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C.R.O.W. ADDING DRAMA TO A LANGUAGE ARTS CLASS
Edward Bennett Larson
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 1994
Jamie VanDemeir
B.S., University of Texas, Austin, 1999
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degrees of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
EDUCATION
(Curriculum and Instruction)
and
MASTER OF ARTS
in
EDUCATION
(Special Education)
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
FALL
2010
`
C.R.O.W. ADDING DRAMA TO A LANGUAGE ARTS CLASS
A Project
by
Edward Bennett Larson
Jamie VanDemeir
Approved by:
__________________________________, Joint Chair
Elisa Michals, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Joint Chair
Rachael Gonzàles, Ed.D.
_____________________________
Date
ii
`
Students:
Edward Bennett Larson
Jamie VanDemeir
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and
credit is to be awarded for the project.
___________________________, Department Chair ___________________
Rita Johnson, Ed.D.
Date
Department of Teacher Education
___________________________, Department Chair ___________________
Bruce A. Ostertag, Ed.D.
Date
Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, School Psychology, and Deaf Studies
Degree and Credential Programs
iii
`
Abstract
of
C.R.O.W. ADDING DRAMA TO A LANGUAGE ARTS CLASS
by
Edward Bennett Larson
Jamie VanDemeir
Students lack motivation to write. One strategy that can be incorporated to
motivate students to write is to use Drama strategies. Drama strategies infused into the
English classroom foster enthusiasm for the written word. The researchers in a
combination special and regular education class of twenty students tested the infusion of
a drama strategy over a three-week period. A pre and post survey about their attitudes
about writing was administered. The post survey showed an improvement in their
motivation to write. If incorporated, the use of drama strategies in the classroom has the
potential to improve motivation to write on a grand scale.
_______________________, Joint Chair
Elisa Michals, Ph.D.
_______________________, Joint Chair
Rachael Gonzàles, Ed.D.
iv
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To our advisors: Drs. David Raske, Elisa Michals, and Rachel Gonzales, we are
grateful for your critical eye and attention to detail. We appreciate the hard work,
dedication, patience, perseverance, thoughtfulness, care, and concern. Without your
support, this endeavor would not have been possible.
To our family, friends, and colleagues, we thank you for your time and wisdom.
Your patience and understanding was needed and appreciated. If it takes a community to
raise and shape a child; you have certainly helped us shape this baby.
v
`
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................v
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 1
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................... 1
Statement of Collaboration .......................................................................... 2
Methods......................................................................................................... 4
Limitation .......................................................................................................6
Definition of Terms........................................................................................6
Project Organization ......................................................................................7
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..................................................................... 9
Review of Research ...................................................................................... 9
Brain-Body Literature ................................................................................. 27
3. DATA ANALYSIS........................................................................................... 35
4. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS ......................................................... 38
Conclusion ...................................................................................................39
Summary ......................................................................................................43
Recommendations ........................................................................................44
Appendices ...................................................................................................................46
Appendix A: Lesson Plans and Worksheets ........................................................ 47
Appendix B: Surveys and Results ....................................................................... 53
References ...................................................................................................................55
vi
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The terms ‘project’ and ‘study’ are interchangeable throughout this document.
They refer to the researchers’ goal of using a dramatic strategy to motivate student
writings. The terms ‘researcher’ and ‘author’, in kind, represent the same two individuals
responsible for the creation and presentation of this project.
Statement of the Problem
Students lack motivation to write. Individual student surveys and teacher
observations revealed that students are not motivated to write due to previous writing
failure and a fear of exposing their feelings. Students feel that writing is a mystery;
therefore, they would rather give up than risk failure.
Purpose of the Study
Can the infusion of the arts into the curriculum improve student achievement and
success? The answer is yes. Moreover, there are studies and legislation that support the
arts. This public acknowledgement of the arts as ‘core’ to education was a meaningful
step. It symbolized what Eloquent Evidence described as a consensus among policy
makers and parents that the arts should become an integral part of education (Murfee,
1998). Legislation in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) also gave the arts equal
billing with reading, math, science, and other disciplines as ‘core academic subjects.’
This can contribute to improved student learning outcomes. However, teachers who are
reluctant to use drama as a teaching strategy can infuse and maintain the use of the arts
into their curriculum in a simple format known in the theatre world as C.R.O.W. [C=
2
Character Traits; R= Relationship to self and others; O= Objective-what does the
character want; and W= Where and when is the character(s) trapped].
This project will address: (1) Why are high school teachers hesitant to incorporate
drama as a teaching strategy?; (2) What factors contribute to the reluctance of using
drama in the classroom. Do students need a specific skill set that requires more training?
Is there a lack of teacher training? Is Drama regarded as a serious teaching method? Do
teachers’ see potential control issues? Is there enough time given the curriculum
pressures?; (3) Why is drama an important tool for the classroom teacher? What are the
benefits of drama in the high school setting? How does drama relate to skill
development?
Statement of Collaboration
This project was conducted at Golden Sierra High School (GSHS), a small school
located in the foothills leading into the Sierra Nevada, by one mild-moderate credentialed
Special Education teacher and one single subject credentialed Language Arts teacher. At
the time of this project, both GSHS teachers were enrolled in the Masters Program at
CSU Sacramento. This project was inspired by Linda Beuttner, a employee of the Folsom
Cordova Unified School District. Two years prior, the Language Arts instructor at GSHS
invited Linda Beuttner to teach a lesson to his freshman English students. Linda used the
C.R.O.W. drama strategy as the foundation of her lesson. The Language Arts teacher
noticed that the students participated in a calm and relaxed, engaged and enthusiastic
manner; students from all levels of the academic spectrum were focused, collaborating,
and problem solving; students that were relatively shy were now participating, and they
3
being heard by their fellow students. The researcher was impressed with the level of
participation.
Ms. Beuttner started with a couple of warm-up activities to break the ice with the
students. After these activities, she had the students sit at their desks and look at a picture
on the overhead. She then asked the students to assign Character traits to the images on
the screen. Next, the students were asked to describe the Relationship to the other
characters in the scene. Then, the Objective of each character was determined. Finally,
the Where and When of the scene was determined. Thus, the acronym C.R.O.W. was
demonstrated in the researcher’s classroom. Soon, another picture was placed on the
overhead and the students broke off into groups of four. While in their groups, students
followed the C.R.O.W. method (as mentioned above). This time each student/writer
added dialogue for each character shown on the overhead. While the researcher observed
the teams at work, the researcher was impressed at the level of involvement, the
brainstorming, laughter, negotiating, and camaraderie. After Linda Beuttner departed, the
researcher realized that the researcher was not addressing the needs of his students. Thus,
to meet the needs of his students the researcher have decided to research the use of
C.R.O.W. in his classroom over the period of two weeks to see if this method can truly
motivate his students to write.
In the fall of 2008 the researcher was given a combination class. The combination
class consisted of eight regular education students and twelve special education students.
The special education teacher wanted to study the use of C.R.O.W. method to see if it
4
could motivate the special education students as well. Together, the researchers are
studying the little known C.R.O.W. method and its ability to motivate students to write.
Methods
Although there are many drama strategies that can be infused into a Language
Arts classroom, the authors will study and use a drama strategy called C.R.O.W. “C”
stands for character traits. “R” stands for a characters relationship to him/herself and
other characters in the literature. “O” stands for objective; also, what the character wants
from another person or situation. “W” stands for where and when the scene takes place.
The C.R.O.W. strategy can enhance literature studies or can create characters for original
pieces of writing. This method is similar to Whitney’s “Mom Dad Buddy and Sis Stories:
A Drama and Fiction Writing Workshop,” (Whitney, 2006) which is described in detail
in the section entitled Focus, Motivation, and Empowerment.
A pre-survey was conducted to determine the students’ attitudes about writing.
Then, in order to create a safe environment, the Language Arts researcher spent several
weeks using drama strategies to warm up the students for performance in front of their
peers. These strategies came from The Drama Game File by Jonas Basom. Once the
students felt comfortable the researcher implemented the C.R.O.W. method. A template
the researchers used to organize the students is located in the Appendices. You will find
the lesson plan, forms used in the C.R.O.W. method as well as student reflections, and
guidelines/strategies [see Appendix A].
After the students developed their characters they began the process of creating
dialogue for a 90 second scene they would produce in front of the class. Because several
5
weeks of using drama strategies helped prepare the students to stand up in front of their
peers and perform was implemented, this activity was less frightening to the students.
Creating dialogue was done in one 70 minute class period. Once the students created the
dialogue, they were given another 70 minute class period to rehearse. On the third day
students performed their skits. The students were able to complete these dialogues from
memory. Upon completing the lesson plan a post survey was distributed to the class.
The researchers job was to help shape the storylines by having the students use
the five journalistic questions: who, what, when, where and why. This forced students to
find answers demanded of them to push the story to a conclusion. Though speaking and
writing in roles, students use language to voice their concerns about the predicaments that
the characters they are playing find themselves in. During breaks in the drama, students
step out of role and reflect upon their experiences through discussion and/or writing.
During that reflection time they are challenged to think, talk and write about their own
assumptions about the characters and events in the story (Gould Lundy, 2005).
Upon completing the lesson plan, a post survey was distributed to the class. The
interest in writing increased for students who are ‘willing’ to write on a daily basis while
those who are ‘unwilling’ demonstrated a decline. The post survey showed that students
are motivated more to write after utilizing the C.R.O.W. method. The C.R.O.W. method
also contributed to some students feeling that writing helps make them a better person as
well as assists them in explaining things to others.
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Limitation
This study was conducted in one combination ninth grade Language Arts class.
The ‘combination’ consisted of eight regular education and twelve special education
students. One mild-moderate credentialed Special Education teacher and one single
subject credentialed Language Arts teacher conducted the study. The researchers believe
this lesson could be improved by teaching it in multiple classrooms across the various
disciplines. For example, a History class might benefit from doing an in-depth character
study of Winston Churchill, or a Science class taking on the characteristics of various
interactions between chemical compounds might be of interest. To then do a survey
across the disciplines could give researchers a broader perspective of the C.R.O.W.
method’s impact.
Definition of Terms
Definitions for the following terms are provided to clarify the reader’s understanding of
the project, findings and conclusions.
1-ACTIVE LEARNING is a process-centered approach to composing and
communicating; it is demonstrated by students freely discussing their own writing with
others.
2-CORE is the unification of 9th grade curriculum between science, physical education
and English classes at Golden Sierra High School.
3-C.R.O.W. “C” stands for character traits. “R” stands for a characters relationship to
him/herself and other characters in the literature. “O” stands for objective; also, what the
7
character wants from another person or situation. “W” stands for where and when the
scene takes place.
4-EXPERIENCIAL LEARNING is when students learn, build language and skills by
doing.
5-REGULAR EDUCATION is the process of teaching and learning in school for those
students who do not have an identified learning disability.
6-SPECIAL EDUCATION implies the differentiated education of students who have an
identified learning disability.
Project Organization
Chapter 2 will review literature to support this project, the researchers’ findings
and conclusions. It will include a review of: (1) research related to drama and skill
development as well as the reluctance of teachers to incorporate drama as a teaching
strategy; and (2) brain-body literature identifying the effects of brain functions, learning
models, and nutrition on learning and learning deficits.
In Chapter 3 the researchers analyze student data. They evaluate the pre- and postsurvey questions to establish a correlation for comparison. They also provide an in-depth
description and analysis of students’ responses to both pre- and post-surveys. A verbal
analysis is provided in Chapter 3; visual charts are provided in the Appendices section.
Chapter 4 identifies the researchers’ findings and interpretations. Students’
achievement and success are described. Conclusions about the use and benefits of
dramatic strategies on learning and brain-body development are provided. The reluctance
of teachers to use drama in the classroom is discussed. Recommendations are described.
8
Finally, the researchers summarize their view on the value of drama as a teaching
strategy.
9
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Review of Research
Why don’t High School Teachers Incorporate Drama as a Teaching Strategy?
Research confirms the benefits of drama as a motivating factor, so why are
teachers reluctant to incorporate drama? "There's a lot of fear and trepidation about
teaching drama, though the payoffs are huge," affirms Kathleen Gould Lundy (2003), a
drama consultant and coordinator for the Toronto District School Board. Where does the
fear come from, and can it be alleviated for those teachers who want to experience the
payoffs for themselves?
Teachers may be reluctant to use 'drama' activities in classrooms for various
reasons: they don't know how to use the activities; they have limited resources; time
constraints; a fear of looking and feeling foolish. Generally these feelings are more
prevalent when attempting to use drama with adults. While teachers of young children
tend to use more play, games and drama type activities since the children are closer to the
‘play and explore’ stage of development. It helps that children are much more receptive
to any kind of ‘make-believe’ or drama type activity than are adults. Of course this is not
always the case and it would depend on the cultural values, the ability of the children, and
varying social factors. Would adults and teachers feel more comfortable with dramatic
activities if they understood the broad definition of ‘drama’ as a variety of techniques that
incorporate physical movement, vocal action, and mental concentration?
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Elementary teachers don't always have time or money to pursue drama training,
even if this could help directly with core subjects and course overload. High school
drama specialists may offer opportunities for collaboration with other departments but
these are not easy to timetable, and the purchase of computers competes for funds with
the drama department.
A “fear factor” is a lack of arts training among generalist teachers. Teachers from
all sectors of the profession need training and the statistics on the importance of drama in
the classroom. In addition, Lushington stated, "We had only one class at college telling us
that drama was an effective teaching tool…” (2005). Even if a teacher is trained, not
every in-service teacher will have the confidence to act in role during class time and
many feel intimidated by the use of dramatic techniques. Matt Duggan is a high school
teacher of English, ESL and special education at Harbord Collegiate in Toronto. "I used
to think I wouldn't ask my students to do anything I was uncomfortable doing when I was
a kid. Then I realized I was a very uncomfortable kid so there was not a lot we'd be able
to do” (Lushington, 2003). However, teachers attempting drama on their own can be a
source of discomfort because it can challenge traditional ideas of classroom control
(Lushington, 2003). Prior to a drama scene, the classroom environment of students
engaged in loud and active behaviors can be viewed as off-task, chaos. However, upon
closer observation, teachers may find that students are engaged, on task, collaborating,
problem solving, negotiating, navigating through multiple layers of meaning, and having
fun.
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Overcoming the Fear of Using Drama in English Language Teaching (ELT)
concentrated on the reluctance that was observed in English Language teachers of adults
when drama activities were introduced (Royka, 2002). Although research indicated that
the majority of instructors who teach English as a foreign/second language (EFL/ESL)
use drama or communicative activities often and regularly, the following comments
addressed the resistance ELT teachers displayed after having completed a drama
workshop, then applied dramatic strategies in EFL/ESL classes for the first time. In
addition to the problems encountered, Judith Gray Royka, Charlyn Wessels, Alans Maley
and Duff offer suggestions on how to overcome the expressed limiting thoughts or
experiences.
1) I am not a drama expert.
Many teachers felt that they could not approach drama activities without being a
trained actor. They felt, at times, they would not either know what to do or would not be
able to properly explain the purpose of the activity even if even provided activities in a
book that were clearly explained.
Suggestions: Few communications or drama activity books assumed that a drama expert
is using it. Most books are ‘user friendly’ in explaining activities and their purposes.
Many of the popular drama games books target teachers of other subjects and focus on
enhancing or extending lessons, not teaching drama. Wessels book Drama offered a view
of drama used in ELT settings, yet could be used by any teacher interested in using drama
activities in the classroom. Wessels focused on using drama for teaching: the course
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book; four skills of reading, writing, speaking/pronunciation and listening; oral
communication skills; and how to stage a full-scale play in the target language (Wessels,
1987). The teachers who ‘don't know what to do with drama’ can easily choose a few
games and start slow in their own style of teaching.
2) I wouldn't want to risk looking silly in front of a class of students.
This is an extension of the first problem and was reflective of a teacher feeling
unprepared for performing in front of a group. Teachers and students could be reluctant
to take a risk and try using a drama activity for fear of looking and feeling silly. This can
be a big barrier for all individuals, despite status.
Suggestions: Building a relationship of mutual trust between teacher and students is
important. Establishing a comfortable and free thought-sharing environment will assist in
the success of dramatic strategies. Drama demands enthusiasm. It is dependent on neither
teacher nor student feeling ‘at risk’ as well as on all individuals being willing to change
roles and status to achieve the aims of the lesson. The teacher should not be seen as
‘performing’ drama to the class; instead, all members should create the experience
together. For a teacher just starting to use drama in a classroom it is important to start
slow, perhaps begin with a few warm-up games or role play that everyone accepts and
uses comfortably, before moving into more intense drama activity. If the teacher is not
comfortable with the activity, the activity probably should not be tried (Wessels, 1987).
Drama is also credited with attempts to restore language with forgotten emotional content
and body. This implies that teachers and students need to take more account of meaning;
13
it does not imply that individuals should begin leaping about the room in an exaggerated
manner (Maley and Duff, 1978/1982).
3) Drama is just playing and is not a serious study method for learning English.
Instructors can be wary of focusing too much on ‘drama’ and not the real subject;
English. Some traditional style teachers are afraid they will appear unprofessional and
will risk being fired if they focus their lessons on 'playing' instead of serious study. Some
language teachers only feel comfortable using the course textbooks and feel that drama
activities could take away from ‘role modeling’ a proper relationship with language.
There was also an issue of control. A class of 25 students who were working in groups on
a drama activity could be a nightmare for a leader who wants to control the timing,
language use, and focus of the unit.
Suggestions: Ask the question --Why are so many teachers reluctant to use drama if it
can really enrich the language class?--then contemplate the array of possible answers:
1- Many teachers may think of drama as 'theatricals', because this is their only experience
with it. In this case, the fault lies not with the individual teacher, but with the training that
presented education as the one-way transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the
student, rather than the creation of a learning situation in which the student is also the
‘teacher.,’ (Wessels, 1987)
2- For some teachers the term drama conjures ideas of acting, performing and creating
school plays. The training these teachers received may have altered their view of what
14
‘education’ should be as well as what drama strategies can be. Perhaps if teachers had a
chance to see drama in action their resistance would lessen.
3- Teachers who feel most comfortable using a textbook as the focus for language
learning could use drama in a limited way in order to bring the text more authenticity.
Often the text alone is not enough to provide the students with ‘real life’ practice in the
language they are learning.
4- Evaluating a lesson that incorporated drama techniques can be another trigger that
steers teachers away from using drama in the classroom. The main objective can lie in
creating a clearly defined rubric that is easily understood by teachers and students.
5- Loss of control is a fear for any teacher in any setting. Using a drama activity with a
large class can seem like chaos if all students are not engaged in the lesson. If the
relationship between the teacher and students is well established and other
communicative games have been used to promote group cohesion, the whole class could
be involved in a drama activity. Large group drama activities can be ideal. More students
have the chance to engage in an array of language use and interact in different settings
that can be created in one space. These kinds of group drama activities can develop better
language use as well as provide teachers more observation time and less direct teaching
time.
15
4) I don't have time to prepare the lesson from the student book and come up with some
drama games too.
Teachers who were willing to try some drama games and activities were often
frustrated with the materials needed as well as the time it took to understand a game and
be able to lead it well. A lack of drama resources can make the situation even more
frustrating. The type of drama resources for specific populations can also become
challenging. Some resources are based on theatre arts or materials for having students put
on ‘plays’ in class. This type of drama activity can be very time consuming and fruitless
due to some of the limitations originally cited: lack of resources, time constraints.
Suggestions: A basic knowledge of communication activities that can be added to any
lesson can be a huge help for all teachers. A warm-up that leads into the lesson does not
have to be a complicated ‘drama’ lesson; instead, a way to get the class working together,
awake and focused on the topic. In using the course materials, teachers can find many
drama techniques to make the course book more communicative and 'alive' for students.
If the instructor has these techniques in mind while preparing the actual lesson, then little
to no extra planning time may be needed. Wessels (1987) suggested the following
considerations when developing lesson plans that involve drama activities and learning a
new language:
1- Drama activities can help teachers to achieve 'reality' in several ways. They can
help students overcome their resistance to learning a new language by:
a. making the an enjoyable experience;
b. setting realistic targets in which students can aim;
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c. creatively 'slowing down' the drama experience; and
d. linking the drama experience with the student's own experience of life.
2- Drama can also help develop an inner need in students to learn a new language
by:
a. utilizing 'creative tension': presenting situations that require urgent
solutions;
b. placing more responsibility on the learner and less on the teacher
Why is Drama an Important Tool for the Classroom Teacher?
The Arts contribute to the development and understanding of the physical, emotional,
intellectual, aesthetic, social, moral and spiritual dimensions of human experience. They
also assist in the expression and identity of individuals and groups through the recording
and sharing of experiences and imagination (Curriculum Council, 1998).
What are the Benefits of Drama in the High School Setting?
In Dramatics and the Teaching of Literature, James Hoetker (1969) contended that
drama increased creativity, originality, sensitivity, fluency, flexibility, emotional stability,
cooperation, and examination of moral attitudes; as well as contributed to the
development of communication skills and appreciation of literature. Hoetker described
drama as an effective method of: accommodating students whose learning styles are
visual or kinesthetic; teaching critical skills; and producing aesthetic experiences with
literature.
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Hoetker’s findings were confirmed by McMaster (1998) in his working with drama in
literacy education. McMaster suggested that drama is an effective medium for literacy
development in nine areas:
1- Students develop affect through drama. Drama creates motivation for students to
participate and facilitates students' responses in reading instruction.
2- Dramatization is a source of scaffolding for emergent readers by providing rich
background experiences for future reading.
3- Dramatization leads students to develop symbolic representation, which is the
same concept children require in order to understand the alphabetic principle.
4- Dramatic activities provide students a meaningful environment where they can
practice oral reading repeatedly to develop fluency.
5- New vocabularies presented in dramatic context provide students opportunities to
acquire meanings visually, orally, and kinesthetically.
6- Drama helps students acquire the knowledge of word order, phrasing, and
punctuation that contribute to the meaning of a written sentence.
7- Drama activities help students read different forms of discourse, especially in
familiarizing children with nonfiction.
8- Students monitor their own comprehension in drama and develop effective
reading strategies.
9- Teachers can use drama as an assessment tool since it provides immediate
feedback about students' understanding of new reading materials. (Hui Lin, n.d.).
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How is Drama Related to Skill Development?
Critical thinking
Drama places unique demands upon the critical thinking and emotional
engagement of participants and their skill development. Dramatic play offers the perfect
medium to solve problems, express emotions, develop critical-thinking skills, engage in
socialization, and develop a sense of self. Social interactions and feedback occur through
the conceptual understanding that drama begins with meaningful communication. In turn,
Vygotsky believed that the interactions between socializing and meaningful
communication were deemed necessary for internalizing new knowledge (Huffman,
1997; McMaster, 1998). It is in this manner that drama enhances personal development
as well. Meaningful communication depends on symbols. When Van Hook examined the
early building blocks of learning and intelligence through signs and symbols, he was able
to expand on Vygotsky and Freire’s work studying early forms of communication and
connected with students by addressing their multiple intelligences as described by
Gardner (Van Hook, 2008). Van Hook’s work helped to explain the meaning associated
with signs and symbols as well as their effect on learning. Drama as an effective medium
for building vocabulary, syntactic, discourse, metacognitive and decoding skills are also
dependent on signs and symbols (McMaster, 1998). Where ‘dramatic play’ contributes to
a student’s emotional engagement, ‘planned drama’ activities help to develop and/or
improve students’ critical analysis and creativity. It assists students in moving from a
superficial response to texts and situations to a more sophisticated ability to think
critically (Huffman, 1997).
19
The critical thinking process is comprised of affective, behavioral, and cognitive
components. ‘Affective components’ are the emotional foundation of thinking that either
enables or limits critical thinking by valuing truth above self-interest, accepting changes,
emphasizing, welcoming divergent views, tolerating ambiguity, and recognizing personal
biases. ‘Behavior components’ are the actions necessary for critical thinking. This can
include delayed judgment until enough data is collected or available, using precise terms
so that issues are clearly defined; gathering data, distinguishing between fact and opinion,
encouraging critical dialogue from and with others, actively listening, modifying
judgments in light of new information, and applying knowledge to new situations.
‘Cognitive components’ are the thought processes involved in critical thinking; such as
thinking independently, defining problems accurately, analyzing data for value and
content, using logic to solve problems, synthesizing, overgeneralization, and applying
matacognition skills (Huffman, 1997).
Daniel Pink (2006) further distinguished critical thinking components as left-brain
and right-brain abilities. He purported that left-hemisphere tasks: logical, linear,
sequential, and analytical thinking were once skills-in-demand in the business world.
Right-hemisphere tasks: artistic, empathy, synthesis vs. analysis, big-picture, context vs.
text abilities are now considered the first among equals in the business world. They are as
important in effective collaboration, design, and advertising; positively contributing to
business margins and profits. He reported that what matters most in today’s economy is
high-concept and high-touch abilities, not high tech; novelty or nuance, not routines and
right answers; and persistancy. An individual with moderate abilities and a high level of
20
persistence can accomplish a great deal compared to the individual with well-developed
abilities and low persistence.
Pink claims that smart individuals and businesses today rely upon six primary
abilities: (1) becoming literate in design; (2) being able to tell a compelling story; (3)
creating a symphony out of seeing the big-picture, detecting patterns, and combining
things into something the world did not realize was missing; (4) having and expressing
empathy; (5) playing together through laughter, a sense of humor, the spirit of
playfulness or games; and (6) establishing purpose or meaning in what is done or
produced; successful businesses have found a way to link purpose with profit. The very
nature of ‘dramatic play’ and ‘planned drama’ offers opportunities for individuals to
develop the six abilities Pink suggests matter most in today’s business world as well as
contributes to personal success. The thought that these are also fundamentally human
abilities; are muscles that, perhaps, have atrophied and are in need of development; are
activities individuals may engage in out of a sense of intrinsic motivation for the joy and
challenge of the task itself (Pink, 2006) could also positively effect the classroom
teacher’s challenge in motivating students and eliciting student engagement. In his
research, Pink learned that success, satisfaction, and subjective well-being is measured on
an individual’s ability to: believe in something bigger than oneself, have close relations,
do meaningful work, and earn a moderate income. Therefore, if the economy is moving
away from routine and right answers, as Pink suggests, then traditional educational
models consisting of standardized tests may not be properly preparing our students for
the business world they will inherit. They may instead only be developing left-brain
21
abilities. According to Pink, one hemisphere without the other is inferior (Pink, 2006) and
does not tap into a person’s potential.
One activity researched is linked to improving critical thinking. Laurel Borgia,
Deborah Horack, and Carol Owles used the dramatization of The Teacher’s Funeral: A
Comedy in Three Parts (Peck, 2004) by having students adopt the persona of a character
in the book and played the game “What’s My Line?” In this novel, which is set in 1904
rural Indiana, Russell Culver, age 15, wants to join a team of wheat harvesters using a
new all-steel thrashing machine in August when the teacher of the one-room schoolhouse
suddenly dies, and he thinks school is cancelled for the year. His plan is thwarted when a
new teacher is quickly hired. The new teacher, however, has her hands full dealing with
Russell and his friends. This activity was a culminating in-depth character analysis study.
In essence, students are required to take on the persona of a character from the novel,
answer the following questions, and respond as the character would to different situations
set forth in the game activity:
1. What would be typical dress for your character at school, on the weekend, and
at home?
2. What are the family dynamics your character deals with?
3. What outside job or home chores does your character do?
4. What is your character’s circle of friends?
5. What socializing does your character participate in? Does your character
date?
22
6. What tools does your character use in daily life? This includes not only
visible tools to perform tasks but also character traits utilized by your
character.
Students answer the questions using evidence, both explicit and implied, from the
novel and from the outside research. Several students may individually research a
character. In closing, linking drama and critical thinking provides engaging activities that
improve student comprehension. To “leave no child behind,” literacy learning needs to
acknowledge the uniqueness of each child, and the use of drama in literacy learning is a
means of expressing the uniqueness (Cramer, Cheek, & Stringer, 2003).
Metacognition
‘Metacognition’ is the ability to review and analyze your own mental process; in
essence, ‘thinking about your own thinking’ (Huffman, 1997; Blatner, 2006). This can be
a perpetual challenge: questioning assumptions, the meanings of words [semantics], the
emotional power of images [semiotics], the way language and arguments are structured
[rhetoric], looking at forms of personal and cultural self-deception [psychoanalysis and
propaganda analysis]. Drama can help make ‘thinking about thinking’ fun while
developing greater flexibility as well as mental and emotional maturity through simple
activities; as changing roles (Blatner, 2006).
When people play roles consciously, they begin to sharpen their skills of noticing
and managing their own thoughts. They are both the participant and observer. This kind
of reflective thinking can be cultivated and can lead to greater psychological maturity and
flexibility. Drama–especially improvised drama, in which the actors become co-
23
playwrights and co-directors– leads to not only more creativity, but also more ‘thinking
about thinking.’ In ‘process drama,’ the art of both playing the role of a character and
maintaining a bit of distance so the participants can evaluate their performance and not
become overly identified with their character is called ‘role distance.’ Playwrights and
directors also need to exercise this perspective, keeping the flow and intention, but reevaluating whether a certain bit should be emphasized, removed, moved to a different
scene, and so forth. This reflective process is the equivalent of what psychologists have
called ‘metacognition,’ psychotherapists have called, ‘psychological mindedness,’ and
the academic world calls ‘critical thinking’ (Blatner, 2006).
Focus, motivation, and empowerment
Drama has been cited by many as an effective method for building interest and
motivation in reading and writing because children appear to enjoy it. Drama can provide
opportunities for learners to use their feelings, thoughts, and imaginations to express
themselves to and with others, while simultaneously developing their language abilities
by ‘doing.’ Learning by doing is defined as ‘experiential learning,’ which has been
identified as one of the most effective approaches to learning and skill mastery (Blatner,
2006; Carver, 1995).
The timing, frequency and type of drama activity may make a difference in the
depth of response provided by students. Hertzberg (2003) argues that merely role-playing
or acting out scenes at the end of a book can lead to a superficial response that does not
incorporate the underlying themes or issues. In contrast, when drama activities occur
during the reading of a book, themes or issues within the text become the foundation of
24
the transacted scenes. Hertzberg also suggests that teachers need to involve students in
the exploration of an issue and provide opportunities for students to voice genuine
responses and opinions if they are to become critical readers and thinkers. How teachers
tap into students’ potential is the important element here.
Drama activities are cited as an attractive alternative to developing writing skills
by providing contextual opportunities for listening and meaningful language production
as well as enhance linguistic abilities. They can help students analyze plot, character and
style; involve learners more positively and actively in the text; and fulfill socio-affective
requirements (Chauhan, 2004). Schiller (2008) discovered that the use of drama to teach
social skills to middle school students labeled at-risk is powerfully effective. Drama
allowed students to express externally what takes place internally, placed students in
leadership roles, and increased self-esteem which was generalized in the classroom to
support academic success in all subjects. Schiller shared that drama activities and
productions develop all eight of Howard Gardner’s intelligences, while other methods of
teaching might neglect one or more of the different modes of learning.
Cazden & Lobdell (1993) published an interview in which they discussed how
teachers can enhance students’ writing by developing characters from ‘inside the
dilemma’ (Dorothy Heathcote, as quoted by Cazden and Lobdell). They claimed that
students must be able and willing to find the connection between themselves and
characters in order to get inside the characters’ thoughts and feelings. To find or develop
an empathetic connection, Cazden & Lobdell suggest a variety of activities. A synopsis
of their suggestions include the following general approach:
25
1- Students may first be asked to write a dialogue about a given prompt. The
students are encouraged to imagine a scenario in which one character might say
the given prompt, then write a dialogue about it with a partner.
2- The partners will then present their dialogue to class.
3- After each dialogue presentation, the teacher may ask the rest of the class to infer
about the character(s), ‘How old do you think this person was? What mood do
you think they were in?’ These questions serve to assist students in ‘showing not
telling’ about the characters. It can also serve to assist students’ writing in first
person, not just telling about the person through words alone.
4- Other students may then be asked to act out and/or improvise the dialogues read.
5- Finally, students may be asked to write exactly and only about what they saw and
heard in the improvised enactments.
6- The teacher may then ask students to generalize each improvised scenario and
imagine how it would feel if the students’ themselves had a similar experience.
What would you (the students) do and say? This activity serves to walk a student
from the perspective of fictitious characters into the realm of personal
experiences, feelings, emotions, knowledge and attitudes. This, in turn, can
inform the performances, enhance writing and critical thinking through reflection
(Cazden & Lobdell, 1993).
7- If a student requires further guidance in transferring words to paper, teachers can
bridge this disconnect by equating the improvised version of a given scenario to
‘writing on their feet’ (McMaster, 1998). If students felt accomplished at
26
improvising, then they may be able to transfer their perceived abilities to writing
by simply changing their perspective.
This seven step approach on how drama activities can influence writing is similar
to Jason Whitney’s “Mom Dad Buddy and Sis Stories: A Drama and Fiction Writing
Workshop” (Whitney, 2006) with the added twists of teacher guidance through questions
that personalize and assist students in internalizing the process. Whitney developed a
writing workshop that presented four characters, ‘Mom, Dad, Buddy and Sister,’ to an
entire class. The students are then asked to collaborate on creating a scene that has the
four characters trapped in a particular setting and forced to talk. The class as a whole: 1developed the characters; 2- created the setting (time and place); and 3- invented the
scenario (the tension). Once the foundation of the scene was in place, the class broke into
groups of four students each with the purpose of writing dialogue to match the scene. Up
to this point, the room is loudly active; lit with creativity. With the dialogues written and
the scene set, each group reads and acts out their scripts. Students benefit from: seeing
the variety of ways one set of information can be interpreted, making decisions, learning
where characters come from, how setting and context affect the behavior of characters,
and practicing and constructing for a real purpose rather than learning isolated facts. This
approach is similar to the C.R.O.W. method used in this project.
Writing and the teaching of ‘creative and critical thinking’ as well as ‘active
learning’ are also related to brain research and language functions. As discussed in the
Brain-Body Literature section, cerebral hemispheres can operate separately or as one
hemisphere. In the integrated brain, the functions of one hemisphere are immediately
27
available to the other; which is significant to Language Arts educators since language
production is a whole-brain activity. The neurolinguistic implications for language
communication and individual learning in writing focuses on the concept of ‘active
learning.’ Instructors can facilitate active learning by having students engage in the
composition process and encouraging students to discuss their own writing freely with
others. The brain’s response to such activities depends on an active atmosphere in the
classroom. Language arts teachers are encouraged to understand how the brain works and
the effect of writing strategies in a process-centered approach to composing and
communicating. Becoming knowledgeable about the effects of an integrated brain on
writing skills can be the difference between disconnected and insightful or meaningful
pieces of writing (Davis, 1992).
Brain-Body Literature
Functions of the Brain
Brain functions are directly related to learning, memory and indirectly related to
specific learning styles. The authors of the research Explicit Memory for Affective
Passages in Temporal Lobectomy Patients (Burton, 2008) studied the memory of 18
temporal lobectomy patients. It was discovered that: 1- verbal processing depended on
the right temporal structures being intact; 2- patients of left temporal lobectomies
displayed slower reading speeds when compared to patients of right temporal
lobectomies; and 3- for both patients of lobectomies, repeated passages were remembered
better than unrepeated passages. These results are similar to students’ response to
learning. Therefore understanding how the brain works may help educators understand
28
how their students’ learn. Reflecting upon this correlation and incorporating the findings
can also improve teacher effectiveness.
One study on the brain and congnition focused on the evolutionary origins of
executive functions. Ardila (2008) discovered that ‘metacognitive executive functions’ of
the brain manage different activities than do the ‘emotional/motivational executive
functions.’ The metacognitve functions include the ability to: problem solve, plan,
formulate concepts, develop and implement strategies, control attention, and operate the
working memory. These functions depend on the prefrontal areas of the brain as well as
culture and cultural instruments. They also directly affect language. Oral and written
language may be among the most important functions of this part of the brain. Although,
the prefrontal lobe is also similar to that found in primates, primates display abilities in
the emotional executive functions, but not in the emotional/motivational functions.
So, What Makes the Human Mind Different?
The second part of the brain is the ‘emotional/motivational executive function’
(Ardila, 2008). It coordinates cognition as well as emotion and/or motivation, including
fulfilling biological needs. It is associated with the orbitofrontal and medial frontal areas
of the brain. Whereas solving everyday problems is a functional application of the
executive functions, it mostly depends on the emotional/motivational function. Research
suggests that the emotional/motivational lobe of the brain is a result of biological
evolution shared by other primates.
29
Brain Functions and Related Models for Learning
The authors of the study Brain Functioning Models for Learning (Tipps, 1982)
describe three models of brain function that help us understand how learning is integrated
in the human mind. The first model for learning is entitled the ‘up-and-down model.’
This emphasizes the interconnection between brain structures and functions. It argues that
physiological, emotional, and cognitive responses are inseparable; thus, emphasizing
learning context as an important influence on learning outcomes. The second model,
entitled the ‘side-by-side model,’ is based on the differences between the two cerebral
hemispheres. It states that the way the two hemispheres cooperate, or fail to work
together, to produce an integrated understanding of experiences may account for
individual differences in learning. Since balanced instructional practices in any classroom
has a greater potential to reach a variety of individual learning styles, the authors
recommended that learning experiences include both visual-spatial (or concrete) and
verbal (abstract) components. The third and final brain function, the ‘connections model,’
suggests that neuro-chemical connections within the brain encode experiences by creating
patterns. These patterns of connections are then responsible for understanding as well as a
foundation by which people make decisions regarding their learning and behavior.
Similar to the authors of the study Brain Functioning Models for Learning, Carver
(1995) also discussed individual differences in learning in her study that examined
experiential educational programs. She observed, interviewed, reviewed in-house and
public documents, and recorded comments made between participants and staff in a
variety of experiential learning based programs. She concluded that a successful
30
experiential educational program promoted student agency, belonging and competence by
introducing resources and behaviors that allowed for four pedagogical principles: active
learning, drawing on student experiences, authenticity, and connecting lessons to student
futures. Carver proposed that creating a learning community in which caring,
compassion, responsibility, accountability, spirituality, ethics, individuality, and critical
thinking were valued would engage students in the process of learning as well as the
learning outcome and would assist students in developing communication and problemsolving skills. Although it was implied, Carver’s research did not mention ‘safety’ as a
dimension of her model of experiential education.
Some of the pedagogical principles identified by Carver were incorporated by
Kay and Knaack (2008) as they investigated the impact of Readers Theater on two
classes of eighth grade students who were reading below grade level. Given the same
short story unit over a six-week period of time, one class participated in Readers Theater
while the comparison class received traditional literature and vocabulary instruction. The
results of Kay and Knaack’s study showed that the Reader Theater class displayed
statistically significant growth and gains in reading levels, fluidity, and expressive
measures of oral reading. They also nearly doubled the vocabulary acquisition of their
comparison group. On comprehension, there were no significant differences between the
two groups. Like Carver, Kay and Knaack suggested that the Readers Theater had the
potential to motivate struggling adolescent readers as well as build their reading
confidence. This suggested approach to education and acquisition was an alternative to
traditional education.
31
Learning Deficits and Outcomes
What happens when the brain functions are not working in an idyllic manner? Do
communication challenges impede learning? Do anxiety, disorders, disabilities, and
deficits affect self-image, self-confidence, or learning outcomes? Thirty-one college
students with communication anxiety participated in a study conducted by McGary and
Parks (1982). Each student enrolled in and completed a one-semester basic speech
course. Half of the students were exposed to an external locus of control, while the
approximate second half experienced an internal locus of control. The authors of this
study wanted to evaluate the influence, if any, in self-image of the participants. Their
goal was to: 1- determine the effectiveness of a specially designed one-semester basic
speech course on the self-image of college students experiencing extreme communication
anxiety, and 2- discover whether a difference existed between the self-image of students
who had an external locus of control and those with an internal locus of control. The 31
students enrolled in the course completed measures of locus of control and self-image
both at the beginning and at the conclusion of the course. Results showed that the course
did help students improve their self-image.
Learning and Nutrition
The authors of The Science of Nutrition (Wolfe, 2000) suggested that learning
and nutrition is inextricably connected. They concluded that exercise and meal-sharing
are essential to learning and that protein, fat, B vitamins, iron, and antioxidants promote
brain functions.
32
Everyday Learning in the Kitchen (Darbyshire, 2004) is a study emphasizing the
amount and type of educational learning that occurs when children help family members
prepare meals in the kitchen at home. This study resulted in a series of learning
opportunities that validated the benefits of experiential learning as reported in Carver’s
study; supported the findings of The Science of Nutrition through useful, nutritional
recipes and direct teaching of nutritional values; and demonstrated holistic teaching by
providing a blueprint for turning everyday events at home into lesson plans. The lessons
were developed by the Australian Early Childhood Association and incorporated subjects
as science, language, math, chemistry, physics, reading, nutrition, and hygiene
knowledge.
Another study that supported the findings of Wolf, Burkman & Streng’s research
was Preschoolers’ Choice: Tofu or Potato Chips? (Jacobson, 2004). This study targeted
childhood obesity and incorporated research that confirmed the early years of childhood
growth and development as a valuable time to instill values and knowledge. It supported
the development of healthy nutritional habits and making physical activity a routine part
of their day by providing preschool teachers with lesson plans that emphasize the creation
of healthy meals and healthy choices. The participants in this study were teachers and
children enrolled in obesity-prevention programs and early-childhood education
programs with similar philosophies. To offset the challenge that young children need fat
in their diet for proper development of their nervous systems, it utilized standard healthy
percentages of body composition as the foundation for its recipes.
33
The result of this article supplied teachers with dialog, recipes, and resources to
instruct children on how to develop healthy lifestyles. Preschool children experienced
hands-on cooking, participated in choreographed song, were provided visual aids, and
verbal presentations about comparative foods choices. One such choreographed song had
children dancing and shouting “we need food that makes us go, greasy food only makes
us slow.”
Another contribution to the impact of nutrition on learning is a study by Cardwell
(2005) entitled Literacy: What Level for Food, Land, Natural Resources, and
Environment? This study researched the impact of agriculture as a natural resource of
food as well as the interactions in which agriculture engaged with the environment. The
validation for this study also highlighted the contributions it made to literacy by
addressing the statement: if the populace is to ask the right questions for personal and
public decision making, then a multidimensional approach is needed for learning about
the codependent relationship between food, land, natural resources, and the environment.
Cardwell’s study attempted to understand competency levels of literacy by using
a multidimensional approach in learning ‘how’ to achieve purposeful actions. Nominal
literacy was identified by Cardwell as the minimal recognition of concepts; functional
literacy was recognized for providing the ‘what’ portion of conceptual learning; cultural
literacy was credited for proving context to concepts as well as the ability to articulate
‘why’ concepts existed; and multidimensional literacy gives meaning to the concepts and
guided ‘how’ purposeful actions can occur by incorporated the previous three types of
literacy.
34
The findings of these studies are accentuated by Lee and Diong’s (1999) research.
In surveying high school students in Singapore about the biological concept of food, they
discovered that the participants of their study understood the components of a balanced
diet, but confused the concepts of water and nutrients. They believed that: 1- water was a
food; 2- the biological function of food was for sustenance, satiation, growth, and general
well-being; and 3- anything that is edible falls into the category of food. These
misconceptions address a need to directly teach the value of nutrition as well as the
impact of nutrition on learning.
35
Chapter 3
DATA ANALYSIS
During the lesson plan, the researchers discovered they could more clearly
evaluate the effect of the C.R.O.W. method by: (1) changing the wording of some of the
post-survey questions as well as providing fewer options for student responses; and (2)
identifying five questions that most directly addressed student’s motivation to write.
The pre-survey assisted the researchers in determining the students’ attitudes
about writing prior to the C.R.O.W. method and related each question to a ‘not true, a
tiny bit true, partly true, true, extremely (true)’ response. The post-survey asked students
about their preferences as a reflection of the C.R.O.W. method and related each questions
to a ‘yes, no, maybe/a little bit’ response. Student responses were compared in the
following manner:
Pre-Survey Response
=
Post-Survey Response
Not True
=
No
A tiny bit true & Partly True
=
Maybe/Partial
True & Extremely True
=
Yes
The five pre-survey questions chosen include: [Q8] Writing is interesting and can
be enjoyable; [Q2] I enjoy writing on a daily basis; [Q12] I write without being assigned
to; [Q13] Writing helps me to explain things; and [Q21] Writing makes me a better
person. The five post-survey questions chosen include: [Q1] Now that I have completed
the C.R.O.W. method, I find writing more enjoyable; [Q2] Now that I have learned the
C.R.O.W. method, I might write on a daily basis; [Q5] Now that I have completed the
36
C.R.O.W. method, I will write more without being assigned to; [Q6] Now that I have
completed the C.R.O.W. method, I believe that writing would help me to explain things
to others; and [Q7] Now that I have completed the C.R.O.W. method, I realize that
writing makes me a better person.
The pre- and post-survey questions were compared by the researchers in the order
in which they were presented above. For example, of the twenty students, the pre-survey
questions revealed that 40% (8 students) responded that they did not enjoy writing; 15%
(3 students) stated they found that writing was a tiny bit enjoyable; 20% (4 students)
stated ‘they like writing’ to be partly true; 20% (4 students) stated that they like writing;
and only 5% (1 student) responded that they extremely enjoy writing [Q8]. When asked
about their enjoyment of writing on a daily basis [Q2]: 50% of the students (10) stated
that they do not enjoy writing on a daily basis; 15% of the students (3) find ‘they enjoy
writing on a daily basis’ a tiny bit true; 20% of the students (4) stated that they enjoy
writing on a daily basis is partly true; 10% of the students (2) enjoy writing on a daily
basis; and only 5% of the students (1) in the class find ‘writing on a daily basis’
extremely enjoyable.
Upon completing the lesson plan, a post-survey was distributed to the class. The
post-survey questions showed that 25% of the students (5) continued to find writing
unenjoyable; 45% of the students (9) found writing a bit more enjoyable; and 30% of the
students (6) found writing more enjoyable [Q1]. This is a collective increase of three
students. When asked if they (the students) might write on a daily basis [Q2]: 35% (7
students) said they would not write on a daily basis; 40% (8 students) said they might
37
write on a daily basis; and 25% (5 students) said they would write on a daily basis.
Again, the collective increase is three students.
The researchers compared each of the paired questions in the same manner. The
final comparative results are described in Chapter 4, Findings and Interpretations. The
researchers related the benefits of drama to skill development, explained why high school
teachers are hesitant to incorporate drama as a teaching strategy, and identified factors
that contribute to the reluctance of teachers using drama in the classroom in Chapter 2.
The benefits of infusing the arts into the curriculum out-weight the perceived
disadvantages. The researchers describe the benefits in Chapter 4, which focuses on
student achievement and success.
38
Chapter 4
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
The researchers found during the C.R.O.W. lesson plan that the classroom
environment was electric. All students were engaged and energetic. The students were
having fun negotiating the character traits for Mom, Dad, Buddy and Sis. The lively
discussions moved on to how each character related to one another. After this the
students moved on to what each of their character wanted out of life (i.e. their characters
objective). It was spectacular to observe the students discussed where they were going to
trap their characters in time and space. Students were listening, providing input, taking
ideas and improving on them. The researchers noted that even the shy students were fully
engaged in the developing of the characters (Mom, Dad, Buddy and Sis).
Viewing the 90 second skits was a treat for the whole class. Students got into
character and performed magnificently. The researchers observed that the class was
attentive during the skits and that an air of respect ruled this portion of the lesson plan.
Upon completing the lesson plan a post-survey was distributed to the class. A
comparison of pre- and post-survey questions [Pre-survey, Post-survey] showed that
students are motivated more to write after utilizing the C.R.O.W. method. The students
shared an increase in: their enjoyment of writing [Q8, Q1], their desire to write on a daily
basis [Q2, Q2], their willingness to write without being assigned to [Q12, Q5], their
belief that writing will help them explain things to others [Q13, Q6], and a realization
that writing makes them a better person [Q21, Q7]. The summative increase is twelve
students are more motivated to engage in the writing process after using the C.R.O.W.
39
method. Proportionately, as students’ interest and willingness to write increased, their
unwillingness and dislike decreased. Charts depicting the five pre- and post-survey
questions as well as the students’ responses are included in the Appendices section [see
Appendix B].
This creative collaboration promoted lifelong learning skills and teamwork on a
level that the researchers had not seen before. Once the students new the guidelines of the
project, they worked through the stages of the writing process to produce a product that
they were proud to share with their fellow classmates. Students had to apply basic
principles of language use, judge information, perceive differently, compromise, make
decisions, create and use processes, self-assess, self-manage, be adaptable, be productive,
be sensitive, be safe, cooperate, imagine, intuit, trust obtain and maintain hope,
survive…and a whole lot more (Saldaña, 2001).
This project was fun and the students were in a supportive atmosphere where they
thought of themselves as writers. With this activity, students are writing and learn by
engaging in a creative collaboration. Furthermore, they learn to love writing, and they
improve (Whitney, 2006).
Conclusion
What are the benefits of drama for students? They include increased creativity,
originality, sensitivity, fluency, flexibility, emotional stability, cooperation, and
examination of moral attitudes (Hoetker, 1969). McMaster (1998) suggested nine areas of
benefits for students: motivation to read, building background experiences, developing
symbolic representation, providing a meaningful environment where they can develop
40
fluency, vocabulary development opportunities by acquiring meanings visually, orally,
and kinesthetically. In addition, Drama helps students with the knowledge of word order,
phrasing, and punctuation that lead to the meaning of a written sentence. Drama activities
help students with reading different forms of discourse, and students can monitor their
own reading comprehension in drama and develop effective reading strategies. Finally,
teachers can use drama an assessment tool since it provides immediate feedback about
students’ understanding of new reading material.
Critical thinking is another benefit of Drama. Students are able to problem solve,
express emotions, engage in socialization and develop a sense of self (Huffman, 1997).
Additionally, ‘dramatic play’ contributes to a student’s emotional engagement, ‘planned
drama’ activities help to develop and/or improve students’ critical analysis and creativity.
It assists students in moving from a superficial response to texts and situations to a more
sophisticated ability to think critically (Huffman, 1997).
The researchers located an activity that can be used to improve critical thinking.
Laurel Borgia, Deborah Horack, and Carol Owles used the dramatization of
The Teacher’s Funeral: A Comedy in Three Parts (Peck, 2004) by having students adopt
the persona of a character in the book and played the game “What’s My Line?” In this
novel, which is set in 1904 rural Indiana, Russell Culver, age 15, wants to join a team of
wheat harvesters using a new all-steel thrashing machine in August when the teacher of
the one-room schoolhouse suddenly dies, and he thinks school is cancelled for the year.
His plan is thwarted when a new teacher is quickly hired. The new teacher, however, has
her hands full dealing with Russell and his friends. This activity was a culminating in-
41
depth character analysis study. In essence, students are required to take on the persona of
a character from the novel, answer the following questions, and respond as the character
would to different situations set forth in the game activity:
1. What would be typical dress for your character at school, on the weekend,
and at home?
2. What are the family dynamics your character deals with?
3. What outside job or home chores does your character do?
4. What is your character’s circle of friends?
5. What socializing does your character participate in? Does your character
date?
6. What tools does your character use in daily life? This includes not only
visible tools to perform tasks but also character traits utilized by your
character.
Students answer the questions using evidence, both explicit and implied, from the
novel and from the outside research. Several students may individually research a
character. In closing, linking drama and critical thinking provides engaging activities that
improve student comprehension. To “leave no child behind,” literacy learning needs to
acknowledge the uniqueness of each child, and the use of drama in literacy learning is a
means of expressing the uniqueness (Cramer, Cheek, & Stringer, 2003).
Metacognition is developed through drama when people play roles. Consciously
people begin to sharpen their skills of noticing and managing their own thoughts.
Participation and observations of Drama–especially improvised drama, in which the
42
actors become co-playwrights and co-directors– leads to not only more creativity, but
also more ‘thinking about thinking.’ (Blatner, 2006).
Focusing, motivation, and empowerment can result from the enjoyment of
participating in dramatic strategies. Blatner and Carver have both identified that ‘learning
by doing’ is experiential in nature which has been identified as one of the most effective
approaches to learning skill and mastery (2006; 1995).
Brain-body research reveals that metacognitive executive brain functions are
directly related to learning and memory. These functions include: problem solving,
planning, formulating concepts, developing and implementing strategies, controlling
attention, and operating the working memory. Metacognitive functions are dependent on
the prefrontal areas of the brain and directly affect oral and written language. Burton and
Ardila discovered that the left and right brains manage different activities as well. While
verbal processing occurs in the right brain, written language is processed in the left brain.
Ardila differentiate a second part of brain processing – the emotional/motivational
executive functions. These functions include fulfilling biological needs and coordinating
cognition to solve everyday problems. Although these functions utilize the prefrontal
areas of the brain, similar to metacognitive skills, they are mostly dependent on the
emotional/motivation function.
In addition, brain-body researchers suggest that understanding how the brain
works can assist educators in understanding how their students’ learn, given the different
learning styles. Tipps describes three models of brain function that explains how the
human mind integrates learning. The ‘up-and-down model’ emphasizes the
43
interconnection between physiological, emotional, and cognitive responses; the ‘side-byside model’ identifies the two cerebral hemispheres as separate entities working either in
cooperation or a failure to cooperate; while the ‘connections model’ focuses on the
neuro-chemical connections within the brain encoding experiences as patterns, which in
turn provides meaning that we use to generalize experiences and make informed
decisions.
What happens when brain functions are not working in an idyllic manner? We see
the effects in learning deficits and outcomes. McGary and Parks discovered that students
with communication anxieties who enrolled in a basic college speech course experienced
an improvement in their self-image at the end of the course. Effective interventions and
educational strategies can assist individuals in overcoming challenges.
Learning and nutrition have been inextricably connected to efficient brain
functions. Wolfe, Darbyshire, Burkman & Streng, and Cardwell concluded: teaching
children about foods that support and promote efficient brain functions, educating them
on healthy food preparation, and instilling a love of food can help in the development of
healthy nutritional habits and routines. It also has the potential benefit of engaging
citizens, no matter the age, in the codependent relationship between food, land, natural
resources, and the environment.
Summary
So, why drama in the classroom? Mention theatre, music, or dance to a school
official and likely the first thought across their mind is somehow related to budget cuts.
Drama is, bottom line, seen as a fluff subject by many people. What on earth could
44
students possibly learn from drama that is more beneficial than traditional mainstream
course work? The Theater (and for that matter music, art, and dance) community has long
claimed developmental benefits that have been neglected by the educational community.
Yet in classroom studies, such as the ones cited by Saldaña, repeatedly students under an
arts based curriculum do better than those in a traditional setting. Consider how the
United States time and again ranks poorly against other countries—many of those
countries include curriculums that are highly inclusive of the arts. How strong the
connection between the two is difficult to determine, but considering the benefits and
compliance of drama with developmental theories, it is hard not do draw some sort of
conclusion (Angelfire, 2006). Bring on the drama.
Recommendations
The researchers believe the C.R.O.W. project could have improved by making
uniform the pre- and post-survey questions. Correlations could have been more easily
drawn.
The researchers learned that the needs of special education students moved
beyond their diagnosed disabilities when engaged in this project. A bi-product of the
research showed that students suffered from fear – a fear of speaking, being judged,
looking dumb/stupid/ignorant. This was especially true for the special education students
involved in this project. With fear as a reoccurring theme, a recommended future project
includes studying how the use of dramatic strategies could assist individuals in
overcoming social fears.
45
The findings of this project suggest that the C.R.O.W. method could benefit any
subject matter. With the use of drama strategies, more students were engaged, involved,
and willing to participate. The drama strategies appeared to tap into intellects in ways the
researchers had not seen prior. Drama strategies could offer a fun, alternate way to assess
student learning and knowledge cross-curriculum.
46
APPENDICES
The authors of this project used a drama strategy called C.R.O.W. to study the
effects on writing. Did C.R.O.W. motivate students to write more and/or more often? Did
it increase students’ desire to and enjoyment of writing? A pre-survey was conducted to
determine the students’ attitude about writing. Dramatic strategies were then
implemented in a Language Arts classroom to assist students’ in feeling comfortable to
perform in front of their peers. After the students demonstrated comfort, the C.R.O.W.
method was introduced. The students were asked to develop characters, create dialogue
for a 90 second scene, then perform the scene in front of their class. After all
performances were presented, a post-survey was conducted. The pre- and post-survey
student responses were then gathered and analyzed by the researchers.
Appendix A: Lesson Plans and Worksheets (Appendix A) includes the C.R.O.W.
lesson plan, student worksheets used to create their characters and dialogues, and a
worksheet allowing students to define the acronym C.R.O.W.
Appendix B: Surveys and Results (Appendix B) includes the five questions from
the pre- and post-surveys used to evaluate the effects of the C.R.O.W. method on student
writings. It also houses a chart for each of the pre- and post-surveys identifying the
collective student responses as well as the researcher’s comparative findings.
47
APPENDIX A:
Lesson Plans and Worksheets
THE C.R.O.W. LESSON PLAN
What do I want them to go away with?
 I want to motivate students to find multiple ways to explore colorful writing.
How do I know they got it?
 Performance
 Reflection (either written or oral or both depending on time limit)
Strategies
 Energizer—Communication game (5-7 minutes)
 Overhead—Image of a bear and salmon (10-12 minutes)

--Write what you see

--Write what you see using the C.R.O.W. Method.

C= Character traits
R= Relationship to other characters
O=Objective-what does the character want
W=Where and When (trap characters)
Whole group activity: Mom, Dad, Buddy and Sis (5-7 minutes)

Brainstorm the character of Mom Using the C.R.O.W. method and decide as a
group where we might “trap” the characters of Mom, Dad, Buddy and Sis.
Small group (10-12 minutes)
*Brainstorm the rest of the characters using the C.R.O.W. method.
Performance (10-15 minutes)
*Perform a 90 second scene involving all the characters
Reflection (5-10 minutes)
Depending on time I will have the students: write a Metacognitive journal
[proper name?] (Journal Question: What were you thinking as you were
brainstorming with your group?); discuss what they were thinking about during
the process; or do both.
48
STUDENT WORKSHEETS
Mom
Character (traits)
1.__________________________________________
2.__________________________________________
3.__________________________________________
Relationship (to others)
Dad
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Buddy
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Sis
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Objective (what does this person want out of life)
1._______________________________
Where/Where (Trapping the Characters)
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
49
Dad
Character (traits)
1.__________________________________________
2.__________________________________________
3.__________________________________________
Relationship (to others)
Mom
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Buddy
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Sis
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Objective (what does this person want out of life)
1._______________________________
Where/Where (Trapping the Characters)
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
50
Buddy
Character (traits)
1.__________________________________________
2.__________________________________________
3.__________________________________________
Relationship (to others)
Dad
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Mom
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Sis
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Objective (what does this person want out of life)
1._______________________________
Where/Where (Trapping the Characters)
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
51
Sis
Character (traits)
1.__________________________________________
2.__________________________________________
3.__________________________________________
Relationship (to others)
Dad
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Mom
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Buddy
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
3._______________________________
Objective (what does this person want out of life)
1._______________________________
Where/Where (Trapping the Characters)
1._______________________________
2._______________________________
52
C.R.O.W. DEFINITIONS:
Character (what traits does this character have)
Relationship (relationship to each of the other characters—is it a good relationship, or is
it a bad relationship)
Objective (what does the individual want out of life that is as yet unfulfilled?)
Where/When (trap these characters in time and space: elevator, taxi cab, counseling
office etc.) By trapping the characters, you force dialogue. Try to include all characters
in the dialogue.
53
APPENDIX B:
Survey and Results
The researchers evaluated five questions from the pre-survey and post-survey that
most represented the effect of the C.R.O.W. method on students’ motivation to write:
Pre-Survey Question
compared to…
Q8: Writing is interesting and can be
enjoyable.
Post-Survey Question
Q1: Now that I have completed the
C.R.O.W. method, I find writing more
enjoyable.
Q2: I enjoy writing on a daily basis.
Q2: Now that I have learned the
C.R.O.W. method, I might write on a
daily basis?
Q12: I write without being assigned to.
Q5: Now that I have completed the
C.R.O.W. method, I will write more
without being assigned to.
Q13: Writing helps me to explain things
to others.
Q6: Now that I have completed the
C.R.O.W. method, I believe that writing
would help me to explain things to
others.
Q21: Writing makes me a better person.
Q7: Now that I have completed the
C.R.O.W. method, I realize that writing
makes me a better person.
54
The following graphs support the data analysis in Chapter 3 and the researchers’ findings
and interpretations in Chapter 4:
% of Student Responses
Motivation to Write (Pre-Survey Results)
60%
50%
40%
Yes
30%
Maybe/Partial
20%
No
10%
0%
Q8
Q2
Q12
Q13
Q21
Yes
25%
15%
15%
40%
20%
Maybe/Partial
35%
35%
30%
25%
35%
No
40%
50%
55%
35%
45%
% of Student Responses
Post-Survey Results
50%
40%
Yes
30%
Maybe/Partial
20%
No
10%
0%
Q1
Q2
Q5
Q6
Q7
Yes
30%
25%
15%
40%
30%
Maybe/Partial
45%
40%
45%
30%
35%
No
25%
35%
40%
30%
35%
The results show an increase in students’ enjoyment of writing (Q8, Q1), their
desire to write on a daily basis (Q2, Q2), their willingness to write without being assigned
to (Q12, Q5), belief that writing will help them explain things to others (Q13, Q6), as
well as a realization that writing makes them a better person (Q21, Q7).
55
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