PROTECTIVE FACTORS AND RISK FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
PERCEPTIONS OF STRESS
Ashley Alana Jarvis
B.A., University of South Carolina, 2007
THESIS
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
PSYCHOLOGY
(Counseling Psychology)
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2011
PROTECTIVE FACTORS AND RISK FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
PERCEPTIONS OF STRESS
A Thesis
by
Ashley Alana Jarvis
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Lawrence Meyers, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Rebecca Cameron, Ph.D.
, Third Reader
Marya Endriga, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Ashley Alana Jarvis
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format
manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for
the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Jianjian Qin, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
PROTECTIVE FACTORS AND RISK FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
PERCEPTIONS OF STRESS
by
Ashley Alana Jarvis
This study examined different protective and risk factors that influence perceived stress.
Participants (N = 254) were recruited from introductory psychology courses in exchange
for course credit. Six surveys were used to examine the dependent variable of perceived
stress and the independent variables of positive and negative affect, life satisfaction,
religious orientation, spirituality, and demographic information. Standard multiple
regression analyses indicated that the chosen variables had a significant effect on the
dependent variable of perceived stress. Specifically, the combination of higher levels of
spirituality, negative affect, and extrinsic religious orientation, and lower levels of
positive affect, intrinsic religious orientation, and life satisfaction in combination
significantly predicted perceived stress. Previously reported findings of differences
between genders and ethnicities were not supported by the results of this study, however
this could be due to the heterogeneity of the student population.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Lawrence Meyers, Ph.D.
iv
_______________________
Date
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my thesis committee chair, Larry Meyers, and my thesis committee
members, Rebecca Cameron and Marya Endriga, for their vital suggestions and feedback
throughout the development of my thesis. Most importantly, I would like to thank my
parents, Janine Jason and William Jarvis, and my fiancé, Tim Chamberlain, for all of
their love, support, and unwavering belief in my ability to achieve my educational and
career goals in this Masters program as well as acceptance into a doctoral program.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………v
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ……….…………...…………………………………………………… 1
2. METHOD…………… ....................................................................................................... 19
Participants.................................................................................................................. 19
Design.. ....................................................................................................................... 19
Materials ..................................................................................................................... 20
Procedures.................................................................................................................. 23
3. RESULTS…. ....................................................................................................................... 24
Descriptive Analysis ................................................................................................... 24
Multiple Regression .................................................................................................... 27
Group Characteristics ................................................................................................ 28
4. DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 30
Limitations .................................................................................................................. 32
Future Research .......................................................................................................... 33
References ............................................................................................................................... 34
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Table 1: Demographic Sample Information…………….……………………. 24
2.
Table 2: Means, standard deviations, and reliability values for scales……...... 26
3.
Table 3: Correlations between measures…….…….…………………………...27
4.
Table 4: Summary of multiple regression analysis for variables predicting levels
of perceived stress………….…………………….………………………….…..28
vi
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
When researchers began to study ‘stress’ in the early twentieth century, it was
defined as an element that caused “physiological and/or psychological fatigue”
(Waterman, 1909, p. 130). The early studies done on stress focused on elements of PostTraumatic Stress Disorder, as it was defined in the early twentieth century (PTSD;
Taylor, E., 1915; Owens, W. & Heidbreder, E., 1947), and ‘strain’ in family-life (Tufts,
1907) and work (Strong, 1916).
In the 1930s, the term ‘strains’ gave way to a new term ‘stress’. During this
decade, research on stress took on a different focus, but was still sparse and little was
known about causes or ways to remove stress. Van de Castle (1994) examined the
relationships between dreams and emotional stresses, however, these were initially
explored by Bagby (1930) and Breger, Hunter, and Lane (1935). For example, Bagby
(1930) determined that dreams created a way to confront and attempt to resolve current
stresses. In the 1940s, an increasing number of studies examined how individuals reacted
in various stressful (mainly occupational) situations. Freeman, Pathman, Katzoff, and
Manson (1942) examined how police officers reacted and/or behaved in stressful
situations. Their results suggested that officers’ reactions were less predictable in
stressful situations than in non-stressful ones. The participants in experiments on stress
began to include students and their topics extended to students’ ability to retain
information or learn when in stressful situations. Glixman (1949) compared students’
2
ability to remember completed and non-completed activities when they were in stressful,
compared to non-stressful, environments. He determined that the former settings
decreased students’ ability to remember non-completed activities.
The 1950s marked an expansion in the number of studies examining stress, but
the focus continued to be on the influence of stress on an individual’s performance
(Deese, Lazarus, & Osler, 1952). Researchers explored how stress influenced memory,
learning, and behaviors in a variety of situations (Beam, 1955; Caron & Wallach, 1957;
Cowen, 1952; Faw, 1957; Taylor, 1958). Faw (1957) found that students who study and
pre-learn information are more likely to be successful in recalling and using this prelearned information in a stressful situation. Cowen (1952) found that participants put in a
‘stress’ group had significantly less creative solutions to a given problem than
participants who were put in a ‘praise’ group. Studies examined how stress influenced
intrinsic motivation (Vogel, Lazarus, Raymond, 1959), responses to different learning
tasks (Heilbrun, 1959; Katchmar, Andrews, & Ross, 1958; Taylor, 1958), and attitudes
(Levanway, 1955). During this time, researchers started to examine the physical effects
of stress (Berkeley, 1952), although this was not studied extensively until later decades.
Researchers also began to examine what factors might increase stress, as well as what
personality characteristics and developmental factors influenced stress (Deese & Lazarus,
1953).
In the 1960s, an increasing number of studies examined the interaction between
stress and an individual’s development. This developmental focus began with research on
how levels of stress influence an adolescent’s goals (Rao & Russell, 1960). Rao and
3
Russell (1960) found that adolescents created fewer goals for themselves as stress
increased. Furthermore, if an adolescent failed to meet his/her first self-set goal, his/her
level of stress increased, and, with that increase, s/he was less likely to meet any further
goals s/he set for himself/herself. These findings have significant implications for
educational settings. In 1966, Lazarus first established the presence of a feedback loop
between stress and further stress by showing that an individual’s perception of stressful
events could influence his/her subsequent level of stress (Lazarus, 1966, 1977).
During the 1970s and 80s, researchers strived to make their research more
quantitative, by creating various tests and scales for evaluating causes and levels of stress
(Carver, Scheier & Weintraub, 1989; Karst & Most, 1973; Weyer & Hodapp, 1975).
They applied these measures in a number of creative studies that tended to focus on
“personal and contextual factors” (Cohen, 1983, p. 386) influencing stress. Coburn
(1975) discovered that there was a connection between the negative outcomes associated
with stress and the measured level of feeling stressed. Researchers also explored how an
individual’s ability to control changes in situations or events influenced his/her level of
stress (Anderson, 1977; Averill, 1973; Geer, Davison & Gatchel, 1970; Houston, 1972;
Lauer, 1974). Geer, Davison and Gatchel (1970) found that men who felt they had
control over the duration of a shock impulse showed less reaction to the shock than those
who felt they had no control over it. This study had practical implications: individuals
might experience less stress if they believed they had control over a stressful situation,
independent of whether or not they actually did. Lauer (1974) determined that the
desirability of a change influenced the level of stress created by the change. Also in the
4
1970s, psychologists began to examine the socio-demographic factors that influenced
stress (Coburn, 1975). Psychologists expanded previous studies involving the physical
effects of stress, although this topic was not thoroughly explored until later decades. For
example, Sakar and Mukhopadhyay (2008) discussed how several sets of researchers
collected data showing that perceived stress influences cardiovascular disease, in both
men and women, by increasing depression and mortality rates (Harburg, Blakelock, &
Roeper, 1979; Johnson, Schork, & Spielberger, 1987). In the 1970s, researchers also
started to differentiate chronic from acute stress, using rat models (Mikhail, 1971; Pare &
Isom, 1975; Riege & Morimoto, 1970). For example, Mikhail (1971) found that chronic
stress increased sympathetic nerve activity in rats more than acute stress did. The
distinction between acute and chronic stress was not a focus of human research until the
1980s, when studies of stress achieved even greater extent and depth.
Many modern day researchers credit studies in the 1980s for furthering our
understanding of a number of previously unexplored aspects of stress. Miller and Smith
(2010), Panzarino (2010) and Sagy (2002) noted that how earlier researchers referred to
an environment, event, or situation that created stress as a ‘stressor’ and established that
stressors could be both acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term; Cohen, 1983; Cohen &
Weinstein, 1981; McGonagle & Kessler, 1990). In the 1980s, acute stress was defined as
a physical reaction occurring in response to a situation perceived as being dangerous
(Cohen, 1983; Cohen & Weinstein, 1981; McGonagle & Kessler, 1990). Panzarino
(2010) cites previous studies that determined acute stressors include, but are not limited
to, loud or irritating noise, acute isolation, and government-sanctioned, personal, or
5
criminal violence (Cohen, 1983; Cohen & Weinstein, 1981). Both Miller and Smith
(2010) and Panzarino (2010) discuss previous researchers’ definition of chronic stress as
being a response to continuously stressful situations. Chronic stressors include difficulties
at work or in relationships, prolonged isolation, loneliness, depression, and monetary
concerns (Cohen, 1983; Cohen & Weinstein, 1981). This research had applications to the
field of mental health. Thoresen and Eagleston (1983) suggested that extended chronic
stress could create a variety of problems in preschool to graduate school-aged students.
Stress was associated with individuals withdrawing from their social lives and/or, turning
to alcohol or drug abuse. It also appeared to influence various cognitive elements
(Thoresen & Eagleston, 1983). In 1992, Gelfand, Teti, and Fox expanded on previous
research by exploring how maternal stress and/or temperament might influence parentchild relationships, child development, and an infant’s ability to control and focus
immediate reactions, emotions, and behaviors (Conger, R. D., Kropp, J.P., Lahey, B.B.,
McCarty, J.A., & Yang, R.K., 1984; Weinraub & Wolf, 1983). As stated by Gelfand,
Teti, and Fox (1992), a negative maternal temperament often caused by increased levels
of stress could adversely influence a child’s level of shyness, sadness, and fearfulness
(Weinraub & Wolf, 1983).
Also during the 1980s, researchers began to explore how environmental factors
could influence different elements of chronic stress. One specific research topic involved
the 1979 nuclear accident at Three Mile Island (Baum, Collins, & Singer, 1983; Baum,
Gatchel, & Schaeffer, 1983). In that accident, a Pennsylvania nuclear power plant
malfunctioned and released large quantities of radioactive gas. Although the reactor was
6
eventually brought under control, the accident caused great stress and worry to
individuals living nearby (Baum, Gatchel, & Schaeffer, 1983). Baum, Collins and Singer
(1983) and Baum, Gatchel and Schaeffer (1983) found that individuals living near Three
Mile Island experienced more chronic stress than individuals living near un-damaged
nuclear power plants. Also during the 1980s, researchers were beginning to study how
stress can interact with various mental illnesses. By the end of the 1980s, researchers had
established that a number of different factors could increase or decrease stress, a few of
the psychological and physical dangers of stress, different types of stress that an
individual can experience, and ways that stress can influence mental illness. For example,
Billings and Moos (1984) found that individuals with unipolar depression showed more
severe symptoms when experiencing chronic stresses.
In the 1980s and continuing into the 1990s, researchers began to explore the
concept of perceived stress, and the different factors that increased or decreased an
individual’s perception of being under stress. ‘Perceived stress’ became defined as the
“degree to which situations in one’s own life situations are appraised as stressful”
(Cohen, 1983, p. 385). One of the most widely used measures to evaluate perceived
stress, The Perceived Stress Scale, was developed at this time (Cohen, 1983). Bryant,
G.W., Gadzella, B., Ginther, D.W., and Tomcala, M. (1990) studied the effects of gender,
age and job classification on perceived stress. They found that participants in younger age
groups self-reported higher levels of perceived stress than the oldest age groups, women
self-reported higher levels of stress than males, and participants in midlevel positions
self-reported higher levels of perceived stress than participants in executive positions
7
(Gadzella et al., 1990). Another study examined the relationship between level of alcohol
consumption and perceived stress in males (Cole, Tucker, & Friedman, 1990). Cole,
Tucker, and Friedman (1990) found that participants who abstained from drinking
alcohol reported less perceived stress than moderate drinkers, and that moderate drinkers
reported less perceived stress than heavy drinkers. Similarly, Mitic, McGuire, and
Neumann (1985) found that non-smoking males had the overall lowest levels of
perceived stress, while heavily smoking males had the highest levels of perceived stress
overall. Non-smoking or occasionally smoking females had lower perceived stress than
regular or heavily smoking females. Participants self-reported schoolwork, parents,
money, and appearance as causes of perceived stress (Mitic, McGuire, & Neumann,
1985).
In the late 1980s, researchers began to link levels of perceived stress to a variety
of factors, including positive and negative affect (Watson, 1988), and social support
(Duran, Turner, & Lund, 1989; Jayaratne & Chess, 1984). Watson (1988) found
perceived stress to be highly correlated with negative affect, but not strongly correlated
with positive affect. However, another study showed that high perceptions of stress relate
to both negative and positive affect towards current events. This study also suggested that
higher levels of perceived stress were associated with more negative, intense, and
prolonged reactions to daily events and the stresses in daily life (Eck, Nocolson, &
Berkhof, 1998).
The study of perceived stress expanded even further at the end of the twentieth
century and first decade of the twenty-first century, with researchers exploring physical
8
effects of stress, different protective and risk factors for perceived stress, and gender
differences. During this last twenty years, the relationship between positive and negative
affect and perceived stress has been studied in more depth. Graham and Maybery (2001)
found that negative affect was moderately positively correlated with an individual’s
perceived stress. They suggested that negative affect could be a very strong risk factor for
increasing stress perception. Graham and Maybery (2001) also found that positive affect
was moderately negatively correlated with an individual’s perceived stress and could be a
strong protective factor against perceived stress.
During this time, researchers also began to link various physiological effects to
stress. Although a few studies examined this during the late 70s and 80s (Gore, 1981;
Harburg, Blakelock, & Roeper, 1979; Johnson, Schork, & Spielberger, 1987), it was only
briefly touched on. Discovering the connection between stress and physiological
elements allowed individuals who might have questioned the importance of studying
‘perceived stress,’ to see that, while it constitutes a perception, perceived stress is also a
measurable and meaningful entity.
In recent years, international studies have shown that perceived stress influences
individuals’ physical and psychological well-being (Kim et al., 2009; Pensonen,
Raikkonen, Heinonen, & Komsi, 2007; Repetti & Woods, 1997). Significant strides have
been made in characterizing the physical and psychological effects of stress. Researchers
have confirmed that stress can cause and influence the outcome of health problems
ranging from rashes and headaches to gastrointestinal dysfunction, pain, heart attacks,
blood pressure, and functions of the immune system. In one study examining a weight
9
loss program for individuals with Type 2 diabetes, Kim et al. (2009) found that
participants with low levels of perceived stress lost more weight than those with high
levels of perceived stress.
Earlier studies on parent-child development in relation to perceived stress were
expanded at the end of the twentieth century. In 1994, Repetti and Wood found that
infants of parents with higher stress levels show decreased ability to focus their attention.
Crowson, M.M, Delgado, C.E.F., Morales, M., Mundy, P., and Neal, A.R. (2005)
expanded on this study and hypothesized that Repetti and Wood’s (1994) findings could
be due to the parent distancing him/herself from the child. This would lead to fewer
moments of ‘attention connection’ between the parent and child. Crowson et al. (2005)
further hypothesized that these ‘attention connection’ moments are necessary for a child
to develop the ability to focus and self-regulate his/her attention. Repetti and Wood
(1997) followed up their earlier studies with one showing that job-related parental stress
are strongly predictive of how the parent will act with his/her child. This study found that
parents with high levels of stress become emotionally and behaviorally separated from
their child, thereby decreasing parent/child interaction (Repetti, 1994; Repetti & Wood,
1993, 2007).
The past two decades have been marked not only by deeper and broader
exploration of the description and correlates of perceived stress, but also by examination
of how basic factors might modulate perceived stress. These factors include gender,
ethnicity, age, coping style, religiousness, relationship status, life satisfaction, and social
support.
10
Research on gender has found that Caucasian women experience higher levels of
perceived stress for life events than African American women (Vines et al., 2009);
however, Kim et al. (2009) found that African American women experience more stress
than Caucasian women. Bachen, E.A., De Groat, C.L., Dimas, J.M., Flores, E., Pasch,
L.A., and Tschann, J.M. (2008) found that Hispanic men and women have greater levels
of perceived stress due to perceived discrimination. However, Mechlin (2009) found no
ethnic differences in levels of perceived stress, suggesting that much research still needs
to be done to see whether differences truly do exist.
Studies of gender differences consistently find that females report more stress and
experience greater physiological responses to stress than do males (Dumlao et al., 2000;
Misra & McKean, 2000). However, males appear to be less able to acknowledge feelings
of stress. Some researchers suggest that this is because social norms teach males that
stress acknowledgement would be a sign of weakness, dependency, and lack of
masculinity (Misra & McKean, 2000). Researchers have recorded specific physiologic
differences in males and females’ physical responses to perceived stress (Kim et al, 2009;
Misra & McKean, 2000; Mukhopadhyay & Sarkar, 2008). Mukhopadhyay and Sarkar
(2008) found that in males, stress influences diastolic blood pressure, overall cholesterol
level, and ratio of overall cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. In females,
stress influences low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, ratio of overall cholesterol and highdensity lipoprotein cholesterol, body mass index (BMI), waist size, and waist to hip ratio.
These patterns all put individuals at risk for obesity, hypertension, Type 2 diabetes,
cardiac disease, and other obesity-related illnesses (Kim et al., 2009; Mukhopadhyay &
11
Sarkar, 2008). In women, levels of stress also increase medical complications in
pregnancy, although it is still unknown if this relationship is a causal one (Buekens, P.,
Dole, N., Hertz-Picciotto, I., McMahon, M.J., Savitz, D.A., & Siega-Riz, A.M., 2003;
Glynn, L., Hobel, C.J., Sandman, C.A. & Schetter, C.D. , 2008; Hedegaard et al., 1993).
One study found that stress during pregnancy was associated with both pre-term delivery
and lower infant birth-weights (Cannella, D., DeVincent, C., Graham, J.E., et al., 2008).
Another study supported that high levels of perceived stress were associated with shorter
gestational periods and pre-term delivery, and conversely, women who delivered at full
term had much lower levels of perceived stress than those who delivered at pre-term
(Glynn et al., 2008). This suggests that applying protective measures to decrease
perceived stress levels can help protect both the mother and the baby from the negative
results of a pre-term delivery (Buekens et al., 2003; Cannella, D., DeVincent, C.,
Graham, J.E., et al., 2008; Glynn et al., 2008; Hedegaard et al., 1993; Latendresse, 2009).
Throughout the early 2000s, psychological researchers expanded on the research
exploring various effects that perceived stress had on development of and ability to cope
with mental illnesses and addictions. Perceived stress has been shown to negatively
influence mental health and coping abilities (Bovier, Chamot, & Perneger, 2002; Laudet
& White, 2004). Bovier, Chamot, and Perneger (2002) found that stress consistently had
a strong negative relationship with mental health. Psychological issues that perceived
stress can influence include addiction, onset of mental illnesses; coping with disorders, as
will be described in more detail below. A variety other studies found that there is a
connection between stress and substance abuse (Bond & Rose, 2008; Ventegodt, Merrick,
12
& Anderson, 2003). Several researchers have noted that drug addicts indicate that they
use illicit drugs to self-medicate and temporarily remove psychological pain (Bond &
Rose, 2008; Ventegodt, Merrick, & Andersen, 2003). Individuals with drug addictions
have been found to have higher levels of perceived-stress, compared to non-addicts. One
study done in 2003 found that teens experiencing high levels of perceived-stress were
two times more likely to turn to substance use, compared to teens with low levels of
perceived-stress (National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia
University, 2003). Laudet and White (2004) found that individuals were more successful
at recovering from substance addictions when they had social support systems,
spirituality, religiousness, and greater life satisfaction. Laudet and White (2004) tied the
success of these factors to their removing or significantly decreasing perceived stress.
Studies have shown that perceived-stress is a frequent trigger for alcohol or substance
abuse relapses (Knight, E., Laudet A, Magura, S., & Vogel, H.S., 2000). Broome, K.M.,
Brown, B.S., Flynn, P., Joe, G.W., and Simpson, D.D. (2003) published a study using
participants of ethnic minority who had been crack or heroin addicts in New York City.
This study found that the length of time to achieve recovery was linked to the level of
perceived stress. Peltzer et al. (2008) found that perceived stress, in combination with low
self- esteem, and anger control problems, increases an individual’s suicide risk. Perceived
stress also appears to be an important influence on the development of different types of
eating disorders. Striegel-Moore, et al. (2007) found that individuals who develop bingeeating disorders often showed higher levels of perceived stress before they were 14 years
old. This suggests that higher perceived stress levels may precede the onset of binge-
13
eating disorders. In summary, there is evidence to suggest a causal relationship between
perceived stress and an eating disorder but this has yet to be confirmed.
The protective factors of religiousness and spirituality in relation to perceived
stress were a topic of great interest during the late 1990s and 2000s. Religiousness and
spirituality are consistently associated with lower levels of perceived stress and a less
negative affect (Koenig et al., 2001). Studies have found that individuals who are more
spiritual or religious have higher measured levels of positive affect, which is associated
with lower levels of perceived stress (Koenig et al., 2001; Segrin, C., Badger, T., Dorros,
S.M., Lopez, A.M., & Meek, P., 2007; Segrin, C., Domschke, T. J., Donnerstein, C.,
Hanzal, A., & Taylor, M., 2007; Pargament, 1997). Meyers and Reed (1991) found that
having a stronger overall intrinsic religious orientation was associated with fewer health
problems and a positive affect more often than extrinsic religiousness or no religious
orientation.
Many studies have suggested that attending religious events can protect against
stress. The authors of these studies suggest that this is due to the development of a
religion-based coping style that reduces negative affect and increases positive affect
(Segrin, C. et al., 2007, Segrin, C., Domschke, T. J., Donnerstein, C., Hanzal, A., &
Taylor, M., 2007; Paragament, 1997). This religion-based coping style includes the use of
a support system generated through attendance at religious services and events.
Paragament (1997) found that individuals with increased religiousness use religious
coping methods more frequently and, therefore, have less perceived stress. Paragament
(1997) also found that high religiousness or spirituality is associated with measurements
14
indicating more positive affect, less negative affect, greater life satisfaction and fewer
perceived stresses. This and other research suggests that religiousness and spirituality are
interactive factors. One study found that the correlation between them was consistently
strong, with a median correlation coefficient of .54 (Czar, Meyer, & Park, 1998). Studies
indicate that individuals feel that religion and spirituality give meaning and purpose to
their lives. Payne et al. (1991) found that religiousness and spirituality are associated with
individuals realizing their capabilities, experiencing personal success and sense of selfworth, as well as greater self-actualization and increased life satisfaction.
Although the relationship between age and perceived stress was studied a little in
the 1980s (Whitman, 1985), it was not examined in depth until the early 2000s. Studies
have suggested that age may have a strong impact on an individual’s level of perceived
stress (Almeida, D.M., Sliwinski, M.J., Smyth, J.M., & Stawski, R.S., 2008; Aysan, F,
Hamarat, E., Matheny, K.B., Steele, D., Thompson, D., & Zabrucky, K.M., 2001).
Whitman (1985) found that younger students experience more stressful changes and
events in their lives than older students. He suggested that was because younger students
are leaving home for the first time to attend school and experience a much higher
pressure for academic success than previously experienced in high school. Almeida,
D.M., Sliwinski, M.J., Smyth, J.M., and Stawski, R.S. (2008) examined the interaction
between negative affect and age in relation to levels of perceived stress. They found that
older adults reported fewer daily stressors than did younger adults; however, both age
groups expressed the same emotional reactions towards these daily stressors. Almeida,
D.M. et al. (2008) also found that in older adults perceived stress was related to the
15
reported number of daily stressors but was unrelated to affect. In younger adults,
perceived stress was related to both number of daily stressors and to having a negative
affect. The authors suggest that daily stressors may have a greater impact on younger
adults. Aysan, F., Hamarat, E., Matheny, K.B., Steele, D., Thompson, D., and Zabrucky,
K.M. (2001) found that for young adults, perceived stress was more strongly associated
with life satisfaction than were coping resources. The opposite was the case for middle
and older-aged adults. Despite the apparent relationships among age, perceived-stress,
and life-satisfaction, this area has not yet been further explored (Aysan, F. et al., 2001).
However, researchers have recently examined the relationships among age,
defense mechanisms, and perceived stress. Despite the various age differences that other
researchers have found, Coolidge, L., Mizuno, H. and Segal, D (2007) found that there
were no differences in the use of adaptive defense mechanisms (Sublimination,
Suppression, Humor) against perceived stress in young adults (n = 259; M age = 19.7)
and older adult (n = 69; M age = 70.8). However, younger adults had higher scores on
maladaptive defense mechanism scales (Acting Out, Passive-Aggression, and
Regression). This was an important discovery because maladaptive defenses were highly
correlated with perceived stress (r = .57). This suggests that younger adults experience
higher levels of perceived stress than older adults due to more maladaptive defense
mechanisms. It seems as though older adults may develop a decrease in maladaptive
defense mechanisms (Coolidge, L., Mizuno, H. & Segal, D, 2007).
Although the connection between relationship status and perceived stress was
studied briefly earlier, it seems to have been exhaustively explored in the 1990s and
16
2000s. One study found that being in a relationship and romantic kissing with a
relationship-partner can decrease levels of perceived stress. A study by Boren, J.P.,
Floyd, K., Hannawa, A.F., Hesse, C., McEwan, B., and Veksler, A.E. (2009), found that
individuals who increased romantic kissing with his/her significant other had lower levels
of perceived stress when compared to the individuals who did not increase romantic
kissing with his or her significant others. This suggests that having an active romantic
relationship might act as a protective factor (Boren, J.P., Floyd, K., Hannawa, A.F.,
Hesse, C., McEwan, B., & Veksler, A.E., 2009).
However, Lengacher (1993) found that a close relationship was not necessarily
protective. The effect depended on the specifics of the relationship; it may have a
negative effect on perceived stress. Another study found that although having a
significant other while in school can be a strong protective factor against stress, it acts as
a risk factor if and when the partner fails to recognize the pressures and commitments
associated with student life (Lengacher, 1993).
The study of life satisfaction and perceived stress continued to be examined into
the 2000s. Perceived stress consistently influences life satisfaction in college students
(Aysan et al., 2001). They also found an association among perceived economic wellbeing, life satisfaction, and perceived stress. Although studies in the past examined the
connection between life satisfaction and perceived stress, it was not studied in detail until
late 1990s and 2000s. During this time, Chang (1998) found that levels of life satisfaction
were lower for students experiencing more stress. Graham and Maybery (2001) found
that life satisfaction was moderately negatively correlated with an individual’s perceived
17
stress. They suggested that high life satisfaction could be a strong protective factor
against perceived stress. These researchers also found that satisfaction with life was
moderately negatively correlated with negative affect, and slightly positively correlated
with positive affect (Graham & Maybery, 2001). This suggests that satisfaction with life,
negative affect, positive affect, and stress perception all interact. A study conducted by
Aysan, F., et al. (2001) found that perceived stress was only a moderate predictor of an
individual’s overall satisfaction with life. Further, they found that having coping
resources was a better predictor for satisfaction with life than simply perceived stress
alone. Studies have found an inverse relationship between social skills and levels of
perceived stress (Segrin, C. et al., 2007, Segrin, C., Domschke, T. J., Donnerstein, C.,
Hanzal, A., & Taylor, M., 2007). Segrin, C., Domschke, T. J., Donnerstein, C., Hanzal,
A., and Taylor, M. (2007) also found that social skills were negatively associated with
depression and positively associated with life satisfaction. It was also discovered in this
study that having a social support system can help protect individuals from possibly
harmful effects of stressful events (Segrin, C. et al., 2007, Segrin, C., Domschke, T. J.,
Donnerstein, C., Hanzal, A., & Taylor, M., 2007).
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of various protective and risk
factors, in combination with one another, in terms of their relation to perceived stress.
Specifically, this study explored how negative affect, positive affect, religiousness,
spirituality, and life satisfaction predict participant’s levels of perceived stress. Although
these factors have been studied in previous research, this study differs from these studies
by looking at the factors in combination as they predict perceived stress. By exploring
18
what factor(s) are associated with perceived stress and what factor(s) are associated with
less perceived stress, it might be possible to clarify and strengthen guidelines for stress
reduction. Based on the literature, I predict that life satisfaction, positive affect and
negative affect will account for a greater proportion of variance than other variables
19
Chapter 2
METHOD
Participants
Two hundred and fifty-four undergraduate psychology students (52 males and 202
females) participated in this study. These participants were recruited from California
State University, Sacramento and received one half-hour of research credit in partial
completion of their course requirements. Students ranged in age from 17 to 45 years of
age (M = 20.93, SD = 4.19), and were 56.3% Caucasian, 7.1% African American, 15.7%
Asian American, 14.2% Hispanic, and 6.7% Other. Participants who selected “other”
wrote in Slavik, Caucasian/African American, Russian, Asian/Indian,
Caucasian/Hispanic, Caucasian/Asian American, Asian/Hispanic, East American Indian,
Chinese/Dutch, Pacific Islander, and African American/Asian American. Participants
were 47.6% single, 4.7% married, 0.7% divorced, 1.2% widowed and 45.7% in a
relationship. To protect the participants’ anonymity, no identifying information was
collected.
Design
A multiple regression analysis was used with the dependent variable of perceived
stress and the independent variables of life satisfaction, positive and negative affect,
religious orientation, and spirituality.
20
Materials
The dependent variable of perceived stress was measured through the Perceived
Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen et al., 1983) examining an individual’s assessment of their life
as stressful (i.e. unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloading). This scale is a 10-item
questionnaire concerning the participants’ perception of stressful event. Scores can range
from zero to 40 with higher scores representing greater levels of stress than lower scores.
Items in this measure by Cohen, Lamarck, and Mermelstein (1983) consist of questions
such as “How often have you felt nervous or stressed?” and “How often have you felt
confident about your ability to handle your personal problems?” Participants rated how
often they had experienced these feelings in the last month on a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). Alpha coefficients of .75 and .86 have been
reported for this measure (Cohen, Lamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983).
The independent variables of positive and negative affect were measured through
the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS). This is a 20-item scale
developed by Clark and Tellegren (1988), using a self-evaluation method to examine
both positive and negative affect. The scale contains 10 adjectives for the negative affect
dimension and 10 adjectives for the positive affect dimension. These adjectives describe
feelings and mood level, and participants were instructed to estimate how they have felt
during the past week. Responses are scored on a 5-grade scale ranging from 1 (not at all)
to 5 (very much). To calculate a total negative affect score, the negative adjectives are
summed, similarly, the positive adjectives are summed to provide a total positive affect
score. Scores can range from 0 to 50 on each subscale, with higher scores suggesting a
21
more positive or negative affect than lower. This measure has been shown to have
moderately good reliability and validity. Alpha coefficients of .86 to .90 have been
reported for the positive affect scale, and .84 to .87 for the negative affect scale. The testretest reliability over an 8-week period included scores of .47 and .68 for positive affect,
and .39 and .71 for negative affect (Kercher, 1992; Varg, 1997; Watson, Clark &
Tellegren, 1988).
The independent variable of life satisfaction was evaluated by the Satisfaction
with Life Scale-Adapted. This 5-item scale developed by Diener et al. (1985) is used to
examine an individual’s overall satisfaction of their life. This scale also examines an
individual’s judgment of his or her life in comparison to self-set standards, not imposed
by others. This measure uses a 5-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This version was adapted from the original
measure which uses a 7-point Likert-Type response scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The five items are added together to calculate an overall
satisfaction with life scale score. High scores suggest an individual is overall more
satisfied with his/her life. The test-retest reliability for 2 weeks was .83, for 10 weeks,
.50, for 1 month was .64, for 2 months was .82, and for 4 years was .54 which suggests
there is overall moderate to very good reliability for this measure (Diener, et al., 1985;
Pavot & Diener, 1993).
The independent variable of religiousness was evaluated by the Religious
Orientation Scale. This is a 20-item, self-report scale created by Allport and Ross (1967).
Responses are rated on a 5-point summative scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
22
(strongly agree). Higher scores represent greater intrinsic or extrinsic religious
orientation. This scale evaluates intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation, with nine
items measuring intrinsic and 11 items measuring extrinsic. Intrinsic orientation has been
defined as living your religion (Allport & Ross, 1967). In this type of religiousness, the
reasons for being religious come from within a person, and faith is internalized and is the
main motivation through life, religious elements are incorporated into more areas of life
than just religion, and religion is an end to itself. Extrinsic orientation is defined as using
his or her religion in order to gain something desirable (Allport & Ross, 1967). In this
type of religiousness, reasons for religiousness are mainly external, religion is one of
many motivations through life, religion is only part of the faith life element and is not
incorporated throughout, and religion is used as a mean for other ends (i.e. to gain
benefits through religiousness). Alpha coefficients of .79 have been reported for the
intrinsic scale and .65 for the extrinsic scale (Genia, 1993; Gorsuch & McPherson, 1989).
The independent variable of spirituality was measured with the Index of Core
Spiritual Experience (INSPIRIT) scale. This is a 7- item scale. It was created to evaluate
how often an individual has faced a situation that has convinced him/her that God exists
and that has brought out close feelings with God. All items have different possible
answers, all on a 4-point scale. Higher scores suggest the individual having stronger
spiritual experiences. For some questions there is an option “Have not had these
experiences” for individuals to whom the situation does not apply. The reported
Cronbach’s alpha of .90 suggests that this measure shows very good reliability (Friedman
et al., 1991).
23
Procedures
Survey packets were created including a demographic survey as cover sheet, the
perceived stress scale, life satisfaction scale, positive and negative affect scale, religious
orientation scale, and spirituality scale. Survey packets were created so that each packet
contained different randomized sequences of the five tests. Instructions specific to each
scale were provided above the corresponding questions. Surveys took approximately one
half hour to complete.
Participants were read and given the informed consent form. Participants were
asked to sign and return a consent form. They were then given a survey to complete in a
research room on the California State University, Sacramento campus in the presence of
the researcher. Participants were instructed not to talk during the survey and/or discuss
the surveys with others. Once completed, research packets were collected and
participants were provided a debriefing form informing them of the details surrounding
our study and contact information, as well as a verbal debriefing. Research sessions
occurred over various times and days during a six-month period.
24
Chapter 3
RESULTS
Descriptive Analysis
The mean age of the 254 participants was 21 years (SD = 4.29) with a range of 17
– 45 years. The sample was mostly Caucasian and female. Demographic information is
provided in Table 1.
Table 1
Demographic sample information
Demographic Variables
Gender
Ethnicity
Relationship Status
Frequency
% (N =254 )
52
20.5
Female
202
79.5
Caucasian
143
56.3
Asian American
40
15.7
African American
18
7.1
Latino/a
36
14.2
Other
17
6.7
Single
121
47.6
12
4.7
116
45.7
Divorced
2
.8
Widowed
3
1.2
Male
Married
In a Relationship
25
Table 2 presents a summary of descriptive results for the measures included in
this study. The mean of the perceived stress scores for this sample was 26.48 (SD =
5.71), with scores ranging from 11 to 40. This is slightly higher than the normative scores
of 23.18 (SD = 7.31) for females and 22.38 (SD = 6.79) for males (Cohen, 1983). Each
participant reported experiencing some level of stress in his/her life. A small number of
participants reported low levels of perceived stress. Most participants reported
experiencing moderate to high levels of perceived stress. Although a small number of
participants reported not being very satisfied with their lives, over half of the participants
reported having moderate to high satisfaction with their lives. The participants in this
study had a lower average score for life satisfaction than the normative sample group,
suggesting that this sample group is overall less satisfied with their lives than other
sample groups. The mean for positive affect was slightly lower than the normative mean.
Nearly all participants also reported moderate to high levels of positive affect. However,
slightly over half also reported high levels of negative affect, suggesting that many
participants reported high levels of both positive and negative affect. The mean negative
affect score for this study was slightly lower than the normative mean for negative affect.
Participants ranged from the lowest possible spirituality score to the highest possible
score. However, most participants reported moderate to high levels of spirituality. The
mean spirituality score for this study was higher than the normative mean score. This
suggests that although a small number of participants reported having had no or few
spiritual experiences, the majority of participants reported having had many spiritual
experiences. The majority of participants reported high levels of both extrinsic and
26
intrinsic religious orientation, suggesting that participants are religiously active both
because of the desirable benefits that religion provides them as well as the internal
religious motivation.
Table 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Reliability values for scales used
M
SD
α
Range
Perceived Stress
26.48
(5.71)
.85
11-40
Life Satisfaction
17.10
(3.88)
.83
7-25
Religious Orientation-I
26.10
(8.71)
.88
9-45
Religious Orientation-E
28.06
(5.98)
.72
12-48
2.69
(.79)
.92
1-4
Positive Affect
34.01
(6.24)
.87
14-50
Negative Affect
21.81
(6.45)
.82
10-50
Scale
Spirituality
Note. Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations. Religious Orientation-I = Intrinsic,
Religious Orientation-E = Extrinsic.
Pearson correlations are shown in Table 3. Participants who reported higher levels
of perceived stress were less satisfied with their lives, had less positive affect and greater
negative affect. Greater life satisfaction was correlated with lower levels of perceived
stress and negative affect, and greater amounts of spirituality and positive affect.
Participants with greater amounts of intrinsic religious orientation also had higher levels
of extrinsic religious orientation and were more spiritual.
27
Table 3
Correlations between Measures
Measure
2
1 Perceived Stress
-.48** -.02
2 Life Satisfaction
_
3Religious Orientation-I
4Religious Orientation-E
5 Spirituality
3
4
5
6
.04
-.01
-.46**
.03 -.01
_
7
.64**
.51** -.38**
.76**
.02
-.01
.51**
.05
.07
.07
-.07
.67**
.13*
_
_
6 Positive Affect
_
7 Negative Affect
-.37**
_
Note. Religious Orientation-I = Intrinsic, Religious Orientation-E = Extrinsic.
*p < .05. ** p < .01.
Multiple Regression
A standard multiple regression analysis was done with perceived stress as the
dependent variable, and life satisfaction, religious orientation-intrinsic, religious
orientation extrinsic, spirituality, positive affect, and negative affect as the independent
variables. When all six variables were entered into the regression analysis, the model
accounted for almost 50% of the variance, F (6, 247) = 41.06, p < .05, R2 = .499, adjusted
R2 = .487. Table 4 shows the results of this analysis. Higher levels of spirituality,
negative affect, and extrinsic religious orientation, and lower levels of positive affect,
intrinsic religious orientation, and life satisfaction in combination significantly predicted
perceived stress. The variables with the strongest influence on perceived stress included
28
negative affect, life satisfaction, positive affect, and spirituality. The structure coefficients
of negative affect (rs = .90), life satisfaction (rs = -.68) and positive affect (rs = -.65),
indicate that individuals who are pessimistic are more at risk for experiencing perceived
stress.
Table 4
Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Levels of Perceived
Stress (N = 254)
β
Variable
B
SEB
t
Structure Coefficients
Life Satisfaction**
-.31
-.21
.08
-3.86
-.68
Religious Orientation-I
-.10
-.16
.06
-1.86
-.03
Religious Orientation-E
.02
.03
.06
.40
.06
Spirituality*
1.25
.17
.52
2.40
-.01
Positive Affect**
-.16
-.18
.05
-3.21
-.65
Negative Affect**
.44
.50
.04
9.85
.90
Note. R2 = .496.
Religious Orientation-I = Intrinsic, Religious Orientation-E = Extrinsic.
*p <.05. **p <.01.
Group Characteristics
The influence of gender and ethnicity on perceived stress was also examined. The
three largest ethnic sample groups were used for this analysis: Caucasian (N = 143),
Asian American (N = 40), and Latino/a (N = 36). A two-way between-subjects
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed for the three majority
29
ethnic groups and gender with the seven variables of perceived stress, life satisfaction,
positive affect, negative affect, spirituality, extrinsic religious orientation, and intrinsic
religious orientation as dependent variables.
The multivariate results were all non-significant for the main effects of gender
and ethnicity, as well as the interaction between gender and ethnicity, Pillai’s Trace = .06,
F (14, 416) = .86, p = .6; gender, Pillai’s Trace = .05, F (7, 207) = 1.5, p = .17; and
ethnicity, Pillai’s Trace = .09, F (14, 416) = 1.37, p = .17, and therefore post-hoc analysis
was not conducted.
30
Chapter 4
DISCUSSION
The present study predicted that positive affect, high religiousness and/or
spirituality, and high life satisfaction would predict lower perceived stress. Previous
research found that perceived stress is influenced by the various elements examined in
the current study. The results of this study both supported and contradicted the hypothesis
above, as well as the previous research.
The previous research finding that greater positive affect, lower negative affect
and greater life satisfaction were associated with lower levels of perceived stress (Eck,
Nocolson, & Berkhof, 1998; Watson, 1988; Segrin, C. et al., 2007, Segrin, C.,
Domschke, T. J., Donnerstein, C., Hanzal, A., & Taylor, M., 2007) is supported by the
results of the current study. These results are also consistent with the findings of Graham
and Maybery (2001), in that negative affect acts as a strong risk factor for perceived
stress, and positive affect acts as a strong protective factor against perceived stress. This
suggests that negative affect and positive affect are similarly influential to college
students, as with other populations, in regards to perceived stress. As with other previous
research showing that life satisfaction, positive affect, and perceived stress are all
interrelated (Chang, 1998; Aysan, F., Hamarat, E., Matheny, K.B., Steele, D., Thompson,
D., & Zabrucky, K.M., 2001; Graham & Maybery, 2001), the current study found a
negative association between life satisfaction and perceived stress. These results suggest
31
that students who were more positive overall experienced more life satisfaction and
therefore, could be more protected from life stresses.
Results of this study partially supported the findings of Payne et al. (1991), in that
I found an association between spirituality and life satisfaction, but there was no
association found between religiousness and life satisfaction. The results of the current
study also contradicted previously found associations among spirituality, religiousness,
negative affect, and perceived stress (Koenig et al., 2001). This study found no
relationship between spirituality and negative affect, religiousness and negative affect, or
religiousness and perceived stress. In fact, the results of this study were in opposition to
those of Koenig et al. (2001). These researchers found that spirituality was associated
with lower levels of perceived stress, but the findings of the present study suggest that
spirituality was associated with increased levels of perceived stress. This finding and the
one concerning religiousness could be due to the composition of the study population
being undergraduate college students. Many students lose their strength in religious
beliefs after leaving home, or choose to explore alternate religious practice during college
(Edmondson & Park, 2009).Spirituality is often seen as the alternative to religion (Burris,
Smith, & Carlson, 2009), which is God-focused. Spirituality is focused on selfactualization and a belief in an overall higher power rather than a single God. It is
possible that the positive association found between stress and spirituality could be
secondary to the student feeling guilty about exploring new faiths or turning away from
his/her strict religious upbringing. Further, the current study did not find that higher
levels of spirituality or religiousness were associated with heightened positive affect, as
32
found by others (Pargament, 1997; Meyers & Reed, 1991; Segrin, C. et al. 2007). These
finding suggests that religious or spiritual belief may be less of an influence on college
students’ perceived stress, compared to perceived stress in other groups of individuals.
Previous research has identified other factors that may influence perceived stress.
For example, multiple studies have found that women experience greater levels of
perceived stress than men (Gadzella et al., 1990; Dumlao et al., 2001; Misra & McKean,
2000). Some researchers suggest that this is due to men being raised to consider
acknowledging stress as un-masculine (Gadzella et al., 1990). In the current study no
difference were found in levels of perceived stress for gender or ethnicity. These results
were consistent with previous research suggesting there are no ethnicity or gender
differences in levels of perceived stress (Mechlin, 2009). However, the sample population
of the present study was solely college students; this limits the study to a fairly
homogeneous sample population of individuals in the process of furthering their
education. Differences in ethnicity and gender may decrease when the sample group
reaches a certain education level.
Limitations
The present study is limited in that the sample consisted of a convenience sample
of college students. It therefore has limited generalizability to the population as a whole.
Most of the participating students were white females between the ages of 18 and 25,
who were either single or in a relationship. Education level, as mentioned above, could
also have influenced these results. Future research could explore the differences in a less
homogeneous sample population, and a more extensive age range.
33
Future Research
The results of this study suggest several possible areas for future research
concerning the relationship between religion and students’ perceived stress. First, I did
not investigate the influence of an individual’s specific religion on the level of perceived
stress. Future research could examine the association between participants’ specific
religion and their levels of perceived stress. Second, it might also be beneficial to
examine whether there is an effective measure for evaluating the religiousness and
spirituality of college students. For example, a few of the participants in the study
expressed confusion after finishing the survey regarding their responses on the Religious
Orientation Scale. Participants whom were not (very) religious reported being unaware as
for how to respond appropriately to questions such as, “One reason for my being a church
member is that such membership helps to establish a person in the community.” Third,
the current measures of religiousness assume the participants participate in a
monotheistic religion. It would be interesting to determine if this is appropriate for
various student populations or if a measure oriented toward both mono-and polytheistic
religions might be a stronger analytic tool instead.
34
REFERENCES
Allport, G. W. & Ross, J.M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 432-443. doi: 10.1037/h0021212
Almeida, D.M., Sliwinski, M.J., Smyth, J.M., & Stawski, R.S. (2008). Reported exposure and
emotional reactivity to daily stressors: The roles of adult age and global perceived stress.
Psychology and Aging, 23(1), 52-61. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.52
Anderson, C. (1977). Locus of control, coping behaviors, and performance in a stress setting: A
longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(4), 446-451. doi:10.1037/00219010.62.4.446
Aysan, F., Hamarat, E., Matheny, K.B., Steele, D., Thompson, D., & Zabrucky, K.M. (2001).
Perceived stress and coping resource availability as predictors of life satisfaction in
young, middle aged, and older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 27, 181-196. doi:
10.1080/036107301750074051
Averill, J. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress.
Psychological Bulletin, 80(4), 286-303. doi:10.1037/h0034845
Bachen, E.A., De Groat, C.L., Dimas, J.M., Flores, E., Pasch, L.A., & Tschann, J.M. (2008).
Perceived discrimination, perceived stress, and mental and physical health among
Mexican-origin adults. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30(4), 401-424.
doi:10.1177/0739986308323056.
Baum, A., Gatchel, R., & Schaeffer, M. (1983). Emotional, behavioral, and physiological effects
of chronic stress at Three Mile Island. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
51(4), 565-572. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.51.4.565
35
Beam, J. (1955). Serial learning and conditioning under real-life stress. The Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 51(3), 543-551. doi:10.1037/h0039977
Berkeley, A. (1952). Level of aspiration in relation to adrenal cortical activity and the concept of
stress. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45(5), 443-449.
doi:10.1037/h0060767
Billings, A., & Moos, R. (1984). Coping, stress, and social resources among adults with unipolar
depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 877-891.
doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.877
Boren, J.P., Floyd, K., Hannawa, A.F., Hesse, C., McEwan, B., & Veksler, A.E. (2009). Kissing
in marital and cohabiting relationships: Effects on blood lipids, stress, and relationship
satisfaction. Western Journal of Communication, 73(2), 113-133. doi:
10.1080/10570310902856071
Bovier, A., Chamot, E., & Perneger, T. (2002). Perceived stress, internal resources, and social
supports as determinants of Mental Health in young adults. Quality of Life Research, 13,
161-170. doi: 10.1023/B:QURE.0000015288.43768.e4
Breger, L., Hunter, I., and Lane, R. (1935). The Effect of stress on dreams. New York:
International Universities Press.
Broome, K.M., Brown, B.S., Flynn, P., Joe, G.W., & Simpson, D.D. (2003). Looking back on
cocaine dependence: Reasons for recovery. American Journal on Addictions. 2003; 12:
398–411. doi: 10.1080/10550490390240774
Bryant, G.W., Gadzella, B., Ginther, D.W., & Tomcala, M. (1990). Stress as perceived by
professionals. Psychological Reports, 67(3), 979-983. doi:10.2466/PR0.67.7.979-983.
36
Buekens, P., Dole, N., Hertz-Picciotto, I., McMahon, M.J., Savitz, D.A., & Siega-Riz, A.M.
(2003). Maternal stress and preterm birth. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157, 14–
24.
Cannella, D., DeVincent, C., Graham, J.E., et al. (2008). Pregnancy-specific stress, prenatal
health behaviors, and birth outcomes. Health Psychology, 27(5), 604-615. doi:
10.1037/a0013242
Caron, A., & Wallach, M. (1957). Recall of interrupted tasks under stress: A phenomenon of
memory or of learning. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55(3), 372-381.
doi:10.1037/h0042808.
Carver, C., Scheier, M., & Weintraub, J. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically
based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267-283.
doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267.
Chang, E. C. (1998). Does dispositional optimism moderate the relation between perceived stress
and psychological well-being: A preliminary investigation. Personality and Individual
Differences, 25, 233–240. doi: 10.1016/50191-8869(98)00028-2
Coburn, D., & Jovaisas, A. (1975). Perceived sources of stress among first-year medical
students. Journal of Medical Education, 50(6), 589-595.
Cohen, S., & Weinstein, N. (1981). Non-auditory effects of noise on behavior and health.
Journal of Social Issues. 37, 36-70.
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396. doi: 10.2307/2136404
37
Cole, G., Tucker, L., & Friedman, G. (1990). Relationships among measures of alcohol drinking
behavior, life-events and perceived stress. Psychological Reports, 67(2), 587-591.
doi:10.2466/PR0.67.6.587-591
Conger, R. D., Kropp, J.P., Lahey, B.B., McCarty, J.A., & Yang, R.K. (1984). Perceptions of
child, child-rearing values and emotional distress as mediating links between
environmental stressors and observed maternal behavior. Child Development, 55, 2234–
2247. doi: 10.2307/1129795
Coolidge, L., Mizuno, H. & Segal, D. (2007). Defense Mechanism differences between Younger
and Older Adults: A cross-sectional investigation. Aging and Mental Health, 11(4), 415422. doi: 10.1080/13607860600963588
Cowen, E. (1952). Stress reduction and problem-solving rigidity. Journal of Consulting
Psychology, 16(6), 425-428. doi:10.1037/h0060888.
Crowson, M.M, Delgado, C.E.F., Morales, M., Mundy, P., & Neal, A.R. (2005). Individual
differences in infant attention skills, joint attention, and emotion regulation behavior.
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 259–263. doi:
10.1080/01650250444000432
Czar, G.C., Meyers, L. S., & Park, J.H. (1998). Religiosity and Spirituality: An Exploratory
Analysis Using the CPI 3-Vector Model. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 13
(3). Retrieved from http:// www.sbp-journal.com
Deese, J., Lazarus, R., & Keenan, J. (1953). Anxiety, anxiety reduction, and stress in learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46(1), 55-60. doi:10.1037/h0055880.
38
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larson, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Dumlao, J. et al. (2000). Stress at college: Effects on health habits, health status and self-esteem.
College Student Journal, 34(2), 217-228.
Duran, A., Turner, C., & Lund, D. (1989). Social support, perceived stress, and depression
following the death of a spouse in later life. Older bereaved spouses: Research with
practical applications (pp. 69-78). Washington, DC US: Hemisphere Publishing Corp.
Faw, V. (1957). Learning to deal with stress situations. Journal of Educational Psychology,
48(3), 135-144. doi:10.1037/h0040502.
Freeman, G., Manson, G., Katzoff, E., & Pathman, J. (1942). The stress interview. The Journal
of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 37(4), 427-447. doi:10.1037/h0059025.
Friedman, R., Kass, J.D., Leserman, J., & Zuttermeister, P.C. (1991). Health outcomes and a new
index of spiritual experience. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30, 203-211.
doi: 10.2307/1387214
Gelfand, D. T., Teti, D. M., & Fox, C. R. (1992). Sources of parenting stress for depressed and
non-depressed mothers of infants. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 262–272.
doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp21033_8
Genia, V. (1993). A psychometric evaluation of the Allport-Ross I/E Scales in a religiously
heterogeneous sample. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 32(3), 284-290.
doi:10.2307/1386667
Glixman, A. (1949). Recall of completed and in-completed activities under varying degrees of
stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 39(3), 281-295. doi:10.1037/h0054442
39
Glynn, L., Hobel, C.J., Sandman, C.A. & Schetter, C.D. (2008). Pattern of perceived stress and
anxiety in pregnancy predicts pre-term birth. Health Psychology, 27(1), 43-51. doi:
10.1037/0278-6133.27.1.43
Gorsuch, R.L. & McPherson, S. (1989). Intrinsic/extrinsic measurement: I/E – Revised and
single-item scales. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 22, 181-187. doi:
10.2307/1386745
Graham, D. & Maybery, D. J.(2001). Hassles and Uplifts: Including Interpersonal Events.
Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 17(2), 91-104. doi:
10.1002/smi.891
Harburg, E., Blakelock, E.H. Jr., & Roeper, P.R. (1979).Resentful and reflective coping
with arbitrary authority and blood pressure. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 189202.
Hedegaard, M., Henriksen, T. B., Sabroe, S., & Secher, N. J. (1993). Psychological distress in
pregnancy and preterm delivery. British Medical Journal, 307, 234–239.
Heilbrun, A. (1959). The effects of various shock-stress conditions upon a complex perceptualmotor task. Journal of Personality, 272: 85-299. doi:10.1111/j.14676494.1959.tb02353.x
Houston, B. (1972). Control over stress, locus of control, and response to stress. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 21(2), 249-255. doi:10.1037/h0032328.
Johnson, E.H., Schork, N.J., & Spielberger, C.D. (1987). Emotional and familial determinants of
elevated blood pressure in black and white adolescent females. Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, 31, 731–741. doi: 10.1016/0022-3999(87)90022-5
40
Kass, J.D., Friedman, R., Leserman, J., Zuttermeister, P.C., & Benson, H. (1991). Health
outcomes and a New Index of Spiritual Experience. Journal for the Scientific Study of
Religion, 30 (2), 203-211.
Karst, T., & Most, R. (1973). A comparison of stress measures in an experimental analogue of
public speaking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41(3), 342-348.
doi:10.1037/h0035258
Katchmar, L., Ross, S., & Andrews, T. (1958). Effects of stress and anxiety on performance of a
complex verbal-coding task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(6), 559-564.
doi:10.1037/h0041869.
Kim, K. et al. (2009). Stress, race, and body weight. Health Psychology, 28 (1), 131-135.
Knight, E., Laudet, A., Magura, S., & Vogel, H.S. (2000). Support, mutual aid and recovery
from dual diagnosis. Community Mental Health Journal, 36, 457–476. doi: 10.1023/A:
1001982829359
Koenig, H. G., et al. (2001) Handbook of Religion and Health, pp. 514–554, Oxford University
Press.
Latendresse, G. (2009). The interaction between chronic stress and pregnancy: Preterm birth
from a bio-behavioral perspective. Journal of Midwifery and Women’s Health, 54(1). doi:
10.1016/j.jmwh.2008.08.001
Laudet, A., & White, W. (2004). Correlates of 12-step affiliation in a community-based sample
of former substance users. Poster Presented at the 66th Annual Scientific Meeting of the
College on Problems of Drug Dependence, San Juan, Puerto Rico, June 2004.
41
Lauer, R. (1974). Rate of change and stress: A test of the 'future shock' thesis. Social Forces,
52(4), 510-516. doi:10.2307/2576994.
Lazarus, R., Deese, J., & Osler, S. (1952). The effects of psychological stress upon performance.
Psychological Bulletin, 49(4), 293-317. doi:10.1037/h0061145.
Lazarus, R. S. & Cohen, J. B. (1977) Environmental Stress. In: Attman, I. & Wohlwill, J.F.
(Eds.) Human Behavior and Environment. Current Theory and Research. New York:
Plenum Press.
Lazarus, R. S. (1966) Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lengacher, C. A. (1993). Comparative analysis of role strain and self-esteem across
academic programs. Nursing Connections, 6(3), 33-46.
Levanway, R. (1955). The effect of stress on expressed attitudes toward self and others. The
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50(2), 225-226. doi:10.1037/h0049252.
McGonagle, K. & Kessler, R. (1990). Chronic stress, acute stress, and depressive symptoms.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 5, 681-706. doi: 10.1007/BF00931237
Mechlin, M. (2009). Ethnicity and pain: Psychosocial stress and stress responses. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 70.
Meyers, L.S. & Reed, L.A. (1991). A Structural Analysis of Religious Orientation and its
Relation to Sexual Attitudes. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51(4). doi:
10.1177/001316449105100414
Mikhail, A. (1971). Effects of acute and chronic stress situations on stomach acidity in rats.
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 74(1, Pt.1), 23-27.
doi:10.1037/h0030329.
42
Miller, L. & Smith, A. (2010). The Different Kinds of Stress Adapted from The Stress Solution.
Received from http://www.healthyplace.com.
Misra, R., & McKean, M. (2000). College student's academic stress and its relation to their
anxiety, time management and leisure satisfaction. American Journal of Health Studies,
16(1), 41-52.
Mitic, W., McGuire, D., & Neumann, B. (1985). Perceived stress and adolescents' cigarette use.
Psychological Reports, 57(3, Pt 2), 1043-1048.
Mukhopadhyay, B. & Sarkar, S. (2008). Perceived psychosocial stress and cardiovascular risk:
Observations among the Bhutias of Sikkim, India. Journal of the International Society for
the Investigation of Stress, 24 (1), 23-34. doi: 10.1002/smi.1159
Owens, W., & Heidbreder, E. (1947). Review of 'War Stress and Neurotic Illness'. The Journal
of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 42(4), 488-490. doi:10.1037/h0052752.
Pare, W. & Isom, K. (1975). Gastric secretion as a function of acute and chronic stress in the
gastric fistula rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 88(1), 431-435.
doi:10.1037/h0076180.
Panzarino, P. (2010). Stress Symptoms, Causes, Signs, Types, Management, and Treatment.
Retrieved from http://www.MedicineNet.com.
Pargament, K. (1997). The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, and Practice.
New York: Guilford Publications.
Payne, I.R. et al. (1991). Review of religion and mental health: Prevention and the enhancement
of psychosocial functioning. Prevention in Human Services, 9, 11-40.
43
Rao, K. & Russell, R. (1960). Effects of stress on goal setting behavior. The Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61(3). doi: 10.1037/h0040176
Repetti, R. L. (1993). The effects of workload and the social environment at work on health. In
L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress (2nd ed., pp. 368-385). New
York: Free Press.
Repetti, R. L. (1994). Short-term and long-term processes linking job stressors to father child
interaction. Social Development, 3, 1-15.
Repetti, R. L., & Wood, J. (1997). Effects of daily stress at work on mothers’ interaction With
Pre-schoolers. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 90–108. doi: 10.1037/08933200.11.1.90
Riege, W., & Morimoto, H. (1970). Effects of chronic stress and differential environments upon
brain weights and biogenic amine levels in rats. Journal of Comparative and
Physiological Psychology, 71(3), 396-404. doi:10.1037/h0029133.
Rose, D. N. & Bond, M. J. (2008). Identity, stress, and substance abuse among young adults.
Journal of Substance Use, 13 (4), 268-282.
Sagy, S. (2002). Moderating factors explaining stress reactions: Comparing chronic-withoutacute-stress and chronic-with-acute-stress situations. Journal of Psychology:
Interdisciplinary and Applied, 136(4), 407-419. doi:10.1080/00223980209604167.
Segrin, C., Domschke, T. J., Donnerstein, C., Hanzal, A., & Taylor, M. (2007). Social skills,
psychological well-being, and the mediating role of perceived stress. Anxiety, Stress &
Coping: An International Journal, 20(3), 321-329. doi: 10.1080/10615800701282252
44
Segrin, C., Badger, T., Dorros, S.M., Lopez, A.M., & Meek, P. (2007). Interdependent anxiety
and psychological distress in women with breast cancer and their partners. PsychoOncology, 16(7): 634–643. doi: 10.1002/pon.1111
Strong, E. (1916). Fatigue, work, and inhibition. Psychological Bulletin, 13(11), 430-433.
doi:10.1037/h0070048.
Taylor, E. (1915). Review of 'Des Troubles Psychiques et Nevrosiques Post
traumatiques'. The Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 10(1), 73-75.
doi:10.1037/h0064159.
Taylor, J. (1958). The effects of anxiety level and psychological stress on verbal learning.
The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 57(1), 55-60.
doi:10.1037/h0044946.
Thoresen, C., & Eagleston, J. (1983). Chronic stress in children and adolescents. Theory Into
Practice, 22(1), 48-56. doi:10.1080/00405848309543037.
Tufts, J. (1907). On the psychology of the family. Psychological Bulletin, 4(12), 371-374.
doi:10.1037/h0073987.
Van de Castle, R. L. (1994). Our dreaming mind. New York: Ballantine Books.
Ventegodt, S., Merrick, J., & Anderson (2003). Psychoactive drugs and quality of life. Scientific
World Journal, 18, 694–706.
Vines, A., et al. (2009). A comparison of the occurrence and perceived stress of major life events
in Black and White women. Women & Health, 49(5), 368-380.
doi:10.1080/03630240903238743.
45
Vogel, W., Raymond, S., & Lazarus, R. (1959). Intrinsic motivation and psychological stress.
The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58(2), 225-233. doi:10.1037/h0043112.
Waterman, G. (1909). The treatment of fatigue states. The Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
4(2), 128-139. doi:10.1037/h0072882.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures
of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 54, 1063-1070. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Watson, D. (1988). Intra-individual and inter-individual analyses of Positive and Negative
Affect: Their relation to health complaints, perceived stress, and daily activities. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1020-1030. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1020
Weyer, G., & Hodapp, V. (1975). Development of questionnaires for measuring perceived stress.
Archiv für Psychologie, 127(3-4), 161-188. doi:
Whitman, N. (1985). Student Stress: Effects and Solutions. Retrieved from
http://www.ERICDigest.com.