant handouts before printing. It is especially important to
include contact information because participants may have questions or need clarification after
the presentation and should be able to contact the presenter later.
Guidance for Presenters
Each presentation in this training program was created as a series of Microsoft
PowerPoint slides. The presentations include prepared slides with the actual presentation content
and slide notes sections that provide further information for the presenter to help guide
presentation delivery. The presenter’s notes contain two types of information. In italics there are
two types of information. First, there is sample language to help guide the flow of the
presentation. When this type of information is included, the phrase, “sample language:”
precedes the suggested wording. The second type of information provided in italics is
supplemental information that clarifies and elaborates on the slide content. It is left up to the
discretion of the presenter how much of this information to share during the presentations. This
supplemental information may also be useful for presenters if members of the audience ask
questions about information on the slides. Certain information contained in the notes sections of
the slides should always be used when presenting. This content is always preceded with “SAY:”
and can be rephrased at the discretion of the presenter. Other information in the slide notes is
presented in plain text and is meant to instruct and guide the actual delivery of the presentation.
For example, on certain slides, bulleted text is shown gradually and a mouse/remote/pointer
“click” is needed to display the subsequent bullet or piece of information. The notes for these
79
slides contain reminders for presenters that a “click” is needed to continue displaying slide
content. Also, on each of the slides containing vignette activities, notes are provided for the
presenter to help structure each activity.
Handouts should be provided for all attendees. Copies of the PowerPoint slides (6 per
page) should be distributed to participants, as well as the supplemental handouts that can be found
in the appendices of this project. Appendix C contains a two-page handout about bibliotherapy,
which should be provided for those attending the Pre-Kindergarten-Kindergarten, Grades 1 – 2,
and Grades 3 – 5 presentations. Appendix D contains a three-page handout with specific
strategies and approaches for working with particular populations of students. This handout
should be included at all presentations. Lastly, Appendix E contains a sample referral form that
can be used by teachers and other school staff when they feel a student may need outside help
from a school psychologist. This handout is optional and the presenter can choose to include this
for any of the presentations.
To encourage audience participation throughout the presentations, there are several
informal audience participation opportunities in addition to the vignettes. One example is asking
audience members to raise hands to indicate whether they had encounter problems behaviors that
were presented. This should be done after reviewing the slide content.
Each presentation is designed to last approximately 75 minutes. A recommended
timeline for an individual training follows, using the Grades 3-5 as an example:
Slides
Topic
#1-9 Introduction and Outline
#10-12 What is Social Competency?
#13-23 Typical Development/
Signs of Dysfunction
#25-37 What Can I do to Help?
#38-41 Vignettes & Practice
#42-55 When to Refer/ Conclusions
Duration
5 minutes
5 minutes
15 minutes
20 minutes
15 minutes
15 minutes
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About the Authors
Catherine Teller and Danielle Harrington are school psychologist interns who both hold
Master’s degrees from California State University, Sacramento in School Psychology and
Bachelor of Arts degrees in Psychology from University of California, Santa Barbara. This
workshop was completed to satisfy part of the requirements of their Specialist in Education
(Ed.S) degrees.
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APPENDIX C
BIBLIOTHERAPY HANDOUT
82
Targeted Intervention: Bibliotherapy
What is it?
Bibliotherapy has been described as “the process of growing toward emotional good
health through the medium of literature” (Kramer & Smith, 1998). Essentially,
bibliotherapy involves using carefully selected books to normalize experiences, start
discussions, and indirectly model pro-social behaviors for children.
How is it done?
1) Prepare: Read the book on your own to make sure the content is appropriate for
your needs.
2) Plan Discussion Questions: These will probably come to mind when you first
read the book. Develop a list of open-ended questions. Having options to choose
from in the moment can enhance its efficacy. Also, some questions will work better
than others, so having several to choose from is helpful, but do not expect to get to all
of them.
General Question Example:
a. What are the characters feeling?
b. How do you feel about what just happened in the story/to the characters?
c. What would you do?
3) Read the Story: You can choose to read the book uninterrupted or questions can be
interspersed during the reading. If the story is read uninterrupted, questions can be
asked at the end.
4) Follow-Up: A variety of activities can be used to enhance the bibliotherapy process.
These academic can include art activities, creative writing, and role playing. Creative
writing activities could include re-writing the story from a specific character’s
perspective or writing a letter to a character in the book. Art activity ideas could
include drawing a picture of a favorite part of the story or a favorite character. Role
plays could be done to re-enact parts of the story or to show different ways that
problems in the story could have been solved.
Books by Topic:
Age/Grade ranges are meant to be a general guide, books may still be good selections
for groups outside the ages/grades listed. Read the book yourself to help decide
whether it may be a good match for the children you work with.
Friendship
 Join In and Play, by: Cheri J. Meiners (Ages 4-7)
 How to be a Friend, by: Laurie Kransy Brown & Marc Brown (Ages 4-8)
83





The Sandwich Swap, by: Her Majesty Queen Rania Al Abdullah (Ages 4-7)
Perro Grande…Perro Pequeno/Big Dog…Little Dog, by: PD Eastman (Ages 4-8)
Rosie and Michael, by: Judith Viorst (Ages 6 & up)
How to Lose All Your Friends, by: Nancy Carlson (Ages 4 & up)
Shy Charles, by: Rosemary Wells (Ages 5 & up)
Social Skills
 Share and Take Turns, by: Cheri Meiners (Ages 5-8)
 We Can Get Along: A Child’s Book of Choices, by: Lauren Murphy Payne (Ages 4-8)
 Eric Learns to Share, by: Chris Dear & Molly Corbett (Ages 4-7)
 My Mouth is a Volcano, by: Julia Cook (Ages 4-8)
 A Bad Case of Tattle Tongue, by: Julia Cook (Ages 4-7)
 Personal Space Camp, by: Julia Cook (Ages 4-7)
 Howard B. Wigglebottom Learns to Listen, by: Howard Binkow (Ages 4-8)
 Talk and Work it out, by: Cheri Meiners (Ages 4-8)
 Winners Never Quit, by: Mia Hamm (Ages 5 & up)
Feelings
 When Sophie Gets Angry-Really, Really Angry, by Molly Bang (Ages 4-8)
 How Are You Peeling? Foods with Moods, by: Saxton Freyman & Joost Elffers
(Ages 4-7)
 Sometimes I Feel Awful, by: Joan Singleton Prestine (Ages 5-8)
 Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day, by: Judith Viorst
(Ages 4-8)
 Wemberly Worried, by: Kevin Henkes (Ages 5 & up)
 Lizzy’s Ups and Down, by: Jessica Harper (Ages 3-9)
Bullying/Teasing
 One, by: Kathryn Otoshi (Ages 4 & up)
 Big Bad Bruce, by: Bill Peet (Ages 4-8)
 Chester’s Way, by: Kevin Henkes (Ages 5-7)
 Hooway for Wodney Wat!, by Helen Lester (Ages 5 & up)
 Chrysanthemum, by: Kevin Henkes (Ages 4 & up)
 Super Emma, by Sally Warner (Grades 2-4)
 Dog Sense, by Sneed B. Collard (Grades 5-8)
 The Revealers, by Doug Wilhelm (Grades 5-8)
84
APPENDIX D
SUPPORTING STUDENT SOCIAL COMPETENCY:
SPECIAL POPULATIONS
85
Supporting Student Social Competency: Special
Populations
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):
● Structure and routine: Students with ADHD respond well to structure and routine.
Establish consistent expectations and predictable routines to prevent problem
behavior, and periodically review both for all students (e.g., what to do when
entering/exiting the room, appropriate behavior outside the classroom,
organization of supplies, and where homework assignments are written down).
● Problem-solving: Students with ADHD struggle with planning, organization, and
self-regulation. Younger students may need explicit instruction of problem-solving
and behavior regulation strategies. Guided practice and cueing to reinforce
behavior may also be needed. In secondary years, students may continue to need
cueing and they should be encouraged to personalize the strategies that have been
are most effective for them.
● Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement of using prosocial problem-solving
strategies is an essential part of the student recognizing and internalizing
appropriate behavior. A behavior chart can help track progress (if needed).
Reinforcement examples include:
o Approving nonverbal cues (e.g, smile, thumbs-up, nod) or physical cue (e.g., high-five)
o Verbal praise naming the behavior (e.g., “I like how you suggested taking turns. That was
a good decision because it’s safe and respectful.”)
o Classroom job (e.g., messenger, passing out papers, erasing board)
o Positive mark on behavior chart (e.g., sticker, star, circling “excellent”)
o Access to preferred activities (e.g., reading a book, playing with a toy, using the computer)
o Earn rewards at home (agreed upon in advance with parents)
● Hyperactivity: Transtions can be difficult for students who have difficulty staying
still. Consider providing the student with ideas for appropriate activities to do
during “waiting” time in order to prevent behavior problems (e.g., playing “20
questions” in the lunch line or drawing a picture during transitions in class).
Oppositional Defiance Disorder & Conduct Disorder
Due the severe behaviors associated with these disorders, students with these diagnoses
will likely need more intensive support, provided by behavior or mental health
professionals. Consult with these specialists for individualized recommendations.
Autism Spectrum Disorders:
● Clear expectations: Talk to the entire class about rules and behavioral
expectations. Use concrete examples of what expected behaviors “look like” and
“sound like,” providing them with sample phrasing. Classrooms rules and
expectations should be visible at all times. Because students with autism respond
well to visual cues, using pictures/icons illustrating rule are recommended.
● Triggers: Avoid possible behavior problems by becoming familiar with the
student’s sensory needs and “triggers” for outbursts. When possible, adapt the
86
classroom environment to accommodate sensory needs. Consider creating a “safe
space” for the student to go to when stressed. It is important that this space not be
associated with punishment.
● Ask about sharing information: Ask students on the autism spectrum whether they
would like to share information with other students about their diagnosis, and, if
so, how they would want to go about sharing this information.
● Social comfort level: Find out the student’s preferences for group activities or
social interaction (e.g., favorite and least favorite activities, number of students
they are comfortable working with on an activity).
● Incorporate structured socialization: Establish routines for socialization to
provide structured opportunities for students to practice social skills (e.g., taking a
moment for students to greet each other in the morning).
● Encourage sharing: Many students with autism spectrum disorders have
particular interests that they enjoy talking about. Encourage students to share
their knowledge with each other, tutor others, or join clubs related to their
interests. You may also want to develop activities or academic assignments relating
to these interests.
● Be aware of possible anxiety: It is common for students with autism spectrum
disorders to experience anxiety, especially in secondary years. Recommendations
below under Anxiety Disorders may also be appropriate for these students.
Anxiety Disorders
● Signs of anxiety: Try to recognize when the student is experiencing anxiety. Signs
may include: avoiding classroom participation, tests, or coming to school; poor
memory (i.e.,“freezing up”) especially on tests, and reports of physical symptoms
(e.g., headaches, nausea). Remember: students with anxiety often try very hard to
appear as though they are “holding it together,” but in reality they may be
experiencing extreme internal distress.
● Safe environment: Establish a nonjudgmental and accepting classroom
environment. Model and talk about positive ways you handle stress (e.g., exercise,
humor).
● Triggers: Try to find out what “triggers” your student’s anxiety or emotional
distress. This may involve asking the parents, counselor, or previous teacher (if
possible), or check the student’s cumulative file. If triggers are unknown, note what
happens right before and after the student exhibits emotional distress.
● Performance anxiety: Some students with anxiety tend to be overly concerned
with grades, performance on tests, etc., and/or may “shut down.” Emphasize the
process of learning rather than test performance or grades. Keep in mind that the
social environment of the classroom can be intimidating for these students.
● Avoidance: If students with anxiety experience (or anticipate experiencing) failure
or an unpleasant situation, they may avoid the situation rather than to use
problem-solving to approach it. Work with the parents, school psychologist, and
the student (at the secondary level) to develop a plan for reasonable expectations
and goals with small, achievable steps.
87
● Modifications: Depending on the needs and triggers of the student, modify
expectations for attendance, group work, and oral presentations. Consider creating
a “safe space” at school (e.g., in counselor’s office) where the student can go
temporarily if anxious.
● Response to distress: If a student appears to be experiencing lower levels of
distress, support his/her attempts to problem solve independently. Use a calm
voice and encourage the student to express what is going on. Validate feelings, and
coach/ cue coping strategies as necessary (e.g., taking deep breaths, asking for a
break, thinking of solutions). If anxiety is more severe, contact the school
psychologist/counselor and parents.
Depression
● Develop a relationship: Don’t be afraid to talk with depressed students, try to build
a working relationship. Although it may seem otherwise, depressed students are
often looking for someone who cares about them. Use positive approaches and
don’t give up on the depressed student. DO NOT use punishment, sarcasm or other
negative techniques, because these can reinforce feelings of incompetence.
● Remember, depression is not a choice: Depressed students want to feel better and
they are not choosing to feel the way they do. Students with depression need extra
caring, help and support.
● Provide opportunities for success: When possible, arrange for activities and
experiences that you know the student will experience success with and can be
recognized for this success. It is very important that depressed students feel a
“part” of the class and feel that their teachers believe in them.
● Threats of self-harm: If a student makes threats of imminent self-harm,
immediately call the school psychologist or counselor. If no mental health
professionals are on site, call an administrator. Do NOT leave the student alone,
even for a minute, unless you are in imminent danger.
88
APPENDIX E
INITIAL CONSULTATION REQUEST FORM
89
Initial Consultation Request Form
Student’s Name: _______________________________ Grade: _______________
Teacher/ Room #: ______________________________ Date: ________________
______________________________________________________________________
What are the main areas of concern regarding the student? (check all that apply):
Academic____
Behavioral____
Social____
Emotional____
Family stressors____
Please provide a detailed description of your concerns (e.g., specific academic subjects,
behaviors, comments. For behaviors, what does the behavior “look” like?):
What have you tried already to address these concerns? (e.g., academic interventions,
environmental adjustments/ accommodations, one-on-one discussions with student,
contacting parents, social skills instruction)
What are the student’s strengths?
What services do you think the student could benefit from?
What is the best time to observe?______ What is the best time to speak with you?_____
Please return the completed form to the school psychologist’s box. Thank you!
Adapted from Mt. Diablo Unified School District
90
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