INSIDE THE WORLD OF SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS:
A WEBSITE GUIDE TO PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN SIBLING CONFLICT
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Child Development
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Child Development
(Theory and Research)
by
Kalina Jean Carlson Stogsdill
SUMMER
2012
© 2012
Kalina Jean Carlson Stogsdill
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
INSIDE THE WORLD OF SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS:
A WEBSITE GUIDE TO PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN SIBLING CONFLICT
A Project
by
Kalina Jean Carlson Stogsdill
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Sheri Hembree
__________________________________, Second Reader
Dr. Juliana Raskauskas
____________________________
Date
iii
Student: Kalina Jean Carlson Stogsdill
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Department Chair
Dr. Ana Garcia- Nevarez
Department of Child Development
iv
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
INSIDE THE WORLD OF SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS:
A WEBSITE GUIDE TO PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN SIBLING CONFLICT
by
Kalina Jean Carlson Stogsdill
Developmental research indicates that sibling relationships are linked to
children’s cognitive and social adjustment (Cutting & Dunn, 2006; McAlister &
Peterson, 2006). Past research has shown contradictory results with regard to the effects
of sibling conflict on a child’s social development (Perlman, Ross, & Garfinkel, 2009).
Some research suggests that children who are exposed to sibling conflict may develop
more positive strategies to resolve conflict, and other research indicating that exposure to
sibling conflict may create a learning environment for aggression (Downey & Condron,
2004; Kim, McHale, Crouter, & Osgood, 2007; Ram & Ross, 2008; Recchia & Howe,
2009a). Such contradiction may be explained by considering the nature of sibling conflict
and the role of parents in their children’s interactions with each other (Allen, Porter,
McFarland, McElhaney, & Marsh, 2007; Shanahan, Mchale, Crouter, & Osgood, 2008).
Research indicates that parents tend to guide their children through relationship
experiences, and that parental behaviors may be a significant factor in children’s social
and cognitive development (Updegraff, Thayer, Whiteman, Denning, & McHale, 2005).
v
These parental behaviors found in research include the quality of parent-child
relationships, including parental differential treatment, the quality of parent’s marital
relationships, as well as responses to sibling conflict (Allen, Porter, McFarland,
McElhaney, & Marsh, 2007; Mchale, Crouter, McGuire, & Updegraff, 1995; Shanahan,
Mchale, Crouter, & Osgood, 2008; Yu & Gamble, 2008). Parents may need to intervene
or respond to their child’s conflict in order to promote higher social and conflict
resolution skills (Kramer, Perozynski, & Chung, 1999; Randell & Peterson, 2009;
Updegraff et al., 2005).
Although a significant amount of research examines the correlations between
sibling relationships, sibling conflict, parental involvement and parental response, there
are currently no useful programs or guides to contribute to parental knowledge on the
subject. Thus, the current website project was created to provide parents information on
the importance sibling relationships and sibling conflict in children’s development, their
role in their children’s relationships, and ways to respond to sibling conflict. The website
was developed through Microsoft Publisherand evaluated by 5 parents. A discussion of
limitations and improvements to the web site, as well as recommendations for future
projects of this kind, are offered.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Sheri Hembree
_______________________
Date
vi
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this project to my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. Without
Him, none of this would have been possible. Thank you Lord, for teaching me the power
of patience and perseverance. “I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me”Philippians 4:13.
This project is also dedicated to my parents, who, without their support, would
have made this process much more difficult. Mom, thank you for teaching me the
importance of pursuing my dreams, and that hard work always perseveres in the end. You
are my best friend and the one I lean on the most to get me through the tough times.
Thank you so much, and I love you. Wally, thank you for teaching me to never give up,
to always keep going until I reach the top- it has saved me from more than a few
predicaments! Your constant and loving support through this process has meant so much
to me. Thank you again from the bottom of my heart, and I love you. Dad, you have
always been so encouraging and uplifting, giving me motivation at some of my most
frustrated moments. I love you so much. Thank you for always being there for me, it
means so much.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my sponsor, Dr. Sheri Hembree. It has been quite an
adventure and honor to work with you on this project. Thank you for your never ending
support, time, and effort into helping me grow as a writer and researcher. It is truly
appreciated.
I would also like to thank my siblings, Joey and Katherine. Being your sister is
what motivated me to really study and understand the importance of sibling relationships.
After everything I’ve learned, I am certainly proud that I get to call the both of you my
brother and sister. I love you both so much, do not ever forget that.
Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my Papa, Granny, and
Granddaddy. I can’t tell you how many times your laughter and conversation allowed me
to relax, enjoy myself, and learn to separate work time from family time. I love each of
you so much! Thank you again for your constant, positive spirits.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication .................................................................................................................. vii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... viii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...........……………………………………………………….. 1
Definition of Terms............................................................................................3
Method ...............................................................................................................4
Limitations .........................................................................................................8
Organization of the Project ................................................................................8
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................................... 10
Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................11
Sibling Relationships and Child Development ............................................... 14
Sibling Conflict ............................................................................................... 20
Parent and Family Factors and Sibling Relationships .................................... 29
Parent Response to Sibling Conflict ............................................................... 38
Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 41
3. METHOD ............................................................................................................. 43
Target Audience .............................................................................................. 43
Website Development ..................................................................................... 44
Website Evaluation ......................................................................................... 47
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................... 49
Website Evaluation ......................................................................................... 50
Recommendations ........................................................................................... 55
Appendix A. Website Content ................................................................................. 57
ix
Appendix B. Parent Evaluation Survey (Available on Website) .............................. 73
References ................................................................................................................... 74
x
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Sibling relationships are virtually universal in family contexts, and the quality of
these relationships has been linked to children’s cognitive and social adjustment (Criss &
Shaw, 2005; Cutting & Dunn, 2006; McAlister & Peterson, 2006). Siblings can provide
children with opportunities for social interactions and resolving conflict, which can
benefit children’s future relationships with others. For example, past research has shown
that children with siblings are more likely to have fewer externalizing problems and
higher self-control than only children (Downey & Condron, 2004). Similarly, sibling
relationship quality has been linked to higher emotional understanding and lower risk of
depression in adolescence (Howe, Aquan-Assee, Bukowski, & Lehoux, 2001; Richmond,
Stocker, & Rienks, 2005).
In regards to sibling conflict, past research has shown contradictory results as to
the positive and negative effects of such conflict on a child’s social development
(Perlman, Ross, & Garfinkel, 2009). For instance, some research has suggested that
children who are exposed to sibling conflict may be more likely to develop positive
strategies to resolve conflict, benefiting them in future relationships with others,
including peers (Downey & Condron, 2004; Kim, McHale, Crouter, & Osgood, 2007;
Ram & Ross, 2008; Recchia & Howe, 2009a; Recchia & Howe, 2009b). In contrast,
previous research has also indicated that exposure to sibling conflict may actually create
a learning environment for aggression (Kim et al., 2007; Ostrov, Crick, & Stauffacher,
2
2006). These contradictory findings may be due to the influence of other factors, such as
parent-child relationships and parental involvement in sibling conflict. The current
project addresses these sibling and parenting variables by establishing a web site that
disseminates research-based information about sibling relationships to parents.
Parental behaviors have been found to be a significant factor in children’s social
development, as parents tend to guide their children through their relationship
experiences (Updegraff, Thayer, Whiteman, Denning, & McHale, 2005). Research
suggests that the quality of parent-child relationships, including parental differential
treatment, have a significant influence on children’s future relationships with siblings and
peers (Allen, Porter, McFarland, McElhaney, & Marsh, 2007; Mchale, Crouter, McGuire,
& Updegraff, 1995; Shanahan, Mchale, Crouter, & Osgood, 2008). In addition, past
research indicates that the quality of parents’ marital relationships may have a direct
influence on their parenting styles, which could then change the parent-child relationship
(Yu & Gamble, 2008).
With respect to sibling conflict, parents may need to intervene or respond in order
for children to successfully develop optimal conflict resolution strategies. (Kramer,
Perozynski, & Chung, 1999; Randell & Peterson, 2009; Updegraff et al., 2005). Although
past research has examined different types of parental involvement and sibling conflict,
there are currently no programs or helpful guides that contribute to parental knowledge
on the subject. Thus, the current website project aims to provide parents information on
the importance of their role in their children’s social and cognitive development, as well
as appropriate ways to respond to sibling conflict.
3
The purpose of the current project was to create and publish a website developed
to provide important information and resources to parents regarding their children’s
relationships and conflicts with one another. The website provides parents with
information on why sibling relationships are important, parents’ role in sibling
relationships, the benefits and risks of sibling conflict, as well as issues related to parental
involvement in these conflicts. The website also provides parents with different ways to
respond to sibling conflict, and discusses potential questions parents may have. Parents
can also access links to outside resources such as parenting.com and California first 5 for
more information on family issues.
Definition of Terms
The current project focuses on five main issues surrounding sibling relationships:
the nature and importance of sibling relationships, sibling conflict, sibling conflict
resolution strategies, parent involvement in sibling relationships, and parent response to
sibling conflict. For the purpose of this project, sibling conflict is defined as mutual
opposition, arguing, or competition between brothers and sisters (Boyse, 2011). In
addition, two types of sibling conflict are also discussed. Constructive conflict occurs
when children use collaborative strategies, such as compromise, to resolve conflict.
Destructive conflict occurs when children use physical or negative strategies to resolve
conflict, such as coercion, name calling, or aggression (Howe, Rinaldi, Jennings, &
Petrakos, 2002). Past research has suggested that sibling conflict has a highly influential
4
role in the value and benefits of sibling relationships and, more specifically, how siblings
resolve conflict with each other. Thus, sibling conflict resolution strategies are defined by
Killoren, Thayer, and Updegraff (2008) in three primary categories: Controlling
Resolution Strategies, Non-Confrontational Strategies, and Solution Orientation
Strategies. In addition, research has examined the importance of parent response in
sibling conflict, and suggests that parents may need to intervene in their children’s
conflict from time to time (Updegraff et. al, 2005). Hence, parent response strategies are
defined by McHale, Updegraff, Tucker, and Crouter (2000) in three patterns or main
strategies: Intervention, Coaching, and Nonintervention strategies. These terms will be
revisited and further elaborated on in chapter 2.
Method
Target Audience
The current website project is designed to target families with two or more
preschool-aged or school-aged children who may experience or have experienced sibling
conflict. This website also reaches out to those with a desire to learn more about sibling
relationships and conflict, as well as families and other professionals interested in how to
react to their children’s conflict and foster positive relationships between siblings. A
college student doing research related to sibling relationships or parent involvement
might also find this website useful, as all references are linked to footnotes throughout
the site.
5
Five families known to the researcher who met the above criteria were asked to
access the website. In addition, these families were asked to fill out an online five
question evaluation survey assessing the helpfulness and usefulness of the website. This
evaluation survey was immediately available on the website (see Appendix B).
Development of Web Site
The researcher consulted several sources in order to create the website. First, the
author researched and reviewed scholarly literature on sibling relationships, sibling
conflict, conflict resolution strategies, parent’s role in children’s relationships and parent
response to sibling conflict. This review revealed that sibling relationships may have a
significant role in the developmental outcome of a child’s social and cognitive well being
(Criss & Shaw, 2005; Kim et al., 2007; Richmond et al., 2005; Updegraff et al., 2005).
Further, research on the benefits and risks of sibling conflict has yielded contradictory
results that may be due in part to differences in parent behavior, characteristics of the
children, and qualities of the conflict itself (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Kim et al.,
2007; Mchale, Updegraff, Tucker, & Crouter, 2000). In addition, the literature review
suggested parents have a strong role in their children’s development and in children’s
relationships with siblings and peers (Allen et al., 2007; Mchale et al., 1995; Shanahan et
al., 2008; Yu & Gamble, 2008). Some research also suggested that how parents respond
to their children’s conflict may influence children’s conflict resolution strategies later on
(Mchale et al., 2000; Randell & Peterson, 2009). Finally, a review of the research
indicated that sibling relationships and sibling conflict tends to be topic of concern for
6
several parents (Kramer et al., 1999; Perozynski & Kramer, 1999). Thus, the current
project website was designed to provide parents an opportunity to access research based
information and learn about their children’s relationships, conflict, as well as their role on
these topics.
Next, the researcher searched existing web-based information for families on
sibling conflict, including local (northern California) agencies and services for families.
Virtually no websites were found on the topic, emphasizing a need for the development
of a website families could access on families and sibling conflict. Thus, parents known
to the researcher were asked about what questions they would want to see on a website
geared towards this topic.
The research gathered from the scholarly review and web search was placed on a
website design program called Microsoft Publisher. The majority of the website is in a
question and answer format, emulating the questions parents might want to see addressed
on a website. Eight pages were created for the website, and were divided as follows: the
home page, which provides a brief paragraph describing the project’s purpose, three
pages reviewing research-based information on sibling relationships, sibling conflict, and
conflict resolution strategies, two pages discussing parental involvement in sibling
relationships and response to sibling conflict, and two pages dedicated to outside
resources and contact information, one of which hosts the website evaluation survey.
7
Web Site Evaluation
The website was posted using a free host website
(http://worldofsiblings.freeoda.com). After the website was posted, five parents known to
the researcher who met the target audience criteria evaluated the site’s usefulness by
completing an evaluation form on the website. The website evaluation form consisted of
five 3 point Likert scale and open-ended questions, and assessed the accessibility,
usefulness, and potential improvements of the website (see Appendix B). The results of
this evaluation were considered in developing recommendations for future projects of this
kind.
Theoretical Framework
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory was used as the theoretical framework for
the current project. This theory suggests that a child’s development depends on four
main factors, or the PPCT model: the power of the developmental process depends upon
the characteristics of the person, the child’s surrounding context, and the time periods
these processes take place (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). An example of process in a
child’s development is sibling relationships. The quality of a child’s relationship with his
or her sibling depends on the characteristics of the child (e.g., temperament, age), the
contexts surround the relationship (parents’ and peers’ interactions in the relationship)
and the current developmental time period of the relationship (preschool-aged siblings or
school-aged siblings). This model would predict that a variety of factors influence the
quality of sibling relationships, and supports a need to provide parents the opportunity to
8
learn the importance of these factors in an informative, easy to comprehend manner.
Thus, the goal of the current project was to create a website that focused on children’s
social and environmental influences in sibling relationships and conflict, as well as
provide information and resources to parents on their roles and responses in sibling
relationships.
Limitations
Although the current website project allowed for wide distribution to many
different types of parents, the sample size for the web site evaluation was limited.
Another limitation often associated with using a website to disseminate information is
that parents may mistype the online access link or be unable to find it in a search engine.
Also, any additional questions parents may have after reading the website would need to
be e-mailed and the researcher may not be able to immediately answer questions. In
addition, the researcher has little experience and knowledge in Java, a programming
language that allows for animations and message boards on websites, limiting the
potential display and communication features that could encourage parents to the site.
Organization of the Project
Chapter 1 has served as an introduction to the project. Chapter 2 provides a
discussion of developmental theory that serves as a foundation for the project, as well as
9
a review of empirical literature relevant to the importance of sibling relationships to a
child’s cognitive and social development, benefits and risks of sibling conflict, parents’
roles in children’s relationships with siblings and peers, and parent response to sibling
conflict. From this literature review was drawn the content for the web site. Chapter 3
describes the method used in the development and assessment of the project website.
Lastly, Chapter 4 provides a discussion and evaluation of the website, and suggestions for
improving the website project.
10
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The importance of examining sibling relationships in a child’s development has
long been a topic of research, as the majority of families in the United States have at least
two children (Criss & Shaw, 2005; Howe et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2007; Updegraff et al.,
2005). Research reveals that siblings are important persons in children’s social networks
and that siblings’ interactions are linked to social adjustment (Lockwood, Kitzmann, &
Cohen, 2001; Stocker & Youngblade, 1999). Further, sibling conflict is considered to be
inevitable in most families and part of everyday experiences in sibling interactions (Ram
& Ross, 2007). Sibling conflict is often cited as a common problem parents face with
their children (Perlman et al., 2009), and may provide children the opportunity to develop
conflict resolution strategies. Past research has also indicated that siblings who learn
these conflict resolution strategies can lead to higher conflict management skills useful to
future relationships (Killoren, Thayer, & Updegraff, 2008). Parents may influence the
quality of sibling relationships (Allen et al., 2007; Mchale et al., 1995; Updegraff et al.,
2005;) as well as whether children effectively negotiate conflict with their siblings (Dunn
& Munn, 1986; Randell & Peterson, 2009)
This chapter includes a review of relevant literature, beginning with a discussion
of the theoretical framework for the project. The chapter then proceeds with a review of
literature with a focus on sibling relationships, sibling conflict, and sibling conflict
resolution strategies. Parent roles in sibling relationships and responses to sibling conflict
11
are also discussed. This review served to inform the content of the website developed for
the current project aimed at providing parents with research-based information on sibling
relationships, sibling conflict and sibling conflict resolution strategies.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for the current project is Bronfenbrenner’s
Bioecological Theory, which focuses on how the environment, social relationships, and
the developing child intertwine together to effect a child’s development, either directly or
indirectly (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Thomas 2005). The theory asserts that
development is a result of four main components: process, person, context, and time, or
the PPCT model. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006) explain that there are several
reciprocal interactions between an individual and his or her environment, called proximal
processes, that happens over time. These interactions can include other individuals or
objects, and have a significant influence on an individual’s overall development.
The power of these proximal processes depends on the “characteristics of the
developing Person, of the immediate and more remote environmental Contexts, and the
Time periods, in which the proximal processes take place.” (Bronfenbrenner & Morris,
2006, p. 795). Although time refers to the time periods when proximal processes take
place, the persons and contexts involved in these processes require further elaboration.
There are three types of Person characteristics that Bronfenbrenner and Morris believed
could influence the power and direction of proximal processes. First are the individual’s
12
dispositions or forces, which can start and sustain a proximal process in different areas of
development. These can be an individual’s temperament, personality, or motivation.
Second are an individual’s resources- the mental and emotional ability and experience
one needs for proper proximal process function at any stage of development. These
resources can include past experiences, level of intelligence, and access to outside
resources, such as food, housing, education, and social experiences (Tudge, Mokrova,
Hatfield, & Karnik, 2009). Third is an individual’s demand characteristics that either
invite or reject interactions with the environment and can either interfere or promote
proximal processes. These characteristics are often more physical, such as age, gender, or
race, but can also be defining personality traits, such as outgoing versus shy
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Tudge et al.2009).
The context is the child’s surrounding environment, similar to Bronfenbrenner’s
original ecological theory introduced in 1979: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem, and chronosystem. The microsystem consists of direct relationships with
the child, such as school, home, and peer groups. This would include a child’s
relationship with his or her sibling, as well as the parent-child relationship. Next is the
mesosystem, which involves the relationships or connections between the child’s separate
microsystems, such as how the parent-children relationships influence sibling
relationships. Next is the exosystem, which involves the connection between the child’s
immediate environment and outside influences. For instance, if a mother is feeling
stressed at work, she may take this stress home and may respond more negatively to her
children’s conflicts, which can influence the quality of the siblings’ relationships (Mchale
13
et al., 2000; Milevsky et al., 2011; Perlman & Ross, 2007; Perozynski & Kramer, 1999).
The macrosystem follows, and is considered to be a child’s culture. For example, if a
child lives in a culture with a more positive view of aggression (i.e. fighting is necessary
to survive or protect one’s self), he or she may be more likely to engage in conflict with a
sibling. Finally, the chronosystem considers the effects of time on a child’s development.
An example would be a child’s parents going through a divorce. Children may view their
parent’s negative relationship as a learning base for relationships, thereby engaging in
more negative interactions with their siblings and peers (Stocker & Youngblade, 1999).
This effect is not only immediate; it consistently effects the child’s development
throughout several years (Tudge et al., 2009; Yu & Gamble, 2008). Although each of the
five layers is nested into the next, the current project focuses primarily on the first two
contexts: the microsystem and mesosystem by focusing specifically on sibling conflict in
sibling relationships (microsystem), as well as parent involvement and response in the
conflict (mesosystem).
Sibling relationships are strong examples of interactions in which proximal
processes occur. For example, although sibling conflict within the sibling relationship
would be a part of the microsystem (context), how each child resolves conflict with the
other (Person’s demand, force, and resources) would have an effect on each siblings’
development and their relationship with each other. In addition, research has suggested
that siblings’ interactions in sibling conflict can also be influenced by how parents
respond to the conflict (context-mesosystem) (Kramer et al., 1999; Randell & Peterson,
2009; Updegraff et al., 2005).
14
Bronfenbrenner’s theory and empirical findings related to sibling conflict
emphasize a need to reach out and educate parents on the importance of sibling
relationships, sibling conflict, and a parent’s role in their children’s relationships. Since
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory emphasizes the importance of the child’s
characteristics and his or her surrounding environments and relationships, a goal of the
current project was to target a child’s social and environmental influences (i.e. parentsMicrosystem) and provide information on how children resolve conflict with each other
(proximal processes). Hence, the current project is an effort to educate and provide
resources to parents on sibling relationships and conflict using the web as medium.
Sibling Relationships and Child Development
One aim of the current project is to provide parents informative, research-based
information on the importance of sibling relationships in a child’s development. Research
indicates that sibling relationships make strong contributions to children’s psychological
and social adjustment (Criss & Shaw, 2005; Kim et al., 2007; Richmond et al., 2005;
Updegraff et. al, 2005). However, the benefit of these contributions strongly depends on
the quality of the sibling relationship (Howe et al., 2001; Richmond et al., 2005). Thus,
the research portrayed on the website extends to how sibling relationships influence
children’s cognitive and social adjustment, as well as the importance of the quality of
sibling relationships.
15
Siblings and Cognitive and Social Adjustment
Research suggests that sibling relationships can enhance children’s cognitive
development skills in terms of perspective taking and theory of mind (Bengtsson &
Arvidsson, 2011; Cutting & Dunn, 2006; Howe & Ross, 1990; McAlister & Peterson,
2006). For example, Howe and Ross (1990) examined the association between sibling
relationship quality and first-born’s perspective taking skills. Thirty-two children, with
ages ranging from 14 months to 5 years, were recruited for the study. Children were
observed for two 40-minute home visits, as well as one laboratory visit to assess
children’s perspective taking skills and the quality of sibling relationships. Results
indicated a positive correlation between positive sibling relationships and higher
perspective taking skills.
In a similar study, Cutting and Dunn (2006) studied the interactions between
children and the development of emotional understanding and perspective taking. Fortythree 4-year-olds were visited and observed twice at their preschools and once at home.
Children were observed for two 20-minute conversations: one with a peer and one with
their sibling; the interaction quality was coded based on cooperative play, conflict, bids
for attention, and unresponsiveness. Each child’s social-cognitive skills (perspective
taking and emotional understanding) were assessed using Denham’s tasks, where
children had to identify four emotions illustrated on facial pictures. These pictures were
also associated with a puppet story, and children were asked how the puppet might feel in
various situations. In addition, mothers were asked to assess their children’s relationship
with each other using the Colorado Sibling Interview. Results indicated that with both
16
siblings and peers, children who experienced more cooperative interactions exhibited
higher levels of perspective taking and emotional understanding. However, differences
were found in the amount of communication and cooperative play between relationships:
children experienced more communication, conflict, and cooperative play with their
siblings than with their peers.
Additionally, McAlister and Peterson (2006) examined the relationship between
having siblings and the development of theory of mind. The researchers recruited 124
children, with 19% being defined as having no siblings. Children received two visits a
week apart at their preschools and were given different tasks from the Theory of Mind
(ToM) battery, which involves three different tests: false belief, appearance reality, and
pretend representation. Results showed that children with siblings were more advanced in
their theory of mind development than children with no siblings, suggesting that siblings
may play an important role in helping children develop advanced perspective taking and
theory of mind, and can contribute to children’s social cognitive skills.
These findings suggest that siblings can help children learn to successfully
understand perspective taking and the emotions of others, as well as develop an advanced
theory of mind. For instance, the quality of sibling relationships may help create and
develop higher perspective taking skills and theory of mind, as children with more
positive sibling relationships are more likely to consider their siblings’ feelings and
emotions (Howe & Ross, 1990). However, other research (Bengtsson & Arvidsson, 2011)
suggests that these skills facilitate higher quality relationships, as perspective-taking
skills may help children in regulating their emotions. Cutting and Dunn (2006) elaborate
17
on these findings, suggesting that siblings provide opportunities to share one another’s
thoughts and feelings during play, which may guide children into developing and
continuously improving their perspective taking skills. Further, these skills continue to be
enhanced through play with peers, thereby leading to higher quality friendships. Thus, in
order to provide parents with a better understanding of the importance of sibling
relationships in children’s cognitive skills, the current website projects discusses these
findings on the website.
Sibling relationships have also been linked to a child’s social adjustment, as
siblings provide children the opportunity to learn how to be social with those near the
same age. (Downey & Condron, 2004; Recchia & Howe, 2009a) Downey and Condron
(2004) examined social and interpersonal skills in children with siblings and only
children. Data were collected from 20,649 children from a previous study. Teachers were
asked to rate children’s frequency in interpersonal skills, self-control, and externalizing
behaviors in the classroom using a 4-point likert scale. Results indicated that teachers
rated children with siblings higher in interpersonal skills than children with no siblings.
In addition, teachers rated children with siblings as having fewer externalizing problem
behaviors and higher self-control than only children.
Sibling relationships may also predict a child’s peer relationships, which can also
be related to social and emotional adjustment (Stocker & Youngblade, 1999). For
example, Lockwood, Kitzmann and Cohen (2001) examined the association between
sibling relationship quality and children’s peer social competence in middle childhood.
The researchers recruited 53 children in third through sixth grade who had between one
18
and four siblings. The sibling relationship quality questionnaire assessed sibling warmth
and conflict with their closest in age sibling. Peer relationships were assessed through
sociometric nominations and ratings (children’s rate of “likeability” of specific peers).
Results revealed that there was a positive association between sibling warmth and
positive peer relationships. In addition, sibling warmth was associated with more positive
peer relationships for both younger and older children.
In sum, sibling relationships can contribute to children’s higher interpersonal
skills and lower externalizing behaviors, and may predict the quality of children’s peer
relationships later on in life (Downey & Condron, 2004; Lockwood et al., 2001; Stocker
& Youngblade, 1999). Researchers suggest that children with siblings may be put into
more situations where they are expected to control their negative feelings (such as during
sibling conflict) than only children, thus resulting in better self control and fewer
externalizing behaviors (Downey & Condron, 2004). Further, as children develop these
social skills with their siblings, they may begin to generalize these skills with their peers,
leading to higher quality peer relationships (Lockwood et al., 2001). Research also
suggests that children who experience positive sibling relationships may generalize this
view onto relationships with their peers, leading to self-fulfilling expectations in peer
relationships (Howe et al., 2001; Lockwood et al., 2001). Hence, in an effort to portray
the importance of sibling relationships in children’s social development to parents, the
current website project discusses and elaborates on these findings and how they
contribute to children’s social development and future relationships.
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Sibling Relationship Quality
Although the benefits of sibling relationships are clearly represented throughout
research, the strength of these benefits depends on the quality (warmth) of a child’s
relationship with his or her siblings (Howe et al., 2001; Richmond et al., 2005). Howe,
Aquan-Assee, Bukowski, and Lehoux (2001) examined sibling warmth and emotional
understanding in children. Participants included 40 fifth and sixth grade children, who
completed the Sibling Relationship Questionnaire about their closest in age sibling.
Children were then individually interviewed about their relationships with family and
friends, and then completed the Hypothetical Relationships Picture Task to assess
emotional understanding. Results indicated that children who reported higher sibling
warmth (quality) demonstrated higher emotional understanding than those with lower
sibling relationship quality.
Other evidence of the link between sibling relationship quality and adjustment is
found in a study conducted by Richmond, Stocker, and Rienks (2005). Richmond and
colleagues (2005) examined associations between sibling relationships and children’s
adjustment as they transitioned to adolescence from middle childhood. One hundred
thirty-three sibling dyads were recruited for the study. Each family visited a university
lab for 2-3 hours at three different time points: the initial visit, two years later, and then
again four years later. Parents answered information on their family relationships and
children’s adjustment, and children were interviewed on their relationships and
adjustment. The findings revealed “as sibling relationships became warmer and less
conflictual over time, children’s feelings of depressed mood declined over time.” (p.
20
556). Similarly, for siblings whose relationship warmth declined over time, higher
feelings of depressed mood were discovered.
These results suggest that the quality of sibling relationships may influence how
beneficial sibling relationships are to children’s development. Children who experience
higher sibling warmth may have more opportunities to be mutually supportive and open
with their sibling, which can also establish a more secure relationship (Howe et al.,
2011). In addition, research suggests that high quality sibling relationships may reduce
the stress that is often associated with entering into adolescence, thereby improving
overall social and psychological adjustment (Richmond et al., 2005). However, if the
quality of the sibling relationship is low, these results are not as easily seen, thereby
suggesting that the quality of the sibling relationship makes a difference in whether such
relationships provide benefits for children. In order to better understand how the quality
of sibling relationships influences children’s development, the current website project
aims to inform parents about the importance of quality in sibling relationships in
predicting children’s developmental outcome. More specifically, the website
demonstrates to parents how the quality of sibling relationships can influences the
amount of benefits children receive in these relationships.
Sibling Conflict
Sibling conflict is a common, sometimes daily occurrence in sibling relationships
(Ram & Ross, 2008). In addition, it is also a primary concern among parents regarding
21
their children’s relationships with one another (Updegraff et al., 2005). Research has
reported beneficial outcomes for children who experience sibling conflict; however, it is
not necessarily the conflict itself, rather, what happens as the conflict takes place.
Raffaelli (1992) created a framework that describes the process of sibling conflict as the
onset, process, and aftermath. The onset of conflict is described as what happens before
the conflict begins, and is generally the situation that causes the conflict, such as a
disagreement over an object or idea. The process of conflict occurs over the duration of
the conflict, such as the negotiation and resolution strategies children use to resolve it.
This also includes those outside of the conflict who become involved, such as parents.
Lastly, the aftermath is discussed as the emotions displayed after the conflict is resolved
(Rafaelli, 1992).
The benefits and risks associated with sibling conflict may follow Raffaelli’s
(1992) framework. For example, when children enter into a conflict (the onset), they
begin to negotiate and share emotions, in an effort to resolve the conflict (the process).
Research has suggested that children in higher quality sibling relationships are more
likely to develop positive conflict resolution strategies (Killoren et al., 2008), which can
lead to more positive emotions after a conflict has been resolved (aftermath). Research
suggests that positive sibling conflict experiences can lead to better social skills, moral
development, and stronger relationships with siblings and peers (Killoren et al., 2008;
Ram & Ross, 2008, Recchia & Howe, 2009a). In contrast, children in lower quality
sibling relationships may not negotiate and practice successful resolution strategies
during conflict, resulting in more negative emotions afterwards, as the conflict may not
22
be resolved efficiently. Research suggests that negative experiences in sibling conflict
can lead to more negative developments later on, such as increased anxiety, depressed
mood, and delinquent behavior (Kim et al., 2007; Stocker, Burwell, & Briggs, 2002).
Thus, the current project aims to provide parents with information on the definition,
benefits, and risks of sibling conflict, as well as discuss children’s conflict resolution
strategies.
Benefits and Risks of Sibling Conflict
Research indicates that sibling conflict can have short and long term implications
for a child’s social and moral development, although research has shown conflicting
results as to the extent of these implications (Perlman et al., 2009). One of the benefits of
sibling relationships is that conflict experiences with siblings have the potential to
promote social and moral development, which can lead to more positive interactions in
other significant relationships with peers (Ram & Ross, 2008; Recchia & Howe, 2009a).
Previous research suggests that sibling conflict can provide children opportunities to
learn how to resolve conflict. For example, Ram and Ross (2008) examined the influence
of information-sharing on children’s negotiation and resolution strategies during conflict.
Participants in their study included 32 sibling dyads between the ages of 4 to 8 years old.
Each sibling dyad was presented with a toy division problem, in which the siblings had to
decide together who could take what highly preferred toy home. These interactions were
recorded and coded based on children’s negotiation moves (problem solving, contention
and struggle) and resolution types (integrative, straight, or no resolution). The results
23
indicated that when children exchanged information about their goals during the conflict,
they used more constructive resolution skills.
Research conducted by Recchia and Howe (2009a) also supports the idea that
children’s experiences with sibling conflict can promote social and moral development.
In this study the researchers examined how the quality of sibling relationships and
children’s social understanding influenced sibling conflict behavior. Sixty-two sibling
dyads aged 4 to 10 years old, and their primary caregivers were asked to participate in
two sessions either in home or in a university lab setting. Children were asked to provide
a narrative report on a conflict with their sibling, and then asked the same question again
ten days later on another conflict. All interviews were recorded and coded based on
children’s references towards perspectives (cognition, goals, and emotions). In addition,
siblings were asked to perform false belief tasks to assess theory of mind, conflict
interpretation, and sibling relationships. Results indicated that high quality sibling
relationships were linked to positive conflict processing.
These findings indicate that sibling conflict may be viewed as a learning
experience that develops negotiation and conflict resolution strategies, which can benefit
children as they continue to develop socially and interact with peers (Ram & Ross, 2008).
Further, sibling conflict may provide siblings with an understanding of another’s point of
view, enhancing children’s perspective taking skills and thereby increasing the quality of
the relationship (Cutting & Dunn, 2006; Howe & Ross, 1990). In turn, this may motivate
children to resolve conflict in more constructive, socially acceptable ways (Recchia &
Howe, 2009a). These findings demonstrate the importance of examining sibling conflict
24
in association with a child’s overall social and moral development. Hence, the current
website project discusses this research in a comprehensive format for parents to access,
specifically listing the benefits seen in research.
Past research has also indicated that experience with sibling conflict can result in
negative consequences for children’s development. In one such study, Stocker, Burwell,
and Briggs (2002) recruited 136 sibling dyads, aged 8- 12 years, for a study that
examined sibling conflict and children’s psychological adjustment. Siblings were
interviewed at the beginning of the study (time 1) and again two years later (time 2),
during the transition between middle childhood and adolescence. At each time period,
families visited a university laboratory and participated in a 7-minute board game, as well
as interviews and questionnaires. Parents were asked about family relationships and their
children’s adjustments, whereas children answered questions on their sibling
relationships and adjustment. Results indicated that sibling conflict was positively
associated with negative psychological adjustment (i.e. increase in anxiety, depressed
mood and delinquent behavior) over the two year time period.
Similarly, Kim, McHale, Crouter, and Osgood (2007) conducted a longitudinal
study that focused on the linkages between sibling conflict and adjustment in middle
childhood. The researchers interviewed 197 families in their homes once a year for four
years. Each family member was interviewed separately on sibling relationships, parent
responsiveness, and perceived peer social competence. The results indicated that children
with less conflict (higher warmth) in sibling relationships were more likely to exhibit
positive social competence, whereas siblings who experienced more conflict were linked
25
to more negative adjustments. Kim and colleagues provide two possible scenarios to
explain the findings. Children who learn to resolve sibling conflict may have stronger
sibling relationships and be better able to adjust to social opportunities within peers
groups. Likewise, children who experience frequent sibling conflict that goes unresolved
might not have developed the necessary social skills, and experience more negative social
interactions with peers.
These findings conflict with other research suggesting that sibling conflict is
beneficial to children’s development (Ram & Ross, 2008; Recchia & Howe, 2009a), and
portray sibling conflict as having a more detrimental effect on children’s social and
psychological adjustment. Some research (Campione-Barr & Smetana, 2010) suggests
that sibling conflict may provide children with more negative experiences, making it
more difficult for children to develop feelings of trust and closeness with their siblings
and future peers. These negative experiences in relationships may also result in increased
feelings of anxiety and depression, which may over time result in poorer psychological
adjustment. Furthermore, sibling conflict may teach children inappropriate, aggressive
behavior that is generalized to other relationships, reducing the quality of children’s
relationships with others (Stocker et al., 2002). However, other research (Kim et al.,
2007) suggests that it is it is not necessarily the sibling conflict that is beneficial or
detrimental to children’s social and moral development. Rather, it is the experiences and
formation of conflict resolution strategies children develop through sibling conflict that
aids in social development and adjustment. Hence, children who learn how to resolve
26
conflict appropriately may not experience the same negative outcomes seen in sibling
conflict as children who do not learn to resolve conflict appropriately.
Given the significant amount of research on the benefits and risks of sibling
conflict, it is important to provide parents the opportunity to understand sibling conflict,
both in terms of when sibling conflict is considered beneficial and at other times when
they may need to intervene. For instance, if a parent is able to recognize when their
children’s relationships may be negatively affecting their development, they can take the
steps necessary to prevent this occurrence- either through direct involvement or outside
sources. Thus, the current website project also discusses these research findings on the
risks of sibling conflict in an easy to read format, so that parents may have the necessary
information on the importance of this topic and an awareness of features of potentially
negative sibling relationships.
Constructive and Deconstructive Conflict
The current website project presents the conflicting findings on the benefits and
risks of sibling conflict while distinguishing between two types of conflict: destructive
conflict and constructive conflict. Constructive conflict occurs when children use more
positive strategies to resolve conflict, such as negotiation, collaboration, and compromise.
Deconstructive conflict occurs when children use more negative strategies, such as namecalling, aggression, or coercion (Howe et al., 2002). In terms of research on sibling
conflict, these concepts are an effort to explain the contradictory findings seen in
research. As stated previously, Kim and colleagues (2007) suggest that the benefits and
27
risks of sibling conflict depend on how children resolve conflicts with one another. For
example, children who learn to resolve sibling conflict in a positive manner (constructive
conflict) may be better able to extend these skills to other social peer groups, thereby
benefiting their social adjustment. In contrast, siblings who let their conflict go
unresolved or take a more negative approach may also experience negative interactions
when resolving conflict with their peers. These terms are also used in the current project
in an effort to explain the contradictory findings seen in research regarding the benefits
and risks of sibling conflict.
Sibling Conflict Resolution Strategies
There have been a number of studies examining sibling conflict, with a focus on
strategies siblings use to resolve conflict in interpersonal relationships. One model of
conflict resolution, the Dual Concern model, proposes three types of conflict resolution
strategies (Killoren et al., 2008; Thayer, Updegraff, & Delgado, 2008). In Controlling
resolution strategies, a person’s primary goal is self satisfaction, with little consideration
for others. For example, this could be a child refusing to back down from their position in
an argument until they get what they desire from the argument. Nonconfrontational
strategies, such as avoiding or withdrawing from the conflict, involve low consideration
for one’s self as well as others. Solution Orientation strategies consist of compromise and
negotiation and are associated with having high consideration towards one self and
others. Hence, the primary goal in solution orientation is to resolve the conflict mutually
in order to preserve the relationship (Killoren et al., 2008). Killoren and colleagues
28
(2008) argue that it is through these sibling conflict resolution strategies that children
develop valuable conflict management skills that can be useful to other relationships.
Descriptions and information on these conflict resolution strategies are posted on the
current website for parents to review.
Research suggests that children’s conflict resolution strategies change over time,
and that they become more cognitively sophisticated as they mature. For example,
Perlman, Ross, and Garfinkel (2009) studied children’s conflict resolution patterns with
their siblings. Thirty-eight sibling dyads were recruited for the study: nineteen 2-yearolds and ninenteen 4-year-olds. Families were visited six times for 90 minutes each, and
interactions between children were observed. Analyses of behavior revealed that younger
children had more variation in their response to conflict, whereas 4-year-olds were more
consistent in their strategies. These findings suggest that “as children mature through the
preschool years their conflict patterns become more homogeneous” (Perlman, Ross, &
Garfinkel, 2009, p. 504).
The researchers also argue that children do not select conflict strategies
independently (Perlman et al., 2009). Rather, children respond to the sibling’s behavior as
well as any third parties that have become involved in the conflict, such as parents. In
addition, younger siblings tend to use fewer strategies, and are often dominated by older
siblings when parents do not intervene (Kramer et al., 2007; Ram & Ross, 2008; Recchia
& Howe, 2009a). These findings illustrate that children’s conflict resolution strategies do
vary based on age, and that as children get older, their conflict resolution strategies may
become more sophisticated.
29
In an effort to educate parents on how children’s conflict resolution changes over
time and with age, the current website also provides information on sibling conflict
resolution strategies. The conflict resolution strategies are described in detail with
relatable examples; parents are then provided research-based information on variations in
age and birth, which suggest that children’s conflict resolution strategies change over
time, and become more sophisticated as children grow older.
Parent and Family Factors and Sibling Relationships
The current project addresses the role that parents play in setting a context for
sibling interactions and relationships. Children’s relationships with parents as well as
parental behavior towards sibling conflict have been found to be a significant factor in
children’s social development, as parents tend to guide their children through their
relationship experiences (Updegraff et al., 2005). For instance, the quality of parent-child
relationships has been linked to attachment security with peers, as parents have been
found to be significant predictors of school-aged children’s social skills (Allen et al.,
2007; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care
Research Network [NICHD], 2009). Similarly, parental differential treatment may also
have an influence on children’s development, as younger children have been found to
respond more negatively when viewed as less favored and more positively when favored
(McHale et al., 1995; Shanahan et al., 2008). Quality of parents’ marital relationship can
30
also influence children’s relationships with siblings and peers, as well as the family
function as a whole (Stocker et al., 2002; Yu & Gamble, 2008)
Quality of Parent-Child Interaction
Past research suggests that a parent’s relationship with his or her child may
influence that child’s future relationships with siblings and peers. For instance, Allen,
Porter, McFarland, McElhaney and Marsh (2007) examined the associations between
adolescents’ attachment security and parental and peer relationships. The researchers
recruited 167 seventh and eighth graders for the study; participants were interviewed
twice every year for three years, with one individual interview and then an additional
interview with a close peer. The parent-child relationship quality was assessed using the
adult attachment interview (AAI) and the Q-set. Similarly, children answered the
Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment to examine overall quality of peer relationships.
Results showed that attachment security with peers was significantly correlated with
quality of parent-child relationships.
In addition to contributing to siblings’ social development and relationship
quality, parents may also enhance their children’s social skills. In a study by the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Childcare Research Network
(NICHD, 2009), 900 children were followed and assessed from birth to third grade to
examine parent-child relationships and children’s later social skills. Both mother-child
and father-child relationships were found to be significant predictors of children’s social
skills at first and third grade. As the parent-child relationship quality increased, fewer
31
attention problems and higher social skills were reported. These findings suggest that
both parents have an influential role in children’s development and social skills,
including their interactions with siblings and peers.
The quality of parent-child relationships can also have a significant influence on
children’s cognitive development (Schroeder & Kelley, 2010). Schroeder and Kelley
(2010) recruited 100 parents with children 5 to 12 years of age to examine the
relationship between parent-child relationships and executive functioning in children.
Parents completed the Parent-Child Relationship Inventory scale to assess parents’
relationship with their children and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive
Functioning (BRIEF) to assess children’s executive functioning. All questionnaires were
provided online for the parent to access. Results revealed that the quality of parent-child
relationships were significantly associated with children’s higher executive functioning.
Similarly, Bernier, Carlson, Deschenes, and Matte-Gagne (2011) examined the
associations between child attachment security and children’s executive functions. Sixtytwo families were recruited for the study, and visited when children were 12 months, 15
months, 18 months, 2 and 3 years of age. All visits lasted between 70 to 90 minutes, and
varied between the home and researchers’ laboratory. Over the course of five visits,
parents were recorded interacting with their children, child attachment security was
assessed twice (at 15 months and 2 years) using the Attachment Behavior Q-Sort (AQS),
and child executive functioning was examined at ages 2 and 3 years using a variety of
tasks performed in past studies (Bernier et al., 2010; Carlson (2005); as cited in Bernier,
Carlson, Deschenes, & Matt-Gagne, 2011). Results indicated that children with higher
32
parent-child attachments exhibited higher conflict executive functioning, which consists
of working memory, set-shifting and inhibitory control, than children with low parentchild attachment.
These findings suggest that the parent-child relationship has a significant role in
children’s developmental outcomes and relationships with others. The majority of
research (Allen et al., 2007; Bernier et al., 2011; NICHD, 2009; Schroeder & Kelley,
2010) suggests that children with more secure attachments to their parents are more likely
to exhibit higher executive functioning, which pertains to a child’s behavioral and
emotional regulation. In addition, children’s ability to regulate their emotions has been
linked to their perspective-taking skills, which can increase the quality of sibling and peer
relationships (Bengtsson & Arvidsson, 2011; Lockwood et al., 2001). Thus, the quality of
the parent-child relationship may influence children’s sociocognitive skills with their
siblings and peers. Further, positive parent interaction has also been found to enhance
children’s social skills, which has been linked to children’s higher interpersonal skills
with peers and fewer attention problems in school (Downey & Condron, 2004;
Lockwood et al., 2001). Thus, given the significant amount of research on the influence
of the parent-child relationship on children’s social and cognitive skills, the current
website project provides a webpage for parents to read about the importance of parental
involvement in sibling interactions and children’s development. More specifically, how
the quality of the parent-child relationship influences the quality of sibling relationships.
33
Parent Differential Treatment
Research indicates that parents’ differential treatment towards their children, that
is the degree to which parents differ in warmth and conflict displayed with each child is
linked to the quality sibling relationships (McHale et al., 1995; Scholte, Engels, de Kemp,
Harakeh, & Overbeek, 2007; Shanahan et al., 2008; Tamrouti-Makkink, Dubas, Gerris, &
van Aken, 2004). In one study, Shanahan, McHale, Crouter, and Osgood (2008)
examined the relationship between parent differential treatment (warmth and conflict),
birth order, sibling relationship quality, and youth adjustment. Data were collected from a
previous cross-sectional, longitudinal study, and data from 201 families met the criteria
for the current study, in which first-born children were in the fourth or fifth grade, with a
younger sibling one to four years younger. Families participated in a 2 to 3 hour
interview every year for six years. Parents filled out a subscale of the Child’s Report of
Parental Behavior Inventory, which assessed parents’ warmth towards their children.
Children filled out questionnaires assessing sibling warmth, parent youth conflict,
perception of differential treatment and parental warmth. Results indicated that children
who reported less parental warmth than their siblings did (differential parental warmth)
also reported lower sibling dyad warmth. This association was greater for firstborn than
for second-born children (Shanahan et al., 2008). Children who reported higher levels of
parental conflict than their siblings also reported higher sibling conflict (differential
parental conflict); however, this association was stronger in second born siblings than
first born.
34
In a similar study, McHale, Crouter, McGuire, and Updegraff (1995) examined
parent differential treatment and sibling relationship quality. Participants included 110
intact families and their firstborn and secondborn siblings. Each family was interviewed,
with parent interviews lasting 2 hours and sibling interviews lasting 1 hour. Parents’
differential treatment was coded using a modified version of Sibling Inventory of
Differential Experiences, and the Sibling Relationship Inventory Scale assessed sibling
relationships. Results revealed that parents who participated in equal treatment had
children with higher sibling relationship quality. There were stronger associations
between differential treatment and younger children’s interactions with their siblings in
that younger siblings responded more negatively when viewed as less favored and more
positively when favored; these results were not found in older siblings.
The overall findings suggest that how parents interact with each sibling is linked
to the sibling relationship quality as a whole, and that differential treatment may interact
with birth order. In particular, younger siblings appear to be more vulnerable to parental
differential treatment (McHale et al., 1995). Researchers suggest that older siblings may
be less vulnerable to differential parental treatment due to advanced social and cognitive
skills, which may make them more tolerant of the differential treatment (Scholte et al.,
2007). However, some research has found that older siblings are more likely to
experience adverse effects of differential parental treatment than younger siblings
(Shanahan et al., 2008; Tamrouti-Makkink et al., 2004). Tamrouti-Makkink, Dubas,
Gerris, & van Aken (2004) summarize the differences seen in research, arguing that the
influence of parental differential treatment depend on “the gender composition of the
35
sibling pairs and the birth rank of the child” (p. 1403). However, regardless of whether
older or younger siblings have more negatives experiences with differential parental
treatment, all studies discovered that children who reported low parental warmth or high
parental conflict were more likely to report lower quality sibling relationships as well
(Mchale et al. 1995, Scholte et al., 2007; Shanahan et al., 2008). Thus, the current
website project aims to provide parents an opportunity to learn about what differential
parental treatment is and how it can negatively effect sibling relationship quality. The
above research findings are listed online in a comprehensive form.
Family Functioning and Quality of Marital Relationships
Not only do parent interactions with their children influence sibling relationships,
but how the family handles conflict as a whole may also contribute to more positive
resolution strategies and higher quality relationships. Brody, Stoneman, McCoy, and
Forehand (1992) examined associations between family functioning and sibling conflict.
The researchers recruited 152 families with children aged 5 to 14 years old. Families
were observed in home and in the laboratory, and participated in the Family Problem
Solving task, which assessed family involvement in resolving sibling conflict. Sibling
interactions were also recorded, and parents completed a family relationships assessment.
The results indicated that families who approached sibling conflict in a harmonious
manner and with equal treatment towards each child were more likely to have children
with lower sibling conflict levels.
36
Marital parent relationship quality is also associated with children's relationships
with siblings and peers (Stocker & Youngblade, 1999; Yu & Gamble, 2008). For
example, Yu and Gamble (2008) studied the relationship between marital relationship
quality and the children’s sibling relationship with 130 mothers of preschool-aged
children. Mothers completed several questionnaires, including Coparental Interaction
Questionnaire, a modified version of Conflict over Child Rearing, and the Short Marital
Adjustment Test to assess marital relationship quality. Mothers also filled out the
Parental Expectations and Perceptions Relationships Questionnaire to assess sibling
relationship quality. Results indicated that parents with higher relationship quality were
more likely to have children with higher sibling relationship quality. The researchers also
found that parents’ marital relationship may have a direct influence on their parent styles,
which could then interfere with parent-child relationships, and therefore influence the
sibling relationship quality. For example, if parents are facing high marital conflict, this
could lead to more negative parent-child interactions, which could further leave to higher
conflict between siblings.
Similarly, Stocker and Youngblade (1999) studied 136 intact families with two
children to investigate the link between marital interaction quality and the quality of
siblings’ interactions with each other. Each family was observed for 2 hours at a
university laboratory. Parents completed the Relationship Problem Inventory, and then
were videotaped discussing areas of conflict and positive aspects of the marriage.
Families were then recorded playing a board game together and discussing fun activities
and areas of conflict in the family. Parents were asked to complete additional
37
questionnaires about marital conflict and children's peer status. Children were also
interviewed separately to assess their sibling relationship quality and interpretations of
their parents’ marital conflict. Results revealed that children who reported higher sibling
conflict, lower sibling relationship quality and negative peer relationships were more
likely to have parents who reported higher marital conflict.
These findings suggest that families who can come together and discuss sibling
conflict impartially and appropriately may significantly reduce sibling rivalry and lead to
more positive conflict resolution strategies (Brody, Stoneman, McCoy, & Forehand,
1992). By discussing the conflicts and resolving them together, parents may be modeling
an appropriate conflict resolution skill, which coincides with previous findings that
children do not develop or select conflict strategies independently (Perlman et al., 2009).
Similarly, how parents resolve conflicts with each other may also have an effect on
children’s relationships with siblings and peers, as research has indicated that parents
who experience high marital conflict may interact in more negative parent-child
interactions, which may lead to higher conflict between siblings, reducing the sibling
relationship quality (Yu & Gamble, 2008). Stocker and Youngblade (1999) suggest that
children may "model their parent's hostility and negative affect with peers and siblings,
leading to more conflictual and less affectionate relationships" (p. 605). Furthermore,
children may view their parents’ marital conflict as a model for all relationships, and may
react negatively to or avoid future relationships with siblings and peers. Hence, the
current website project aimed to provide parents the opportunity to learn about how
family involvement and parents’ relationship quality interacts in sibling relationships.
38
The website provides detailed, research-based information on why and how parent-child
relationships, family involvement, and marital relationships might effect a child’s social
and cognitive development.
Parent Response to Sibling Conflict
Parents may also have a significant influence in how children resolve conflict
with their siblings. For instance, research has shown that how a parent views sibling
conflict is related to how children respond to sibling conflict. Randell and Peterson
(2009) examined how mothers’ attitudes towards sibling conflict affected children’s
emotional state after an argument. Mothers’ attitudes towards sibling conflict were coded
as either constructive and helpful or destructive and harmful; children’s affect was coded
as negative, neutral, or amicable. The results indicated that children who experienced
more positive emotions after sibling conflict often had mothers who viewed sibling
conflict as positive, constructive, and developmentally productive. Likewise, children
who experienced more distress after sibling conflict often had mothers who viewed
sibling conflict as negative (Randell & Peterson, 2009). Hence, a mother’s view of the
beneficial and/or detrimental effects of sibling conflict may influence her choice of
different response strategies. The current project aims to provide parents with researchbased information on responding to sibling conflict to promote a more positive
management of the conflicts that arise in their children.
39
Many parents wonder whether they should respond to sibling conflict (Perozynski
& Kramer, 1999). There are theoretical differences as to whether parents should respond
to their children’s conflict. The Alderian theory (Dreikurs, 1964) suggests parents
intervening in sibling conflict may create further sibling rivalry, especially if children
perceive their parents interacting with differential treatment towards the other sibling.
Dreikurs (1964) suggests that sibling conflict is in some ways an effort to gain parents’
attention, which may promote additional conflicts in the future (Mchale et al., 2000;
Milevsky, Schlechter, & Machlev, 2011). In contrast, Dunn and Munn (1986) suggest
that it is how parents respond to conflict, as opposed to how often parents intervene.
These researchers argue that parents can be considered “mediators” in their children’s
conflicts and can interact as a guide to resolve conflicts, leading to more positive conflict
resolution strategies and higher quality sibling relationships (Mchale et al., 2000;
Milevsky et al., 2011; Perlman & Ross, 1997; Perozynski & Kramer, 1999). The current
website project supports the idea that parental involvement can promote positive sibling
conflict resolution strategies and relationships, and provides supporting research on the
website for parents to access.
Other empirical research also indicates that parents may need to intervene or
respond in order for children to successfully develop optimal conflict resolution
strategies; however, whether or not a parent needs to respond to sibling conflict may
depend on the age of their children (Kramer et al., 1999; Martin & Ross, 2005;
Perozynski & Kramer, 1999). For example, Kramer, Perozynski, and Chung (1999)
studied parent responses to their children’s sibling conflicts. Eighty-eight families were
40
observed and recorded in three separate home visits, one week apart, for 30 to 45
minutes. Each home visit was coded as follows: The number, type, intensity, and length
of each conflict that occurred, whether or not the parent chose to intervene in the conflict
and if so, which parental strategies were used to resolve the conflict. Sibling interaction
quality was also observed and rated on a 5-point Likert Scale, ranging from
rivalry/competition to warmth. Results indicated that the associations between parent
response strategies and sibling interactions varied not only on the type of strategy, but on
the age of the children as well. For example, younger children increased negative
behavior during sibling conflict when parents chose not to intervene, whereas older
children reported less sibling warmth when their parents were more likely to intervene.
Thus, the researchers suggest that younger siblings may benefit more from parental
intervention than older siblings. Hence, the current website project provides parents with
research-based information on when and how to respond to sibling conflict using
Further, McHale, Updegraff, Tucker, and Crouter (2000) created a measure that
identified three patterns or main strategies parents use in responding to sibling conflict.
The first category is intervention methods, in which the parent uses strategies such as
stepping in between the conflict or asking one’s spouse to become involved. The second
strategy, coaching, involves helping siblings express their feelings or giving advice on
how to solve the problem, without the parent actually solving it for the siblings. Lastly,
nonintervention strategies are most commonly associated with parents ignoring the
conflict or telling the siblings to work it out amongst themselves. In addition, McHale
and colleagues (2000) found that mothers were more likely to use coaching or
41
nonintervention strategies, whereas fathers were more likely to use intervention
strategies. These strategies, in addition to potential questions parents may have about
these strategies, are listed on the current website.
Conclusion
The purpose of this review was to explore research on sibling relationships and
sibling conflict as well as parents’ involvement in these relationships in an effort to
inform a web-based project for parents. The research suggests that sibling relationships
are a significant part in a child’s psychological and social development, and factors that
could influence the direction of this relationship should be examined. Past research has
also produced mixed results in regards to the benefits and risks of sibling conflict,
implying that there may be additional factors influencing sibling conflict that could have
an overall effect on the sibling relationship. In addition, a review of literature on parent
involvement in sibling relationships revealed that both the parents’ relationship and the
parent child relationship have a significant influence on children’s relationships with
siblings and peers. Furthermore, the research reviewed on parent response to children’s
conflict indicates that parents may have a strong, influential role on how children learn
from sibling conflict. This research indicates that there are several factors to be
considered in deciding whether and how parents intervene, and that interventions that are
child centered may have the most benefits for children.
42
Based on this review, a web site was developed as part of this project to provide
parents with information on the importance of sibling relationships across development
and how sibling conflict can affect these relationships. In addition, parents can also learn
the importance of their role in children’s relationships and conflicts with others, as well
as common parent response strategies seen in research.
43
Chapter 3
METHOD
The purpose of this project was to create a website that provides parents with
important information regarding their children’s relationships, including the importance
of sibling relationships for development, the role of parents in setting the context for
sibling relationships, benefits and risks of sibling conflict, sibling conflict resolution
strategies, as well as the importance of parental involvement in these conflicts.
Target Audience
The primary target audience for this project includes families with two or more
preschool-aged or school-aged children. However, this website also reaches out to those
interested in learning more about sibling relationships and conflict, and parents and other
professionals interested in how to respond to their children’s conflict. A college student
doing research related to sibling relationships might also find this website useful, as all
references are linked to footnotes to the empirical literature throughout the site.
In an effort to evaluate the usefulness of the site for parents of children, five
families known to the researcher who met the above criteria were asked to view the
website and provide feedback on their perceptions of the site. These parents filled out a
five question evaluation survey available online at the website (see Appendix B).
44
Website Development
Literature Review
To develop the web site, the researcher first conducted a review of the scholarly
literature on sibling relationships, including the importance of sibling relationships for
children’s development, benefits and risks of sibling conflict and siblings’ conflict
resolution strategies, parent involvement in sibling relationships and parent’s roles in
sibling conflict. This research suggested that siblings’ relationships with each other have
a significant influence on a child’s development, particularly in regards to sibling conflict
(Criss & Shaw, 2005; Kim et al., 2007; Ram & Ross, 2008; Richmond et al., 2005;
Updegraff et. al, 2005). The researcher continued to examine sibling conflict in a variety
of studies, finding that the benefits and risks of sibling conflict are mixed. Whereas some
studies suggest that sibling conflict is beneficial to sibling relationships, other studies
have recommended that conflict may be more detrimental (Allen et al., 2007; Recchia &
Howe, 2009a; Recchia & Howe, 2009b; Kim et al., 2007; Stocker et al., 2002). The
conflicting results about sibling conflict led the researcher to explore sibling conflict
resolution strategies, and found that how siblings resolve conflict with each other may be
an underlying factor in how beneficial or detrimental sibling conflict is in sibling
relationships (Killoren et al., 2008; Perlman et al., 2009; Thayer et al., 2008). The
literature review also revealed a significant amount of research on parent involvement in
sibling conflicts. The researcher further investigated parents’ role in sibling conflict,
finding that how parents respond to sibling conflict may also affect how beneficial or
45
detrimental a parent’s role is in handing their children’s conflicts (Bernier et al., 2011;
Schroeder & Kelley, 2010). Similarly, the researcher discovered that parents’ marital
quality and how families respond to conflict as a whole may also contribute to children’s
development of conflict resolution strategies as well as the quality of their relationships
(Brody et al., 1992; Stocker & Youngblade, 1999; Yu & Gamble, 2008).
Web Search
A search on the web was performed for online information on sibling
relationships, sibling conflict, and parent involvement in sibling relationships. Although
the researcher did find various magazine, journal, and one page articles on these topics,
no website was found that focused specifically on siblings’ relationships and their
conflicts. In addition, the researcher did not find any websites geared towards parents
finding information on sibling relationships and sibling conflict. The researcher
frequently observed that most articles on these topics were difficult to find, as well as
appearing disorganized or misplaced on the hosting websites. A goal of the current
website project was therefore to provide parents with direct online resources about sibling
relationships and sibling conflict, as well as information that pertained to how parents
could respond to the conflict. Additionally, the project aimed to focus specifically on
sibling relationships and sibling conflict, without parents having to access or navigate
multiple layers to find it.
46
Creating the Website
The research gathered from the literature review and website search were
combined into a website named “Inside the World of Sibling Relationships”, for parents
to access (See Appendix A). The website was created using Microsoft publisher
(www.microsoft.com/publisher). After the website was developed, it was uploaded on
(http://worldofsiblings.freeoda.com).
The webpage structure included the following topics that were represented by one
or more pages on the web site. These pages are reproduced in Appendix A.
Introduction. The “Home” page provides a brief, introductory paragraph
restating the project’s purpose, including empirical research from the literature review
that supports the need for this website to exist.
Sibling Relationships. Three web pages were used to describe sibling
relationships, sibling conflict, and types of conflict resolution. The “Sibling
Relationships” page is in question-answer format, and focuses on the importance of
sibling relationships. Questions were created by asking parents known to the researcher
what questions they would want on the website so that only relevant information would
be provided. The “Sibling Conflict” page discusses the benefits and risks of sibling
conflict, and is also in question-answer format. The “Conflict Resolution” questionanswer page provides parents with information on the different ways siblings resolve
conflict with one another. This page also discusses variations among age groups and birth
order.
47
Parent Involvement. There are two pages for parental involvement, both in
question-answer format. “Parent Involvement in Sibling Relationships” provides parents
with research information on the importance of their role in their children’s relationships.
Parent-child relationship quality, differential treatment, and marital conflict are discussed.
“Parental Response” answers the overall question: “Do parents need to become involved
in their children’s quarrels?” This page also includes different strategies parents can
adopt in responding to sibling conflict, and research-based information on each topic.
Resources and Contacts. Two web pages are used at the conclusion of the
website in order to provide parents with further resources and opportunities to provide
feedback on the web page. The “Parent Resources” page provides links to outside sources
for parents who want more information on family and family life, such as parenting.com
or First 5 California. The last page is the “Contact” page. This page gives parents the
opportunity to evaluate and rate the effectiveness and helpfulness of the site, as well as a
comment box to provide specific comments on how to improve the site. All comment
forms were e-mailed to the primary researcher and her sponsor. Footnotes are placed
throughout the website and are linked to the research studies listed in the references
section (see Appendix A).
Website Evaluation
The website for the current project provides parents with an opportunity to fill out
and send a website evaluation form on the contents of the website. Parents and
48
professionals known by the researcher were specifically invited to view the website and
fill out the website evaluation listed on the webpage. These responses were used to
determine if the website met its goals: (a) to provide information on sibling relationships,
sibling conflict, and parent involvement; and (b) to provide this information in an
organized, clear manner that was easy for parents to read and use. Five parents who met
the primary audience criteria (two or more children and experience with sibling conflict)
were recruited from professional contacts and asked to view the website and complete the
survey on the last webpage. Since the parents were participating in a program evaluation
survey and not in a research study, the researcher did not collect any other demographic
or identifying information.
Parents could access the evaluation form directly on the website; there was no
specified time limit to review the website or complete the form. The evaluation form
contained five questions: three questions were based on a 3-point Likert- type scale, and
two questions were open ended. Parents were not required to answer each question,
which is as follows: (a) How helpful was this website to you regarding Sibling
Relationships? (b) How helpful was this website to you regarding Parent Response? (c)
Was this website easy to navigate? (d) What was the most useful information on the site?
(e) What would you like to see added to the site to make it more useful? (See Appendix
B). The results of the evaluation are reported in chapter 4.
49
Chapter 4
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this project was to provide important information on sibling
relationships, sibling conflict, and parent involvement to parents on an online website
designed specifically for this project. Sibling relationships are ubiquitous in family
contexts, and high quality sibling relationships can promote children’s cognitive and
social development (Criss & Shaw, 2005; Richmond et. al, 2005; Updegraff et. al, 2005).
Similarly, sibling conflict can promote positive conflict resolution skills, leading to better
relationships with siblings and peers (Downey & Condron, 2004; Perlman et al., 2009;
Ram & Ross, 2008; Recchia & Howe, 2009a; Recchia & Howe, 2009b). However, other
research findings suggest that exposure to sibling conflict may actually create a learning
environment for aggression (Kim et. al, 2007; Ostrov et al., 2006). Past research indicates
that the quality of parent-child relationships, parent differential treatment towards
siblings, and the quality of parent’s marital relationship may have an effect on children’s
cognitive development, social development, and future relationships with siblings and
peers (Allen et. al, 2007; Mchale et. al, 1995; Shanahan et. al, 2008; Stocker &
Youngblade, 1999; Yu & Gamble, 2008). Although past research has continuously shown
the correlations between sibling relationships, sibling conflict, and parent involvement,
no programs or guides have been developed that contribute to parental knowledge on the
subject.
The author accessed several references before developing the website. First, the
50
researcher performed a thorough literature review on sibling relationships, sibling
conflict, and parents’ roles in sibling relationships and conflict. Next, the researcher
conducted an extensive web search of parent-geared information on these topics. Lastly,
parents known to the researcher were asked about their interest in sibling relationships,
conflict, and parent involvement in order to provide the most relevant information on the
website.
The information gathered from these sources resulted in a website focused on the
definition and importance of sibling relationships and sibling conflict, as well as pertinent
information on the role parents have in their children’s relationship and conflict.
Additionally, the website provided parents with links to other literature and online
sources, as well as an online website evaluation to assess the helpfulness of the website
(see Appendix B).
Website Evaluation
After the website was published online, five parents known to the researcher were
asked to access the website and evaluate its usefulness using an online evaluation form.
Families were predominantly white, with two of the families being of Asian or Russian
descent. Parents were between the ages of 22 and 51 years old, and had two to three
children, ages 11 months to 22 years. Parent’s education ranged from high school to
medical school. The website evaluation survey contained five questions using a 3-point
Likert scale or open ended responses: (a) How helpful was this website to you regarding
51
sibling relationships? (b) How helpful was this website to you regarding parent response?
(c) Was this website easy to navigate? (d) What was the most useful information on the
site? (e) What would you like to see added to the site to make it more useful?
All parents who reviewed the website described it as a very useful tool for
learning about sibling relationships, sibling conflict, and parents’ roles and strategies.
One parent wrote, “I think the most useful information on the site concerns the different
types of sibling conflict and the different ways in which parents can get involved. The
site broke down the different conflicts very clearly, such as constructive versus
destructive, and presented the definitions, examples, and consequences of both types in a
very logical, simple and orderly fashion, which I very much appreciated as a reader. The
same thing can be said about the conflict resolution strategies and the parent responses
section.” Similarly, another parent wrote: “I liked the sections on conflicts and parent
responses- the detail of the types and explanation and examples were helpful.” However,
another parent suggested that although the website provided sufficient information on the
specified topics, it might be helpful if the information was presented another way: “… I
think adding a simple, colorful chart to the more clearly represented sections that involve
‘different types of’ would be visually helpful and would interrupt the monotony of
reading text after text”
All parents reported the website as useful regarding sibling relationships. On a
Likert scale from 1 to 3, (one being not helpful and three being very helpful), parents
unanimously reported , “very helpful,” with a 3 out of 3 rating on the usefulness of the
website regarding sibling relationships. One parent described the content of sibling
52
relationships as the most useful information on the site: “My husband and I have been
discussing the positives and negatives of having another child and this brought new
information to the table for us to disseminate. I also discovered that there are some
benefits to being an only child, which I hadn't considered before.”
Parents also found the website helpful for information on parent roles and
response. On a Likert scale from 1 to 3, (one being not helpful and three being very
helpful), all parents reported, “very helpful,” with a 3 out of 3 rating. Parents especially
liked the parent response section. One parent wrote: “It was interesting to learn that
conflict intervention differed depending not only on age but on birth order as well.”
Similarly, another parent mentioned “I liked the sections on conflicts and parent
responses- the detail of the types and explanation and examples were helpful”.
Parents unanimously reported that the website was very easy to navigate, giving a
3/3 on a Likert scale from 1 to 3 (one being a very hard time navigating to very easy to
navigate). When asked what could be added to make the site more useful, one parent
wrote: “I find the site very useful as it is. The Parent Resources page has plenty of links
to informational sites and literature regarding sibling relationships and even arts and
crafts.”
However, the parents did offer several suggestions on how to improve the site.
One parent suggested even more examples of parent intervention in conflict and tips on
how to handle these conflicts: “As a parent, I am always looking for that great tip on how
to handle a situation- that special wording or action that seems to help.” Additionally,
another parent recommended a webpage dedicated to a forum or discussion board for
53
parents to come together: “I think it might be kind of fun (and useful) to have a forum for
discussion among parents particularly with anecdotes about their children's various
conflicts and the results of the parents putting different strategies to use. This could be a
very helpful section to many parents who are reaching out to other parents for support
and camaraderie.” Another parent recommended two questions not discussed on the
website: “Any relationship between sibling conflict and bullying” and “Does anything
change within blended families?”
In summary, the results from the evaluation survey suggested that the parents
found the information very useful regarding sibling relationships and parent involvement,
and found the website easy to navigate through. Parents reported that the website was
easy to comprehend and provided an ample amount of information and sources about
sibling relationships, sibling conflict, parent roles in sibling relationships, and parent
response to sibling conflict. All parents who completed the evaluation reported that they
learned something new about sibling relationships and parent involvement. In addition,
parents also suggested ideas for new material to add to the website, as well as a message
board for parents to communicate with each other.
Overall, the researcher considers the website project to be a success, as the parent
feedback was highly positive. Feedback from the parents provided insight on how to
further improve the sight. For example, parents suggested a message board where parents
could communicate and share stories with each other, which would greatly enhance the
usefulness of the website.
Although the researcher’s literature review supplied several sources of
54
information on sibling relationships, sibling conflict, and parent roles and responses, the
researcher was surprised to not find any specific website designed to portray this
information to parents. The researcher performed a thorough web search on these topics
and did find some articles listed on the Parent Resource webpage, but could not find any
website dedicated to these topics. Given the highly influential role sibling relationships
and conflict have in children’s social and cognitive development (Cutting & Dunn, 2006;
Doney & Condron, 2004; McAlister & Peterson, 2006; Recchia & Howe, 2009a), more
websites should be created on the topic and advertised to parents. This would provide
parents more opportunities to learn and understanding how their children’s relationship
and conflict works within the family dynamic, as this was a question that came up in
several conversations with parents while creating the website.
In addition, research indicates that parent’s relationship with their children,
parental differential treatment, and the quality of the marital relationship can also
influence the quality of sibling relationships and children’s future relationships with peers
(Allen et al., 2007; Bernier et al., 2011; Brody et al., 1992; Shanahan et al., 2008; Yu &
Gamble, 2008). More research and project efforts should focus on relaying this
information to parents, as it may help parents become more aware of their roles in their
children’s lives and development. Similarly, research suggests that when and how a
parent intervenes in conflict could greatly influence the quality of their children’s
relationships (Kramer et al., 1999; Mchale et al., 2000; Randell & Peterson, 2009;
Perozynski & Kramer, 1999). Thus, it may be beneficial to create further websites or
workshops that focus specifically on parent response strategies and to educate parents on
55
when and how to respond to conflict; this could guide parents to respond to conflict in
ways that can contribute to higher quality parent-child and sibling relationships.
Recommendations
With consideration of the responses from the initial evaluation, several revisions
will be made to site. Certain pages will be reviewed and, if deemed appropriate, content
will be turned into an easy to read chart for parents to access. The researcher will also add
a page for parent communication by posting a discussion board forum, so that parents
may find support and seek advice from other parents, as well as share experiences with
one another. This discussion board forum will also be used for parents to post questions
for the researcher, who will answer questions on a monthly basis.
In addition, an “Updates” page will be created, in which the researcher can notify
families when new research has become available and has been added to the website
content. The researcher will update the website with new research as it becomes
available, in which the researcher will check quarterly. The website will be maintained
and updated by the researcher on a monthly basis, which will include updating related
research information, answering and monitoring posts from parents on the discussion
board forums. Similarly, the website evaluation form is posted on the website, and the
researcher will continue to make efforts to revise and add to the website based on parent
feedback. The author also suggests that the website continue to be distributed to larger
populations and evaluated so website improvements can continue.
56
The researcher intends to distribute the website link to a professor’s classroom
website, as well as other parent-child resource websites. This website may be of service
to parents, students, and other professionals interested in sibling relationships, conflict,
parent roles in children’s relationships and parent response to conflict. The website will
remain available as long as one viewer accesses it every six months. The website will be
reevaluated and maintenance reassessed every six months.
In regards to creating websites to portray research-based information to parents,
the researcher notes a few things. First, it is recommended that researchers interested in
creating websites have some knowledge of HTML coding and website development
programs. Additionally, a wider sample to evaluate the website content to further
improve the website before it is published is also recommended.
57
APPENDIX A
Website Content
(http://worldofsiblings.freeoda.com)
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
APPENDIX B
Parent Evaluation Survey (Available on Website)
1. How helpful was this website to you regarding Sibling Relationships?
a. Very helpful
b. Somewhat helpful
c. Not helpful
2. How helpful was this website to you regarding Parent Involvement?
a. Very helpful
b. Somewhat helpful
c. Not helpful
3. Was this website easy to navigate?
a. Yes, very easy!
b. I had some trouble but managed to find my way
c. I had a very hard time navigating around this website
4. What was the most useful information on the site? (Open ended with
comment box)
5. What would you like to see added to the site to make it more useful?
(Open ended with comment box)
74
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