SOKOTO
EDUCATIONAL
REVIEW
VOL.7
SEPTEMBER 2004
Published by:
Faculty of Education and Extension Services,
Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto, Nigeria.
Sokoto Educational Review, Vol. 7, September 2004
© Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Printed in Nigeria
SOKOTO
EDUCATIONAL
REVIEW
ISBN 079436653
VOL.7
SEPTEMBER 2004
Copy:
Faculty of Education and Extension Services,
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria.
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Sokoto Educational Review, Vol. 7, September 2004
© Usmami Danfodivo University, Sokoto, Printed in Nigeria
EDITORIAL BOARD
Prof. A.A. Salawu
-
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. M.A. Wasagu
-
Member
Dr. A.A. Bagudo
-
Member
Dr. M.G. Dukku
-
Member
Dr. I. Galadima
-
Member
CONSULTING EDITORS
Dr. M. Musa
-
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Dr. A.O. Enoh
-
University of Jos
Prof. A.I. Idowu
-
University of Ilorin, Ilorin
Prof. C.O. Daramola
-
University of Ilorin, Ilorin
Dr. A. Umar
-
National Teachers' Institute, Kaduna
Prof. A.A. Olowu
-
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
Address for Correspondence -
The Editor-in-Chief
Sokoto Educational Review
Faculty of Education and Extension Services,
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
Sokoto Educational Review, Vol. 7, September 2004
© Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Printed in Nigeria
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover page:__................................................................................i
Editorial Board:..............................................................................ii
Consulting Editors:..........................................................................ii
Address for Correspondence:..............................................................ii
Table of Contents:..........................................................................iii
Editorial Note:...............................................................................vi
Role of the Private Sector in Fostering the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
Programme in Nigeria By Muhammad Gurama Dukku:...............................1
Psychological Preparation of Learners and Teachers for the Universal
Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria: A Study of Calabar Metropolis By
Rowland A.E. Iheanacho (Ph.D.):.........................................................8
Girls Education from the Islamic Perspective
By Dr. (Mrs.) Aisha Madawaki Isah:....................................................18
Justice, Reverse Discrimination and the Issue of Access to Education in Nigeria
By Dr. A. Owan Enoh:.....................................................................29
The Need for Sex Education in the Nigerian School System
By Muhammad Alkali:....................................................................41
Perception of Academic and Senior Non-Academic Staff on Achievement Of
Institutional Standards and Academic Staff Turn-Over in Borno State Tertiary
Institutions By Dr. K.W. Bukar andl.B. Bukar:.............................53
Theoretical Frameworks and Their Stand on Gender in Education
By Dr. (Mrs.) Ngozi P. Nwosu:..........................................................60
Strategies for the Effective Teaching of Arabic in Nigeria
By Olajide, Stephen Billy. Ph.D.:........................................................75
iii
Sokoto Educational Review, Vol. 7, September 2004 © Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto, Printed in Nigeria
Establishing the Policy of English Language Across the Curriculum:
An Introductory Article By Dr. Sulaiman O. Eguare:.................................82
Teacher Characteristics and Preferences for Social Studies Curriculum
Models in (Nigerian Junior Secondary Schools By Okunloye R.W. Ph.D.......91
Hood Disaster: An Index in the Formulation of a Comprehensive
Framework for Environmental Education in Niger State
By Dantani Ibrahim Wushishi (Ph.D.):..................................................99
Improving Teacher Performance Through Management Intervention
By R.O. Oduwaiye, (AIPM)Ph.D.:....................................................113
Student Gender, Self-Concept and Attitude Towards Science as Predictors
Of Performance in Practical Biology Tasks By Dr. Ogunkola, B.J. and
Olatoye, R.A. Ph.D.:.....................................................................124
Psycho-Social Determinants of Teachers' Job Satisfaction in Ibadan
Metropolis, Oyo State, Nigeria By Aremu, A. Oyesoji Ph.D. and
Adeyoju, C. Adeola Ph.D.:..............................................................134
Affective Characteristics as Determinants of Academic Performance of
School going Adolescents: Implications for Counselling Practice
By Dr. Samuel O. Salami, Ph.D.:......................................................145
Differences in Adjustment Patterns of Junior Secondary Students - An
Investigative Study By Okunbanjo O. Olusola (MB):...............................161
Crisis in the Management and Funding of Primary Education in Nigeria 1960 to Date By Muhammad Mustapha Jagaba (Ph.D.):...........................171
Patterns of Emotional Intelligence Among Counselling Psychology
Students in A Nigerian University By Adeyemo, D.A.:.............................194
Gender Equality in Occupations: An Appraisal of Parental Attitudes Towards
Occupational Aspirations of Girls in Government Girls' College, Sokoto
By Dr. Muhammad Garba Mahuta:....................................................204
IV
Sokoto Educational Review, Vol. 7, September 2004 © Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto,
Printed in Nigeria
Developing An Effective Adult Education Delivery Via Technology By Dr.
Abdullahi Tukur Kadage:.......................................................214
Note to Contributors:.....................................................................221
Notes on Contributors:..................................................................223
v
Sokoto Educational Review, Vol. 7, September 2004 © Usrnanu Danfodio University, Sokoto,
Printed in Nigeria
EDITORIAL NOTE
This is Vol. 7 of the Sokoto Educational Review - a bi-annual Journal of
the Faculty of Education and Extension Services, Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto.
Members of the Editorial Board regret the delay in the publication of this
volume. In this issue, there are twenty (21) articles from distinguished authors
across the country. Our review of papers will continue to be fair, open and
efficient. The Board promised to publish quality research findings and position
papers in all areas of education. Collection of articles for Vol. 8 of the Journal had
started.
Contributors in this volume should accept my congratulations.
Thanks.
Prof Abdulganiyu Ayodele Saiawu
(EDITOR-IN-CHIEF)
vi
Improving Teacher Performance Through Management Intervention
IMPROVING TEACHER PERFORMANCE THROUGH
MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION
BY
Dr. R.O. ODUWAIYE, (AIPM)
ABSTRACT
Educational managers are responsible for effective ways to improve teachers
performance. To achieve this, a manager must set in motion some strategies.
Such strategies include close and quality supervision, provision of adequate
instructional materials and facilities and equitable reward system as in better
pay and promotions. This paper strongly recommends, apart from these other
managerial strategies, a participative management which could be an
adaptation of the Japanese Theory Z, that will make the teachers and students
to be the main focus in educational business.
INTRODUCTION
Poor students' performance from the recent past had been directly
linked with teacher's burnout, turnover and dissatisfaction as Fagbamiye
(2000) noted that unhappy employees are unlikely to a productive workforce.
In the past, teachers were reduced to objects of pity and so on through delayed
or unpaid salaries and other negative comments on the teachers. This has been
responsible for teacher's low esteem. Even when the government is realizing
the effect of this low education in the country and while the government is
working to uplift teachers status, unfavourable environment like dilapidated
buildings, poorly furnished classrooms and pupils lack of instructional
materials continue to erode teachers zeal for work. These and many others
contribute to teacher's low morale and dissatisfaction. Whether it is the
teachers job satisfaction that brings about good teaching performance or vice
versa, it is important to know that before there can be good performance on
any job, teaching inclusive, the employees need to have a good mental attitude
towards the job. Cameron (1973) admits that even if a man's job satisfies his
needs, he will not express satisfaction with it if he perceives some comparable
job as satisfying his needs better or with less effort required. This is the reason
why a teacher at the slightest opportunity of another job, jumps at it because a
teacher compares his job with another job, finds that there is no equity. When
he finds there is discrepancy between the ratios of input to output, the greater
the inequity and then the job satisfaction i.e. when a teacher
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Dr. R.O. Oduwaiye, (A1PM)
computes the ratio of his inputs such as his educational qualifications,
experience etc., to the outcome in terms of his pay and fringe benefits
compared with other jobs, he feels cheated and dissatisfied. A worker who is
not satisfied with his job cannot be efficient and effective.
Unlike many other professions, teaching is adversely affected by poor
management practices such as bad leadership, inadequate supply of financial
human and material resources. Thus, the essence of this paper is to critical!}
examine better management practices in the economic area such as motivation
it terms of pay, teacher's social recognition and status and provision of tools for
the work itself.
THEORIES OF JOB PERFORMNCE
When a person is hired to work, he does the work based on either the
expected pay or wage or any other benefit. It is this benefit that is expected that
serves as the urge for performance. Majority of workers do so because the pay
would satisfy their basic needs or would help them in their self-actualisation.
Expectancy theory is important when one considers job performance Cameron
(1973) says that expectancy theory is founded on the belief that man as a
rational being chooses at any given point in time from among a set of
alternative plans of behaviour the one he expects will maximize the
alternativeness of the sum of outcome that would result. This is what Ejiogu
(1985) explains as the individual’s perception of the relationship between
behaviour and its antecedents or consequences. He further explains the two
types of expectancies that have been formulated as:
i.
Expectancy I: This is interpreted as a person's perception of the
chance that a given level of effort will bring about good job
performance (effort - performance - expectancy),
ii.
Expectancy II: refers to a person's perception of the probability that
2 certain level of job performance will lead to certain
consequences (performance consequence expectancy).
This expectancy theory can be closely linked with what Vroom (1962
hypothesized that a person's job performance is a function of the interactional
between the force to perform, which is motivation and the ability to perform
while, Porter and Lawler (1967) propounded that job performance is the
function of a three-way interaction between exerted effort, motivation and
ability and role perception. Thus, expectancy theory can be understood better
in Lawler (1973J cited in Ejiogu (1985) as a useful way of thinking about what
motivates people and therefore how jobs should be changed and also facillitate
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Improving Teacher Performance Through Management Intervention
meaningful evaluation of a person's job performance as it clearly places
greatest emphasis on the role of motivation or force to perform as a
determinant of job performance. Ejiogu (1985) goes on to explain the two
schools of thought of the theories regarding the relationship between
satisfaction and performance. These two propositions are:
1.
The "satisfaction causes performance",
2.
"Performance causes satisfaction".
In the "satisfaction causes performance" theory, the extent to which an
employee feels about his job and satisfied significantly affects his or her job
performance. This happens to be the basic assertion of the Human Relations
Movement, which the management scientists like Elton Mayo, Fritz
Rethlisberger and William Dickson in which they asserted for the well being of
individuals in work organizations. These human relationists believed in
morale-productivity relationship, which is that "higher morale would lead to
improved productivity". The whole claim of human relations movement that
management can increase productivity by satisfying the needs of employees is
the main focus of this paper.
ii.
"Performance causes satisfaction" proposition. Porter and Lawler
(1967) as quoted by Ejiogu (1985) argued that:
good performance may lead to rewards, which in turn lead to
satisfaction, this formulation then would say that satisfaction
rather than causing performance as was previously assumed, is
caused by it (p. 38).
In this performance satisfaction model, when performance leads to
reward which is equitable, high satisfaction will result. Reward is therefore an
important "intervening variable" between performance and satisfaction which
then becomes performance - reward - satisfaction.
According to Ejiogu (1985), Locke (1970) support this performance satisfaction model by saying that "the effect of job performance on job
satisfaction is a function of the degree to which performance entails or leads to
the attainment of the individual's important job values". These job values can
be task - related that is task activity, task success and achievement or non-task
related such as pay rises, promotions, praise and recognition.
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Dr. R.O. Oduwaiye, (AIPM)
Even though measures of teacher performance or productivity are very difficult
probably because of the nature of teaching and education, studies such as
Anderson (1959) and Cooper (1974) found positive relationship though not casual,
between the job satisfaction of teachers and their teaching effectiveness.
FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHER'S PERFORMANCE
There is a general feeling that the standard of education has deteriorated,
and this has been closely linked with poor teachers' performance. Furthermore, a
lot of teachers are dissatisfied with the job of teaching (Fagbamiye, 2000). A
number of factors are responsible for this ugly situation. These include social
stigma and poor condition of service (Abdulkareem, 1999).
A lot has been said in Nigeria about teacher's remuneration which includes
prompt payment of salaries, compensations and fringe benefits, etc. In a country
like Nigeria, where the physiological needs that is the lowest order of human
needs according to Maslow's Need hierarchy, are yet to be fulfilled, it is not
surprising that so much importance is attached to pay rise, and benefits that will
satisfy these basic needs. That is the reason why money is still the best ] motivator
in this society.
Closely connected with pay and fringe benefits is the status and prestige of
teachers. Teachers in Nigeria suffer from low esteem as evidence in the low status
and prestige accorded them in the society. In a society where only money is the^
answer, which teachers do not have, they are not socially recognized and therefore
accounts for their low esteem. As long as the public image is uncomplimentary
and the teacher's status in the society still does not match with its counterparts in
other professions like medicine, law and banking, it is not likely to achieve the
highest level of job performance.
Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE) is stated to be minimum
qualification to teach in the Nigerian schools (FRN, 1981). Many teachers
continue to upgrade themselves through further studies either by full-time studies
or through distance learning programmes mounted by Colleges of Education, an
Universities. The financial responsibility rests on the individual teacher. The
government or the teachers' employers release the teachers to go on the training
programmes, they do not involve in their sponsorship.
One of the major factors that constitute to poor job performance of
teachers is the work itself. Unlike other professionals who can measurer
performance of staff, measure of teacher performance is difficult because of the
extended period of the return of investment in Education. An individual teacher's
contribution towards a child's education cannot be measured, it is rather a
cumulative efforts of many teachers by the time the academic achievement of a
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Improving Teacher Performance Through Management Intervention
child is measured at the terminal point, for instance, measure of teacher's
productivity depends much on the school products, and whereas a lot of factors
affect students academic performance. Students' attitude to learning coupled with
the working conditions and environment could affect the job performance of
teachers.
In any work environment, supervision accounts for excellence. In the
factory, supervision is necessary for quality control. In school system, a closer
supervision is expected before there can be academic excellence. Teachers in
public schools like their counterparts in private schools have the same
qualifications and sometimes, teachers in public schools possess better and higher
qualifications. It is however, disturbing that results of external examinations show
that candidates from private schools perform better than their counterparts from
public schools. This probably indicates that teaching qualification does not
determine teacher productivity. Private school teachers are closely supervised by
the proprietor or head teacher. Punctuality of teachers and students, regular
attendance of teachers to their lessons, checking of students work and
assignments, all these performed in better environment are responsible for better
job performance and productivity in the private schools.
Fagbamiye's (2000) study shows that irrespective of sex, age, qualification
and years of experience, teachers are dissatisfied with teaching profession. His
study also confirmed "that as a result of rising cost of living from 1989, many
teachers moved away to the outskirts of metropolitan Lagos because of lower rents
on accommodation. Teachers who live in unsatisfactory environment and make
stressful journeys to their place of work and further compounded with a stressful
working environment cannot bring about good job performance that is expected.
MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION
Many times, there is lack of congruency between the goals of individual
employees, the leader and the organization itself. It is therefore necessary to have
a leader who would, according to Ejiogu (1985), fuse the individual and the
organization in such a way that both simultaneously obtain optimum selfactualisation. A leader is required in order to bring about a superior job
performance. Organizational theorists have never come to agreement on what
constitutes the best leadership style. There are as many leadership styles as there
are leaders. However, the two types of leadership styles, as observed by their
behaviours according to Ejiogu (1985) are:
117
Dr. R.O. Oduwaiye, (AlPM)
i.
Task Behaviour: This is the extent to which a leader provides
direction for people telling them what to do, when to do it and how
to do it. It means setting the goals and defining the roles.
ii.
Relationship Behaviour: The extent to which a leader engages in a
two -way communicatio9n with people, providing warmth, support,
encouragement, which means actively listening to people and
supporting their efforts.
The question one often asks is, which of these leadership behaviours would
be more conducive to effective job performance? In a study carried out by
House RS, Filley AE and Kerr (1969) revealed that subordinates satisfaction
was positively related to consideration. The group was displaying intra-group
harmony as well as low turnover and grievance rate. Fieldler (1967) in his
contingency theory resolved the dilemma having identified two types of
leadership styles (human relations and task directed), Fieldler defined three
variables in any situation that would make it favourable or unfavourable for the
leader. The three variables are the nature of the leaders' relationship with the
group members, the task structure and the power position. There is no
conclusive evidence to support one leadership style in favour of the other but
suffice to say that a leader must be able to effectively harmonise the styles to
bring satisfaction thereby resulting to positive job performance.
Quality supervision is an essential ingredient to good job performance. The
supervisor in fact determines the productivity of his subordinates. He plans,
organises, directs and controls those under him. He also bears the burnt of
employee's dissatisfaction (Oduwaiye, 2000). Today, the emphasis of
supervision is understanding employee development and thereby cultivating
positive employee work attitude. Good and lazy teachers alike still need to be
supervised. The awareness that somebody is having a close look at their job
would make them to put up their best.
In the developing countries like Nigeria, money serves as a stimulating
factor, in job efforts. Since the lowest order of Maslow's Hierarchical needs,
are not yet satisfied, money is still the best incentives and reward towards
productivity even among well educated and highly placed professionals. In the
Nigerian society, expectancy Ii theory will be put to use especially when
workers perceive that increased performance will result in increased benefits.
Money would therefore be a universal reinforcer. One reason why teachers
have low esteem is associated with money. Money is an "anxiety reducer", and
in Nigeria, one can buy almost anything with money including prestige. Since
teachers do not have many allowances to cushion their salaries, teachers are
bound to be poor, many cannot pay their house rent or buy new cars. This
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Improving Teacher Performance Through Management Intervention
accounts for the low they suffer.
To have a positive job performance, the government and proprietors of
private schools should set in motion ways of creating job satisfaction that will
held positive job performance by paying a living wage for teachers, that is the
salary that would be enough to sustain an employee and his family so that there
will be a reduction in the anxiety of lack of food, shelter and clothing.
In Nigeria, the government makes gigantic educational programmes
like J.P.E. of 1976, 6-3-3-4 system of education, without adequate supply of
facilities id equipment for the teachers to work with. There is an acute shortage
of human, material and financial resources in the education sector. There are
two major sectors that many teachers consider as motional. These are reward
and materials work with. Given these two, there is going to be improvement in
the job [performance of the teachers. Job enrichment emphasises the need to
make job (challenging and meaningful. According to Flippo quoted by
Adeleke (2001), a job f could be enriched by introducing variety into the job
content. For instance, giving [teachers more room for decision - making even
in the area of curriculum 'development, giving them a feeling of personal
responsibilities and giving them feedback on their performance would certainly
enhance their performance.
Teachers like other workers, want to be lifted and promoted from one
level to another, starting from the post of an Education Officer to Senior Education Officer and to a Director. Promotion brings not only money but
recognition on individual's performance. It is a source of motivation for more
effort. When a teacher is promoted, he strives harder to be more effective in his
new position Ubeku (1975), cited by Adeleke (2001), believes that one of the
major factors in motivating a job holder is to give him increased authority and
hold him accountable for the results. Apart from the monetary satisfaction of
promotion, it serves as motivation for more effort. Promotion and other forms
of motivation mentioned earlier, would make workers to be more committed to
the organisation, facilitate achievement of its goals and above all, would bring
a good job performance.
Employees like to be taken into confidence and will perform if giving
the opportunity and clear directives as to what is expected of them (Oduwaiye,
2000). Hence, participative and co-operative team approach for problem
solving and decision-making will increase job performance. Participative
management in the education sector also encourages objectives of participative
management, according to Adeleke (2001), are
— the need to increase social and material satisfaction of worker;
119
Dr. R.O. Oduwaiye, (AIPM)
— bringing management and employees closer to understand each other,
and
— encouraging personnel development and job satisfaction among
employees.
The forms of workers participation that could be encouraged among
teachers are briefing groups, this is a form of periodic meeting for the giving
out of information; feedbacks could also be gotten from subordinates. This
could be once or twice a week. Group discussion is where employees discuss
about their common problems and arrive at joint decisions. The discussion
could be moderated by a discussion leader who is known as head of
department. This is a forum for brain storming on solutions to common
problems.
The best way many organisations make their staff to participate in the
management is through work committees. These committees are "task oriented". The committee are set up on the areas that bother on the general
administration of a school system. Staff can serve on committees such as
discipline committee. School Business Committee, Sports, Literacy and other
clubs committees etc. Through this forum teachers would be able to participate
in decision - making.
Consultative management requires the managers or school heads to
consult their subordinates with the intent of encouraging them about issues that
can improve their job and initiate new ideas. This concept of participative and
team approach is what is advocated in a management model known as Theory
Z, which according to Okorie (2000) is a set of convictions about the
conditions under employees function effectively and could produce high
quality products. The Japanese management practice can be modified and used
in Nigerian Educational Management. According to Okorie (2000) Theory Z type organisations usually enjoy low employee turnover low absenteeism and
high employee morale, a factor that leads to good job performance. Leaders
feel « responsibility for subordinates and fellow workers. They watch out for
each other as a natural part of working relationships.
The essence of Theory Z in Japan is to be used to increase performance
Therefore, Nigerian educational organisation must reverse their priority. The
should make the welfare of administrators, teaching staff and other worker
priority in the education system. When teachers recognise that they
appreciated by their employers, there would be better performance. This would
if turn give students better academic achievement. Other advantages of Z - type
organisation according to Okorie (2000), is that teachers and other school
employees will be more motivated and enthusiastic about their jobs and above
all enlightened leaders will assist in creating organisations that nurture
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Improving Teacher Performance Through Management Intervention
improvement in employee's behaviour, attitude and productivity.
CONCLUSION
Good mental attitude, a good system of motivation and reward, an
efficient and quality supervision, supply of enough and adequate instructional
material, teachers professional programmes, job enrichment, promotions are all
essential ingredients to make teachers perform efficiently and effectively on
their job. Participative management with teacher and students in focus will
further energise teachers to better performance.
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Dr. R.O. Oduwaiye, (AIPM)
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