West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
Smoking Patterns and Behaviour of Fresh and
Graduating Physical and Health Education
Students in Tertiary Institutions of Kwara State
By
O.O. Oyerinde
Abstract
This paper investigated the existing smoking patterns and behaviour of fresh and
graduating students of physical and health education (PHE) in tertiary institutions in Kwara
State. One hundred subjects were sampled using the proportionate random sampling technique to
select from the institutions offering PHE in Kwara State. A previously validated questionnaire
(CSAQ) was used to gather information and collect data for the study. The data were subjected
to descriptive statistics of percentages and chi-square.
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded among others that the attitude of
fresh PHE students differ from those of graduating students. Fresh students scored higher on the
attitudinal scale. Also, graduating students had better perception of the elements and effects of
cigarette smoking than fresh students. It was thus recommended that health educators should
convert the improved knowledge of graduating students in the physical and health
education departments on the elements and effects of cigarette smoking to health action; and
that some of the curriculum items in drug, alcohol and smoking education should be moved to
lower levels to help fresh students.
Introduction
Research in the areas of drug use and abuse have included smoking as one of the
dangerous drugs in many parts of the world. Miller (1973), Olayemi (1982) and
Oyerinde (1993) expressed the view that drug abuse does not exclude alcohol and
tobacco. There are also studies {Salber Reed and Welsh, 1962; Udoh et al., 1987; Dale
and Wane, 1999) that discouraged school-going children from smoking. Cigarette
smoking has been found to have adverse effects on personality, intelligence and
human will.
As for athletes, Likenfeld (1959) reported that even though smokers are usually
eager to participate in active sports than non-smokers, they are usually more frequently
hospitalised. Also, Salber et al. (1963) and Oyerinde (1993) showed that cigarette
smoking has adverse effects on sports performance. More specifically, and apart from
the much publicized health hazards, additional negative effects are noticed in athletes
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
who smoke, as against those who do not. Physical education students are in many
respects athletes and the effects of smoking on athletes, as discussed below and listed
by Udoh et al. (1987), Oyerinde (1993) and Abramov (1988), are directly related to them
in their performance levels during physical education activities. These are that:
a. Athletes (physical and health education students) who smoke often have
breathing difficulties during sports performance and physical education activities.
b. Athletes (physical and health education students) who smoke usually have
trembling hands and this, at times, affects the performance in events requiring
handling or carrying of objects, such as in baton exchange in relay races and
passes in basketball and volleyball.
c. Usually, the skin temperature of a smoker is more than 1 degree Fahrenheit lower
than that of a non-smoker (Brooks and Brooks, 1979). Thus, it will take a smoker
athlete (physical and health education students) longer time to warm up for
physical
activities than a non-smoker athlete or physical and health education student
(Fawole, 1986 and Oyerinde, 1993).
d. Smoker athletes (physical and health education students) do not enjoy
acceptance
by peers,
on
account
of
complete
their discoloured teeth and unpleasant
smell from their breathing and clothes.
e. Financially, smoking drains the purse and expectedly those of smoking athletes
and physical and health education students.
Although, these adverse effects of drug abuse and, more specifically,
cigarette smoking are widely known by youths, Nigerian youths and students
engage in smoking. Mike (1983) found that 40% of the students he sampled
were smokers. Fawole (1986) also reported that irrespective of religious beliefs,
academic discipline, age and sex, smoking was a common phenomenon
among secondary school students. Ogunremi and Rotirni (1979) found 16%
cigarette smoking prevalence among secondary school students in a university
town, while Elegbeleye and Femi-Pearse (1974) found a prevalence of 17.5%
among male and 2.7% among female students in some secondary schools in
Lagos. In addition to these findings, Udoh (1982), in concluding his research on
the beliefs, opinions and behaviours of drug use among secondary school
students in Ibadan, stated that his subjects were very familiar with the use of
alcoholic beverages, marijuana and cigarette. Similarly, Moronkola (1995),
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
Jegede (1998) and Adelekan (2000) found a high prevalence of drug abuse
among youths in secondary schools and universities. Students were found to
abuse substances such as beer, palm wine, gin, whisky, snuff, cigarette and
hemp.
It is therefore expected that these secondary school students carry the habit of
smoking into the university. Whether or not this is so and whether physical and
health education students are also involved in such practice constitute the rationale
for this study.
Statement of the Problem
Today in Nigeria, there is much concern for the increase in the rate of childhood
and adolescent smoking. Fawole (1986), Mike (1983), Ogunremi and Rotimi (1979)
and Elegbeleye and Femi-Pearse (1974) asserted that students, including university
students, are commonly involved in smoking, irrespective of their religious beliefs,
academic discipline, age and sex.
This study therefore investigated the cigarette smoking behaviours, smoking
patterns and attitude towards smoking of fresh and graduating students of physical
and health education in the tertiary institutions in Kwara State. The objective of
the study was to ascertain the differentials in the smoking patterns, behaviours
and attitudes of new and graduating students of physical and health education in the
tertiary institutions.
The following research questions guided the conduct of the study:
1. Will there be a difference in the cigarette smoking habits of fresh and graduating
physical and health education students in the tertiary institutions of Kwara State?
2. Will there be a difference in the cigarette smoking patterns of fresh and graduating
physical and health education students in the tertiary institutions in Kwara State?
3. Will the physical and health education curriculum items affect the perceptions of
students in the department of physical and health education about the effect of
cigarette smoking on health?
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested:
1. There will be no significant difference in the cigarette smoking habits of fresh and
graduating physical and health educationstudents in the tertiary institutions in Kwara
State.
2. There will be no significant difference in the cigarette smoking patterns of fresh and
graduating physical and health education students in the tertiary institutions in Kwara
State.
3. The perception of fresh and graduating physical and health education students
will not be significantly influenced by the physical and health education curriculum.
Significance of the Study
Some scientists have argued that smoking trends are diminishing due to education.
On the other hand, it is assumed that fresh students will not be great cigarette
smokers, since they are not very exposed. This study is significant in clarifying these
assumptions and ascertaining if the exposure to a physical education curriculum will
produce positive influence on smoking among Nigerian physical education students and,
hence, among all students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
The findings will assist departments to improve on the quality of drug education
curriculum and step up drug cessation programmes. Also, the study will help health
educators in particular and other handlers of the general welfare of Nigerian students to
appreciate better the dilemma of Nigerian students and develop programmes and
means to offer them better, compensatory behaviours. Moreover, researchers can
use and adapt the findings and conclusions of this study to further studies, as the
findings will add to literature on smoking behaviours.
Methodology
The population for the study were the beginning and graduating physical and health
education students in the departments of physical and health education in the tertiary
institutions of Kwara State. The institutions thus covered were the University of Ilorin and
the Kwara State colleges of education in Oro, Patigi and Ilorin. However the colleges of
education and the University of Ilorin where departments of physical and health education
existed were used, exempting the polytechnic institutions, since they had no
departments of physical and health education. The proportionate random sampling
technique was used to select a representative sample from these institutions.
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
The study design was descriptive survey. A previously validated questionnaire titled,
Cigarette smoking attitude questionnaire' (CSAQ) was used to bring out responses from
subjects, as to use, consumption levels, number of smokers in the beginning and
graduating classes, motivating factors and differentials in the pattern of smoking among
fresh and graduating students. However, the questionnaire was further validated and tested
for reliability, using the split-half method. Only 50 students were sampled from the
Department of Physical and Health Education of St. Andrews College Oyo State. A 0.79r
coefficient was obtained. Data collected was analyzed using percentages, mean scores
and chi square statistic.
Results and Discussion of Findings
Hypothesis 1
There will be no significant difference in the cigarette smoking habits of fresh and
graduating physical and health education students in the tertiary institutions of Kwara
State.
To test this hypothesis, the cigarette smoking attitude questionnaire (CSAQ) was
applied. The responses were categorized into high and low levels, as explained in the table 1.
All participants scoring below the derived mean score of the Likert scale were deemed
low, while those above the mean were deemed high.
Table 1: Cigarette Smoking Habits and Attitudes
Category
Beginning PHE learners
Graduating PHE students
Column total
Low
x%
High
Row
x%
x%
35.3
51.2
47.0
64.7
48.8
53.0
26.1
73.9
X2
19.10*
100
X2= 19.10; df 1:P> 0.05
Results are presented for each group as number and row column and total
percentages
* Significant at 0.05 level
The analysis presented in table 1 shows that the data obtained were significantly
different at 0.05 level, with 1 degree of freedom at a table value of 3.84. This implies
that there was a significant difference in the habits and attitudes of fresh and
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
graduating physical and health education students to cigarette smoking. Graduating
students scored low (51.2%) on the attitudinal and habit scale, as against the fresh
students who scored high (64.7%). The hypothesis was therefore rejected and the
alternative upheld that there is a significant difference in the attitudes and habits of
graduating and beginning PHE students to smoking.
Hypothesis 2
There will be no significant difference in the cigarette smoking patterns of
fresh and graduating physical and heath education students in the tertiary
institutions of Kwara State.
Table 2: Cigarette Smoking Patterns of Participants
Category
% for all
subjects
X2
x% for
male
XV
x% for
female
X2
Beginning PHE
learners
Graduating PHE
learners
Column total
26.1
1.16NS
36.8
13.7*
15.7
9.22*
73.9
63.0
84.3%
13.71*
84.3
100
100
100
Table 2 shows the calculated chi-square value of 1.16, which indicates that
the smoking patterns of beginning and graduating physical and health
education students in the tertiary institutions of Kwara State did not differ
significantly from one another. However, the smoking patterns of male students
of both groups differed significantly. Furthermore, the smoking patterns
showed a significant difference among female students of both groups. The X2
value of 1.16 noted for all subjects was not significant. This means that
hypothesis 2. which states that there will be no significant difference in the
smoking patterns of beginning and graduating physical and health education
students in the tertiary institutions of Kwara State, was accepted.
The significant X 2 value of 13.7 found for male students and 9.22 for
female students, with 1 degree of freedom each at a probability level of 0.05
supports the fact that male and female students will behave differently towards
the use of cigarette.
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
Hypothesis 3
The perception of fresh and graduating physical and health edvication
students will not be significantly influenced by the physical and health
education curriculum.
To test this hypothesis, the responses to the questionnaire items that treated
the perception levels on the elements and effects of cigarette smoking were
collected and treated according to subjects' levels of agreement and
disagreement with the items. Table 3 presents the analysis.
Table 3: Percentages and chi-square analysis of Participants' responses to
Perception related items
Category
x%
for
subjects (low)
all
X% for all subjects
thigh)
Fresh PHE learners
57.3
42.3
Graduating PHE
learners
42.7
57.7
Column total
100
100
X2
5.75
X2 = 5.75: df 1:P> 0.05
* Significant with 1 degree of freedom at P 0.05 level.
Table 3 reveals that the subjects' scores on the grouped questionnaire
items were significantly different at P 0.05 level, with 1 degree of freedom and a
table value of 3.84. The chi-square value calculated was 5.75. While more fresh
students scored low (57.3%) to the low score (42.7%) of the graduating
students, more graduating students scored high (57.7%) to the low score
(42.3%) of fresh students. This means that the levels of perception of the
elements and effects of cigarette smoking differ among the groups. By these
results, hypothesis 3, which states that there will be no significant difference in
the perception of fresh and graduating students on cigarette smoking, was
rejected. More graduating students than fresh students showed greater
awareness level and a better perception of the elements of cigarette smoking.
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
Discussion
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1, which states that there will be no significant
difference in the cigarette smoking behaviour and attitude of beginning
and graduating physical and health education students in the tertiary
institutions of Kwara State, was rejected. This suggests that there was a
significant difference in their cigarette smoking behaviour and attitudes;
and that the attitude of graduating students to cigarette smoking was
poor, as against that of fresh students. This result was unexpected, as it
was earlier assumed that graduating students of physical and health
education would have gone through a number of courses to have improved
their attitudes and behaviours towards cigarette smoking (Horn, 1963).
Dale and Wanye (1999) regarded such dramatic reactions in
behaviours and attitudes of youths as being related to peer influence
and changing societal values, as well as the emotional state of the youths.
The finding of this study is similar to that of Rougman (1985), where
increased use of cigarette was discovered among British medical students.
The assumption that fresh students will use cigarette less because they
are 'unexposed' and new to social, religious and personal freedom was,
therefore, reaffirmed.
Hypothesis 2
The results obtained on this hypothesis revealed that the smoking
patterns of subjects did not differ. This confirmed that the smoking pattern
for fresh and graduating physical arid health education students will not be
significantly different. However, a. breakdown of data in the male and female
categories revealed a significant difference in the cigarette smoking patterns. While a
non-significant difference was obtained for all subjects involved, there was a
significant difference between the male and female physical and health education
students' cigarette smoking patterns, when treated separately. Thus, there is no
difference between a fresh and a graduating student, with regard to cigarette smoking
pattern. To smokers, smoking follows a similar use pattern. Academic work in tertiary
institution does not constitute a variable strong enough to influence the smoking
pattern of fresh and graduating students.
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West African Journal of Physical & Health Education Vol. 9. No. 1, January, 2005.
Hypothesis 3
The results for this hypothesis (see table 3) showed that there is a significant
difference between the perception levels of fresh and graduating physical and health
education students of the elements and effects of cigarette smoking. The direction of
difference showed that the perception of graduating students about the elements and
effects of cigarette is higher and better than that of fresh students. This seems to mirror
the fact that graduating students are more knowledgeable about cigarette smoking than
the fresh students. It also upholds the assumption that exposure to the physical and
health education programme improves knowledge of students.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, it is concluded that:
a.
The attitudes of fresh physical and health education learners differ from those of
graduating students. The fresh learners scored higher on the attitudinal scale;
b.
The smoking patterns of smokers of fresh arid graduating physical and health
education students do not differ;
.c
Graduating students have a better perception of the elements and effects of cigarette
smoking than the perception of fresh students.
Recommendations
It was recommended that health educators in the physical and health education
department should find means of converting (.he improved knowledge of graduating
students in the department about the elements arid effects of cigarette smoking to health
action. This will enhance drug and cigarette cessation, loss peer actions and cultic
activities among students of the department. Also. Some of the curriculum items on drug,
alcohol and smoking should be moved to the lower levels of the department to enhance
early perception of the elements and effects of cigarette smoking among fresh students.
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