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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In their earliest years, stadiums in the United States were not as grandiose as they
are today, but were temporary wooden structures built and deconstructed as needed.
Permanent structures became more common by the end of the nineteenth century, though
they were made out of wood and liability was extremely high. After fires damaged and
sometimes destroyed numerous ballparks, the tradition of wooden construction was
abandoned for concrete and steel. (Trumpbour, 2006).
In their early years, stadiums and arenas were often privately funded by
businessmen and developers, and college campuses funded their own facilities through
donations. Public subsidies were not viewed as an effective means of construction until
the 1950s with the construction of Milwaukee County Stadium. The Braves’ move from
Boston to Milwaukee in 1953 demonstrated public funding of baseball facilities was
feasible and could improve profitability, creating a momentum for a construction boom.
The Braves’ move was followed by the Brooklyn Dodgers’ and New York Giants’
westward move to Los Angeles, CA and San Francisco, CA, respectively (Trumpbour,
2006).
The 1960s and 1970s saw the construction of notable facilities such as Shea
Stadium, the Houston Astrodome, Qualcomm Stadium, the Louisiana Superdome, Busch
Stadium, and Three Rivers Stadium. Such facilities were circular in design and not ideal
for football or baseball spectatorship. Many individuals regarded the facilities as
futuristic, reflecting the emerging space program and arms race; New York’s Shea
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Stadium was designed to emulate the architectural grandeur of the Roman Coliseum in a
setting offering modern amenities. Construction slowed in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Renovations occurred at several existing facilities, while construction of Minneapolis’
Metrodome in 1982 and Indianapolis’ Hoosierdome in 1984 were considered anomalies
(Trumpbour, 2006).
Luxury seating became more popular by the 1990s as teams were charging more
than $100,000 a year for private seats, and this money did not have to be shared either the
teams’ municipal landlords or with their fellow owners. This could translate into millions
of dollars a year in team profits considering there are upwards of two hundred boxes in
some of the newest stadiums. This idea is reflected in the construction of Baltimore’s
Camden Yards, Cincinnati’s Paul Brown Stadium and Great American Ball Park
(deMause & Cagan, 2008), and Philadelphia’s Wachovia Center (Frank, Lopez, &
Santana, Fall 1998).
Visiting a stadium was not always a matter of spectatorship as many facilities
provided programs for the public. Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego, CA hosted a variety
of programs such as OMBAC Rugby and RaceLegal, a legal street racing program
designed to curb illegal street racing ("Qualcomm Stadium," 2008). The Hubert H.
Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis, MN hosts a variety of civic events such as the
Minnesota State High School League Prep Bowl ("Minnesota State High School
League," 2008), the Youth in Music Marching Band Competition ("Youth in Music,"
2008), the Hmong American New Year Celebration ("Hmong American New Year Inc.,"
2008), Dome Running ("MDRA Dome Running," 2008), and Rollerdome
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("RollerDome," 2008). Stadiums have come a long way from their humble beginnings,
but this has not come without controversy.
Need for the study
The use of public subsidies continued in to the 1990s, but slowed toward the end
of the century. With bonds for many civic stadium projects of the 1960s were due to
expire in the 1990s, team owners were left with the knowledge that competing owners
were pushing their host cities to construct new stadiums to exploit new economic
opportunities (Trumpbour, 2006). This led to the boom in stadium construction, including
the Wachovia Center in Philadelphia, PA. At the time, the Wachovia Center was
projected to last over fifty years (Frank, et al., Fall 1998); however, history has shown not
all facilities last as long as projected.
The Miami Arena was completed in 1988 and became the home of the NBA’s
Miami Heat and the University of Miami’s NCAA Basketball Team; the NHL Florida
Panthers became an occupant five years later. Built for a low price of $52 million, the
facility had a capacity of 14,696; however, the Heat and Panthers soon complained it did
not offer revenue-generating suites. The Panthers moved to another facility in 1998,
followed by the Heat in 2000 ("Investor pays $28-million for fading Miami Arena,"
August 12, 2004). The facility sat vacant, garnering the nickname of ‘pink elephant’,
until its demolition in 2008 ("Drivers - Beware demolition of Miami Arena," 2008).
Ballparks once seen as holy grounds of leisure and places of father-son bonding
are now perceived as irreverent places of taxpayer waste providing little or nothing to the
public. San Franciscans consistently denied providing money to improve Candlestick
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Park, while the tenants of the Metrodome in Minneapolis, MN found numerous obstacles
in attempting to fund new facilities (Trumpbour, 2006). A coalition in Oceanside, CA
called a proposed Chargers stadium fiscally irresponsible; the Chargers dropped plans to
construct in Oceanside ("Go Away Chargers," 2007). In early 2009, hundreds of residents
of Fremont, CA protested the proposed construction of a ballpark for the Oakland A’s;
the A’s dropped these plans shortly after the protest (Artz, February 6, 2009). Also in
early 2009, the City of Industry, CA accepted an environmental plan for a proposed $800
million professional football stadium; however, neighboring Diamond Bar, CA and
Walnut, CA oppose the project over concerns of traffic, noise, and pollution (McLain,
February 26, 2009).
Sacramento, CA is one city that was able to avoid the politics of constructing a
stadium with public subsidies. The privately-funded ARCO Arena I was opened in 1985
for the Sacramento Kings arrival from Kansas City, MO, serving as a temporary facility
until ARCO Arena II’s opening in 1988 (McCormack, 1989). As other cities continued to
build new stadiums and arenas, ARCO Arena continued to provide Sacramento a place to
see the Sacramento Kings, the circus, concerts, and other shows. This changed after the
turn of the century as city leaders began exploring the possibility of building a new arena
in the downtown area with the use of public subsidies. The first serious attempt came
with the proposed revitalization of Sacramento’s old railyard into a commercial and
residential district; however, voters overwhelming voted down the possible use of public
subsidies to fund an arena at that site (Fund, 2006).
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While it has been shown Sacramento residents don’t want to pay for an arena, it is
unclear whether they desire one and how they perceive stadiums and arenas in general.
The impact of programs for the public is also unclear. It appears the public enjoys
programs such as Rollerdome and RaceLegal, but there is no literature to suggest this is
the case or to indicate how the program may potentially influence the perception of
stadiums and arena.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to examine the perception Sacramento’s elected
officials hold regarding a new Sacramento arena, and to evaluate how that perception
may change if recreation programs for the public were offered at the facility.
Research questions
In examining the perception Sacramento’s elected officials hold regarding a new
Sacramento arena, and evaluating how that perception may change if recreation programs
for the public were offered at the facility, the following questions must be answered:
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What is the general history of stadiums in America?
What recreation and leisure programs, if any, are currently provided at stadiums
and arenas in America?
What is the history of sports and entertainment complexes in Sacramento?
What is the history of urban expansion in Sacramento?
What is the history of Sacramento’s move to build a new arena in the last decade?
Would offering public programs aid in the push to build a new arena in
Sacramento?
Definitions of key terms
ARCO Arena is the name to identify the major sports complex in Sacramento, CA. It was
renamed Power Balance Pavilion in 2011.
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Arena see Stadia/Stadium
Cal Expo is the name for the California Exposition & State Fair site in Sacramento, CA.
LULU is an acronym used to define locally unwanted land uses.
MLB is a set of initials identifying Major League Baseball, a professional baseball league
in the United States.
NBA is a set of initials identifying the National Basketball Association, a professional
basketball league within the United States.
NFL is a set of initials identifying the National Football League, a professional football
league within the United States.
NHL is a set of initials identifying the National Hockey League, a professional hockey
league within the United States.
NIMBY is an acronym used to define the not in my backyard philosophy and
phenomenon.
North Natomas is an area north of downtown Sacramento.
Stadia/Stadium refers to a facility generally reflecting the original Greek term stadion,
meaning ‘the standing place’. The earliest stadiums contained only enough seats for
judges and a few dignitaries, and were built in close proximity to an altar. The stadium
evolved in to what would become Panathenaic Stadium in Athens and the Roman
Coliseum. In the United States, stadiums began as temporary wooden structures, evolving
in to permanent wooden structures, followed by brick and concrete structures, to the steel
structures seen today.
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Delimitations
Delimitations of this study were as follows:
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Only current and previous elected officials, holding office at or prior to January
2010, representing the Sacramento region at a City, County, or State level were
eligible to participate in the study.
The study was performed between February 2010 and November 2010.
The study does not focus on stadiums and arenas outside of the United States.
Limitations
Limitations of this study were as follows:
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Availability of prospective participants was limited.
Study was performed during an election year.
Developments in Sacramento’s arena issue were ongoing and ever-changing by
the day.