Biology 357 - Ecology
Name:______________________________________
Laboratory Day and Time:______________________
Ecology Laboratory #1
“The Art of Scientific Writing, Thinking and Bias”
(30 points - due in two weeks)
INTRODUCTION
As a student in this course, your primary objective is to place yourself in the position of a
scientist. This requires learning a great many things: how to think, collect data, and draw informed
conclusions from your work. Part of the process also includes producing reports so that your
fellow scientists know and repeat your work. This is an essential element of the scientific process
because without it, knowledge is neither disseminated nor gained.
Your objectives today are to briefly learn about the scientific method, data collection and
analysis, and scientific writing. You will have to write a scientific report, according to the
guidelines, and submit it in two weeks. This lab report is worth 30 points. I will grade you on
spelling, grammar, how closely you follow the required format, and what you say.
PART I: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Most of us think about different things when we think about the scientific method. You may
have been exposed to it during other courses during your high school and college careers (so far,
that is). If you haven’t, then here it is and I hope it isn’t too confusing. It’s really a very simple
and straight-forward process to follow when answering a scientific question. It begins with a
simple observation and proceeds through steps to lead you to a conclusion. Here are a list of the
steps, reviewing each of them in class:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
An observation.
A question?
A hypothesis (a guess).
An experimental design to test the hypothesis.
Collecting the data.
Analyzing the data (with the help of statistics).
Accept or reject your hypothesis based upon your analysis.
Scientists follow this process because it uses logical deduction to test ideas and draw logical
conclusions. In today’s lab, the observation involves the simple flip of the coin, and how to test
various ideas about it. For example, why would we, or anyone for that matter, be concerned the
simple flipping of a coin? Well, think about some examples where a coin flip might be used.
1.
2.
Sporting events.
Gambling (illegal and legal forms).
Why flip a coin under these circumstances (answer the question below)?
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Once you have done this, you have a pretty good idea as to why and forms the basis for your
question (?). The question takes your simple observation and places it within the context of the
scientific process. Most of the time this step is completed in one’s own head without the benefit of
writing it on paper. But it helps you move to the next step: the hypothesis. However, you have to
refine this hypothesis into a usable form. To do this, you have to write your hypothesis into 2
types: a null hypothesis (no difference), and an alternate hypothesis. We will learn the process of
developing a correct hypothesis in class. However, participate in class and write down the correct
null and alternate hypotheses in the spaces below when the class is finished.
Our null (“no difference”) hypothesis:
Our alternate hypothesis:
When the null and alternate hypotheses have been written, you will be better able to design
an experiment to test it. We will discuss it in class, but most of the directions are listed on the
following pages. I’ve also included a sheet to record the data as you collect it.
Directions:
Data Collection
1.
2.
3.
4.
Work with other students in the lab. Write your names on the data sheet.
Decide which one of you will “flip” the coin, while the other records the data.
Flip the coin using the same method every time. Flip it 250 times and record your results in
the table by checking the appropriate box.
When you are finished, tabulate (summarize) your results at the bottom of the table.
Data Analysis
1.
2.
You have a sample size of 250 “flips” Sample size is indicated with a small letter “n” (n =
250) to indicate an estimate instead of a known entity. However, what do you do next to
determine if the coin was biased?
If the coin was unbiased, and you flipped it 250 times, how many times would you have
expected to tails or heads?
Write your answer here:
#
Tails
#
Heads
But,......
3.
What if the result was different than what you expected? If you found a difference, then how
much of a difference is needed for you to conclude that you or the coin is biased towards
heads or tails?
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Fill in the blanks below:
Number of heads/250 flips:
Number of tails/250 flips:
Number of heads/250 flips you expected if the coin was unbiased:
Number of tails/250 flips you expected if the coin was unbiased:
4.
Take the number of tails you found, and subtract the number expected tails.
5.
Square that result (multiply it by itself).
6.
Divide it by the number of tails you found (use the number again).
7.
Record that number here:
8.
Now repeat that process for the head and record the result below.
Tails:
Heads:
9.
Add the 2 results. Write your result here.
Bring your result to me and I will be able to tell you if your coin is biased. Thus, you have
completed data analysis and you must either accept your null hypothesis, or reject your null
hypothesis. If you reject your null hypothesis, then, by deduction, you accept your alternate
hypothesis. Next, as a member of the scientific community you are responsible for telling
everyone about it. A scientific report effectively communicates your work to other scientists.
PART II: WRITING THE SCIENTIFIC REPORT
Writing a scientific report is step-by-step process of informing the reader what you did, how
you did it, and what you concluded. In this class, you have to write a report of your laboratory
research. This allows us the opportunity to read about your work and repeat your experiment if we
choose. Each scientific report is composed of several sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Methods and Materials
Results
Discussion and Conclusions
Literature Cited/References
Title
A title informs the reader about your work. It is meant to grab your attention and invite you
to read the article. A title is not more than 10 words. A vague or inaccurate title can waste a
reader’s time by suggesting, erroneously, that the paper contains certain information. Even worse,
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a good paper can be burdened by a bad title and may not catch the eye or interest of its intended
audience. Some authors initially create a working title first and then revise it upon completion of
the paper. Others wait until they finish the paper before writing the title. Thus, they have a better
understanding of the paper;, the title will reflect this greater understanding.
2.
Abstract
The abstract is a brief review of the article and is meant to provide brief elements of the
paper so that the reader can quickly gain a better idea of the entire article. It tells the reader what
you did, why you did it, what you found, what type of statistics you used, and what your results
mean in a larger context.
3.
Introduction
Begin by clearly identifying the subject and nature of the laboratory exercise. State the
hypotheses and/or define the problem your research was designed to solve or, in this case, the
course concept to be understood. Orient the report to previous stated concepts in the lecture and
textbook, possibly by a brief and concise review of the literature that is unmistakably relevant to
the specific aims of your research. Do not use the Introduction to try to convince the reader of the
importance of the report, it should be evident. Also, a major problem for most writers can be
linking the paper to a subject’s broader conceptual framework. With practice this will disappear,
as experienced writers automatically link the study to the conceptual framework.
4.
Methods and Materials
Describe materials and methods used, including experimental design, in sufficient detail to
enable other scientists to evaluate your work or to duplicate your research. The usual sequence for
experimental studies is design of the experiment, subjects (plant, animal, human), materials used,
procedures, and methods for observation and interpretation. Your methodology provides the
context for evaluating the data. The credibility of your scientific argument depends, in part, on
how clearly and precisely you have outlined and justified your procedures. Organize your material
logically, use specific, informative language, and omit unnecessary information.
5.
Results
The results section should: (1) summarizes the data, emphasizing important patterns or
trends, and (2) illustrate and support your generalizations with explanatory details, statistics,
examples of representative (or atypical) cases, and tables/figures. Integrate your graphs and figures
with the text to explain your results. To convey the results clearly, your writing must be wellorganized. Present the data in a logical order, if possible, in the same order you presented the
materials section. This is called parallel construction. If the Results section is long and includes
many different topics, consider using subheadings to make the text easier for the reader to grasp.
The Results section should be a straightforward report of the data. Do not compare your
findings with those of other researchers, and do not discuss why your results were or were not
consistent with your predictions. Avoid speculating about the causes of particular findings or
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about their significance. Do not interpret the data or draw major conclusions. Save such
comments for the Discussion.
6.
Discussion
In the Discussion, tell the reader what your think your findings mean. Do the data support
your original hypotheses? Why or why not? Refer to the graphs/figures in the Results; use them as
evidence to support your conclusions. Here is the place, too, to discuss the work of other
researchers – your ability to apply to a broader context and conceptual framework. Are your
findings consistent with theirs? How do your results fit into the bigger picture? Do not present
every conceivable explanation. Sometimes beginners feel obliged to think of every possible way to
interpret their results. However, you can quickly swamp and lose a reader. Experiments do not
always have to confirm the presence of major differences. You may find that there is no significant
difference between two groups, no effect, and no association. These results are important and
worthy of explanation. Show that you are knowledgeable about the subjects and take responsibility
for your conclusions. Don’t hedge or hesitate and use coherent, logical organization in your
writing. Finally, discuss these two questions in the Discussion:
A.
Notice the variation in the results versus the total counts. Regardless of the results (biased
or not), what factors do you think could account for the result?
B.
What do you think would happen if we combined your results with the results from other
classes? Would the results change or remain the same?
7.
Literature Cited
A bibliography contains all the sources mentioned in the text, along with additional
references on the topic. The Literature Cited section of a paper contains only the literature
(sources) that have been cited in the text. Even if you have acquired useful background knowledge
by reading five articles and three books, do not list any of these in the Literature Cited section
unless you have specifically mentioned them in the text. Make sure that you report your sources
completely and accurately. If your sources are reported sloppily, people may doubt your authority,
integrity, and thoroughness as a researcher and writer. I will assist you in this section.
Journals have adopted various formats for the Literature Cited section of papers.
Prospective authors prepare this section by carefully following guidelines prescribed by journal for
which they are writing. The following rules illustrate the style used by the journal American
Naturalist.
Example - Journal Article with Single Author
Grant, P. R. 1995. Speciation and the adaptive radiation of Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos
Islands. Am. Sci. 69:653-663.
Type the author’s last name first, followed by his or her initials. Give the publication date
next, then the title of the paper. Only the first word of the title is capitalized. The title of the
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journal is capitalized but not italicized. Note that the title is abbreviated to save space and printing
costs. After the journal title, give the volume number followed by a colon and the pages on which
the article appears. Arrange your references alphabetically and by year.
PART III: THE SCIENTIFIC REPORT FORMAT
You must you format your report according to specific guidelines. They were presented during
lecture for the mid-term examination and must be repeated here:
14 October 2008
Jeffrey W. Snyder
Department of Biology
Western Oregon University
345 N. Monmouth Ave.
Monmouth, OR 97361
E-mail: snyderj@wou.edu
WRITING AND SUBMITTING LABORATORY REPORTS
JEFFREY W. SNYDER, Department of Biology, Western Oregon University, 345 N. Monmouth Ave.,
Monmouth, OR 97361, USA
JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 00(0):000-000
Key words: reports, writing, laboratory, title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, literature cited.
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Methods and Materials
Results
Discussion and Conclusions
Literature Cited/References
Word Count: 722 words
LITERATURE CITED
McMillan, Victoria. 1988. Writing papers in the biological sciences. St. Martin’s Press, Inc. Boston. 142 pp.
Day, Robert. 1994. How to write and publish a scientific paper. Oryx Press, Inc. Phoenix, AZ. 4th Edition. 223 pp.
Trimble, John R. 2000. Writing with style – conversations on the art of writing. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey. 198
pp.
Stegner, Wallace A. 2010. Creating a society to match our scenery: resolving natural resource conflicts in the 21st
Century. Journal of Ecology 32:100-101.
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PART IV: GRADING THE LABORATORY REPORT
Examination Grade Sheet
Student’s Name:
.
Date Received:
1.
Laboratory#:
Penalty Points:
1
.
0
Style and Format
Followed specified journal format guidelines (5 points)
2.
3.
4.
Grammar (2 points)
_______
Spelling (2 points)
_______
Punctuation (1 point)
_______
Literature Citations
Used appropriate document background (5 points)
_______
Used appropriate citation format in text (2 points)
_______
Used appropriate citation format at end of text (2 points)
_______
Tables, Figures and Data
_______
Content and Integrative Thought
Content and Synthesis – covered most points (5 points)
6.
_______
Grammar, Spelling, and Punctuation
Data presentation (5 points)
5.
.
Did You Staple This Grade sheet to the Paper? (1 point)
Total Points (30 points)
Late Penalty Deduction (1 point/day):
Your Preliminary Score:
Comments:
_______
_______
_______
___0___
/ 30 .
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PART V: DATA SHEETS
Student #1 Name:
Student #2 Name:
Student #3 Name:
Student #4 Name:
Biology 357 - Ecology
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
9
Heads
Tails
Sample
Heads
Tails
Sample
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
Totals (f i)
Totals (f i)
Totals (f i)
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Heads
Tails
Biology 357 - Ecology
Sample
10
Heads
Tails
Sample
Heads
Tails
Sample
121
161
201
Totals (f i)
Totals (f i)
Totals (f i)
Heads
Tails