ILORIN JOURNAL OF HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
RECREATION (IJOPHER)
PUBLISHED BY
THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, KWARA STATE, NIGERIA
Vol. 4 May, 2005
ISSN:0795-6061
The Ilorin Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation provides the
opportunity for physical and health educators and those in related areas to share
their findings, observations and comments on healthy physical education and
recreation-related issues in human development.
PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS
Authors should submit three (3) copies of their manuscripts written in English
language and typed double line space on one side of A4 size paper with good
margins.
Manuscripts should not exceed 10 (ten) pages on A4 size paper,
including an abstract of not more than two hundred (200) words. Diagrams,
tables and drafts should be simple and appear at the appropriate position in the
text.
The first page of the paper should show the title, author’s name (s) and
address(es). The next page of the manuscripts should begin with the title,
abstract and introduction, etc., in that order. All manuscripts must conform to
the APA (4th Edition) format.
1
An assessment fee of five hundred naira only (N500.00) or ten dollars ($10.00)
must accompany the manuscripts. All correspondence concerning manuscripts
and editorial matters should be addressed to either.
Dr. A.E. Talabi
Dr. Kola Lafinhan
Managing Editor,
Editor-in-Chief,
C/o Dept. of Physical
C/o Dept. of Physical
& Heath Education,
& Health Education
University of Ilorin,
University of Ilorin,
P.M.B. 1515,
P.M.B. 1515,
Ilorin.
Ilorin.
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
-
Dr. Kola Olafinhan
Managing Editor
-
Dr. A.E. Talabi
Assistant Editor
-
Mr. O.T. Ibrahim
Board Members
-
Prof. L. Emiola
Prof. E.A. Ogunsakin
Dr. A. a. Adesoye
Dr. O. Obiyemi
Dr. O. Oyerinde
Consulting Editors
-
Prof. J.A. Adedeji
Prof. F. Amuchie
Prof. C.O. Udoh
Editorial Note
The Ilorin Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation
(IJOPHER), is out with a new look and a new mandate. We dare our contributors
to send scholarly articles to our journal and in return we will produce a quality
journal.
2
Table of Contents
Editorial Note
1.
Home-based Approach for Managing the Woman Affected by
HIV/AIDS: Implications for Health Education and Promotion. Ibrahim
A. Njodi & David. W. Bwala
2.
Sexual Behaviour and Contraceptive Practices among Pre-marital
Adolescent Students in Ondo Metropolis-J.O.Fawole,C.F. Akinnubi
(Mrs)& J.A.Adegboyega
3.
Efficacy of Partitioned Pyramidal Structure of Sports Programme for
High Performance in Nigeria – A. 1 Kabido
4.
Prospects and Problems of Indigenous Soccer Coaches in Nigeria- Toro
Abayomi
5.
Physical Fitness Lifestyle among Public Servants in Ekiti State, Nigeria
J.A. Adegun
6.
Parental Practice and Food Preference of Parents and School Children
in Ilorin LGA of Kwara State – Oyerinde, O.. & Owojaiye, Sunday Oni
7.
A Comparative Analysis of College Athletes Performance in Two
Separate Muscular Endurance Tests –.B. Ajayi-Vincent O
8.
Perceived Consequences of Corporatistic Model of Organisation of
Sports for Sports Development in Nigeria – Mohammed Baba Gambari
9.
A Comparative Study of Attitudes of Secondary School Teachers
towards the Teaching of Physical Education in Ilorin East LGA –
Bakinde, S.T.
10.
Socio-cultural Perspectives of Sports Participation – S.O. Babatunde
11.
Dietary Attitude University of the university Ilorin Athletes
Onifade,
Dominic, O.L. (Mrs.) O.A.
12.
Student’s Perception of Examination Malpractice –Nman Alhaji Habeeb
13.
Knowledge of AIDS among Athletes in Ilorin Metropolis
- S.O.
Oniyangi
3
14.
Attribution of Maternal Mortality by Women from High and Low Socioeconomic Status in Southern States of Nigeria – Daisy Dimkpa
15.
Oral Hygiene Practices and Prevalence of Dental Cares among School
Children in Oyo State-Olaitan O.Lanre
16.
Attitude of College of Education Lecturers to their Professional Roles
and Duties B.U. Akano & A.T. Akinsola.
17.
Sexual Harassment among Athletes in Higher Institutions in Ilorin,
Kwara State-Tajuden Olanrewaju Ibraheem & Bola, O. Ogunsanwo.
18.
Disabilities in Children: A Perspective – C.O. Adegbite
19.
Bicycling: A Sport that Threatens Manhood –.O. B Asagba
20.
Physiological Effects of Havard Bench Steps as Regular Aerobic
Exercise Training Programme in the Treatment of Insulin-dependent
Diabetics. – Gwani, J.A. & Muhammad M.S. & Chado.
21.
Relationship between Lifestyles and Health Problems Suffered by the
People of Kaduna State – Shehu Raheem Adaramaja & Comfort O.
Adegbite.
22.
Recruitment of Volunteers as Aids to the Adapted Physical Educators in
Nigeria Schools for the Handicapped – K. Lafinhan
23.
Mental health for Job Demands among Nigerians: The Place of Health
Education and Consultation Programmes – T.I. Izevbigie
24.
The Interplay of Health Lifestyles in the Control of Osteoposis E.
Agwubike
4
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIFESTYLES AND HEALTH PROBLEMS
SUFFERED BY THE PEOPLE OF KADUNA STATE
By
Shehu Raheem Adaramaja
Department of physical and health education
University of Ilorin
&
Comfort O. Adegbite
Institute of Education
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
ABSTRACT
The study examined the relationship between lifestyles and health problems
suffered by the people of Kaduna State. Diseases associated with unhealthy
lifestyles accounted for between 8-10% health-related problems in the rural
areas and 10-12% in the urban communities of Nigeria. A visit to government
and private health institutions in Kaduna State shows a large number of
individuals suffering from diseases relating to unhealthy lifestyles of smoking,
alcohol consumption, sedentary lifestyles, poor nutritional habit, drug habit and
indiscriminate sexual behaviour. Descriptive research design was adopted for the
study. A total of 1350 respondents were randomly selected from the three (3)
senatorial districts of Kaduna State through the stratified random sampling
technique. A research instrument developed and designed by the researchers
and pilot tested was used to collect relevant information for the study. The data
that emanated from the study were analysed using Spearman Brown rank-order
correlation coefficient and chi-square (X2) test of relationship. The results
revealed that health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are
significantly related to their smoking habit, alcoholic lifestyle sedentary lifestyle
and sexual behaviour, The authors recommended ,among others, that in an
attempt to reduce sedentary lifestyle complications of obesity, hypertension,
overweight and diabetes common among the people of Kaduna State, and local
government councils should, as a matter of urgency, be encouraged to establish
and run weight reduction or fitness centres for the inhabitants, since they say
“prevention is better than cure”.
5
Introduction
The individual lifestyles and health habits constitute what he does and
what he fails to do, ranging from smoking, physical inactivity or sedentary
lifestyles, alcohol consumption, nutritional habit and indiscriminate sexual
behaviour. The World Health Organisation (WHO) (1993) reported that there is a
strong negative relationship between peoples mortality rates and lifestyles
practices. This has serious negative consequences on the nation’s health status
and survival. For example, the World Health Organisation (2002) rated the
Nigerian health care system as one of the worst five in the world, i.e’ it placed
Nigerian health care system in the 187th position out of 191 member countries of
World Health Organization. The reason advanced for this is that there is growing
incidence of such non-communicable diseases like hypertension, coronary heart
diseases, diabetes, obesity, cancer and stress-related diseases among Nigerians
due to unhealthy lifestyles. The report stated that 3.5 millions of Nigerians have
mild hypertension, 1.2 million have moderate and 0.5 million have severe
hypertension. The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, diabetes and
other health-related problems due to unhealthy lifestyle is generally estimated at
8-10% for rural and 10-12% for urban communities in Nigeria.
The concept of lifestyle is based upon such factors as individual’s
personality, cultural heritage, family, education, income environment and
occupation.
A person’s lifestyle is a pattern of such individual’s behaviour
knowing how an individual behaves in one area of his life provides a strong
indication of what he might do in other segments of his life (Burada, 1994).
Agbaso (1998) and Jenks (1993) reported that the lifestyle of any country or
society attests to their way of life, or mode of life or culture of that particular
society or people. Thus, the lifestyle of any society is reflected in the mode of
behaviour, habits, diet, dressing and language, etc. of its people. An
epidemiological shift is being witnessed recently due to changes in life conditions
including reduction in life expectancy occasioned by unhealthy lifestyles, creating
6
a burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases in many countries of
the world (Dishman and Sallis, 1994, WHO 1998 and Molarious, 2003).
Lifestyles are neither good nor bad. Societies judge their worth and
potentials according to their support and maintenance of the social system.
Because of this, some lifestyles are seen as highly desirable and virtuous while
others are considered destructive or pathological (Larbi, et al, 1993 and Douglas,
1978). Alcoholism is in the later category, for the alcoholic individual tends to
neglect his responsibility to others. He forces society to take care of him, to
tolerate his self-destructive behaviour and to restrict him for activities, which
might be of potential harm to others.
Healthy lifestyle or positive health behaviour of exercise, good diet, nonsmoking, non-alcohol consumption, avoidance of casual or indiscriminate sex and
drug abuse can help to prevent obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, stress,
spread of sexually-transmitted diseases, including hepatitis ‘B’, HIV/AIDS and
early mortality. On the other hand, unhealthy lifestyle(s) or behaviour might
have direct and indirect consequences for the health and well-sbeing of the
individual. For instance, excessive eating or loss of appetite may lead to
problems of malnutrition (obesity or undernutrition). Hyperactivity, excitability
and restlessness resulting from drug taking may lead to accidents and untimely
deaths; alcoholism and smoking may lead to other social vices.
The main thrust of this study was to examine the relationship between
adopted lifestyles and health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State.
The major hypothesis for this study presumed that, the health problems
suffered by the people of Kaduna State are not significantly related to their
adopted lifestyle.
Specifically, the researchers tested the following sub-hypotheses:
(a)
Healthy problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are not
significantly related to their smoking habit.
(b)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are not
significantly related to their sedentary lifestyle.
7
(c)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are not
significantly related to their sedentary lifestyle.
(d)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are not
significantly related to their nutritional habit.
(e)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are not
significantly related to their drug habit.
(f)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are not
significantly related to their sexual behaviour.
METHODOLOGY
Descriptive research design was adopted for this study. This is because
relevant information required for the study was already available. The population
consists of all individuals from age 16 years and above living in both rural and
urban areas of Kaduna State. A total of 1350 respondents were randomly
selected from the three (3) senatorial districts of Kaduna State through random
sampling technique.
A structured research instrument developed and designed by the
researchers and pilot tested was used to collect relevant information for the
study. The questionnaire administration was done by the researchers and four
(4) other research assistants and interpreters.
The data that emanated from the study were analysed using appropriate
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics of Spearman Brown rank-order of
correlation coefficient and chi-square (X2) test of relationship. The results are
presented as follows:
8
Table 1:
Spearman ‘rho showing the relationship between
health problems and lifestyles of the people of Kaduna
State
LIFESTYLES FACTORS
Health Problems
1. Cough cancer, lung problems
Smoking
habit (1)
Alcoholic
lifestyle
(2)
Sedentary
lifestyle (3)
Nutritional
lifestyle(4)
Drug
habit (5)
Sexual
behaviour
(6)
Corrl: coeff
487**
650**
.100**
.343**
.548**
.59**
Signi(2
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
000
tailed)
1350
1350
1350
1350
1350
1350
2. Liver problem, accident,
hypertension
3.High blood pressure,
overweight, diabetes,
depression, obesity
4. Loss of appetite,
cardiovascular diseases,
malnutrition
5. Hallucinogenic reaction,
anxiety, liver damages, violence
6. HIV/AIDS, STDs, Abortion,
Rape, Teenage pregnancy
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed)
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Table 1 shows that the hypothesis is significant at 0.000 and at 0.01 alpha
level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis that says that the health
problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State is not significantly related to
their adopted lifestyles is rejected. The inferences that can be deduced from the
table are as follows:
(a)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are
significantly related to their smoking habit.
(b)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are
significantly related to their alcoholic lifestyle.
9
(c)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are
significantly related to their sedentary lifestyles.
(d)
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are
significantly related to the drug habit.
(e)
Health problems suffered by the people at Kaduna State are
significantly related to their sexual behaviour.
In order to test the validity of the results generated through the
spearman-rank-order correlation coefficient, the data collected were also
analysed using chi-square (X2) test.
Table 2:
Chi-square (X2) showing the relationship between
health problems and smoking habit of the respondents
Questions
Yes
%
No
%
417
30.9
895
66.3
a. Cough
166
12.3
b. Cancer
71
5.3
c.
50
3.7
d. Redness of lop
77
5.7
e. Chest pain
41
3.0
f.
62
4.6
g. Others
3
0.2
h. No response
880
65.2
1. Do you smoke?
No
resp.
38
%
8
Total
X2
1350
2. Do smokers experience any of
these as a result of smoking
Lung problem
All of the above
Total
1350
100
1350
885.36
X2 = 885.36, df = 14, critical value = 23.68, P < 0.05
Table 2 shows that the calculated X2 value of 885.36 is greater than the
critical value of 23.68 at 0.05 alpha level of significance.
Therefore, the null
hypothesis that says health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State is
not significantly related to their smoking habit is rejected.
This means that
health problems suffered by people of Kaduna State are significantly related to
their smoking habit.
10
Chi-square (X2) showing the relationship between
Table 3:
health problems and alcoholic lifestyle of the
respondents
Questions
Yes
%
No
%
No
%
Total
X2
resp.
1. Do you drink alcohol?
653
48.4
(a) Liver problem
97
7.2
(b) Accident
97
7.2
(c) Problems of adjustment
108
8.0
(d) Obesity
64
4.7
uneasiness
210
15.6
(f) All of the above
35
2.6
(g) Others
9
0.7
(h) No response
730
54.1
1350
100
649
48.1
48
3.6
1350
2. Do alcohol drunkers experience any
of these
as a
result
of alcohol
consumption?
(e) Personality disorder and social
Total
1350
885.36
X2 = 796.32, df = 14, critical value = 23.68, P < 0.05
A careful examination of table 3 shows that the calculated x 2 value of
796.32 is greater than the critical value of 23.68 at 0.05 alpha level of
significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis that says health problems suffered by
the people of Kaduna State is not significantly related to their alcoholic lifestyle is
rejected. This means that health problem suffered by the people of Kaduna State
are significantly related to their alcoholic lifestyle.
11
Table 4:
Chi-square showing the relationship between health
problems and sedentary lifestyle of the respondents.
Questions
Yes
%
No
%
No
%
Total
X2
resp.
1.
Do
you
participate
in
physical
1160
85.9
(a) High blood pressure
256
19.0
(b) Cardio vascular disease
52
3.9
(c) Obesity and overweight
220
16.3
79
5.9
uneasiness
249
18.4
(f) All of the above
44
3.3
(g) Others
31
2.3
(h) No response
419
31.0
1350
100
156
116
34
2.5
1350
exercise?
2. Do people with sendentary lifestyle
experience any of these as a result of
physical inactivity?
(d) Diabetes and cancer related
disease
(e) Depression, anxiety and
Total
1350
X2 = 57.64, df = 14, critical value = 23.68, P<0.05
Table 4 shows that the calculated value of 57.64 is greater than the
critical value of 23.68 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Therefore, the null
hypothesis that says health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State is
not significantly related to their sedentary lifestyle is rejected. This implies that
health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are significantly related
to their sedentary lifestyle or physical inactivity.
12
57.64
Table 5:
Chi-square (X2) showing the relationship between
health problems and nutritional habit of the
respondents.
Questions
Yes
%
No
%
No
%
Total
7.9
1350
X2
resp.
1. Do you planned your diets?
825
61.1
(a) Loss of appetite
366
27.1
(b) Gross underweight
100
7.4
(c) Obesity and overweight
237
17.6
96
7.1
(e) Cardio vascular diseases
76
5.6
(f) All of the above
47
3.5
(g) Others
11
0.8
(h) No response
417
30.9
1350
100
418
310
107
2. Do you experience any of these
difficulties due to nutritional habit?
(d) High
blood
cholesterol
and
diabetes
Total
1350
Table 5 shows that the calculated x2 value of 83.74 is greater than the
critical value of 23.68 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Therefore, the null
hypothesis that says health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State is
not significantly related to their nutritional habit is rejected. This means that the
health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are significantly related
to their nutritional habit.
13
84.74
Table 6:
Chi-square (X2) showing the relationship between
health problems and drug habit of the respondents
Questions
Yes
%
No
%
No
%
Total
6.2
1350
X2
resp.
1. Do you take drugs to enhance your
697
51.6
(b) Hallucinogenic reactions
119
8.8
(c) Depression and anxiety
93
6.9
(d) Liver damage
151
11.2
(e) Lack of interest
94
7.0
(f) Educational setback
59
4.4
(g) All of the above
78
5.8
(h) Others
41
3.0
(i) No response
1
0.1
714
52.9
1350
100
569
42.1
84
performances?
2. Do users of drugs experience any of
these as a result of their drug habits?
(a) Violence
Total
1350
X2 = 520.53, df = 16, critical value = 26.30, P <0.05
Table 6 shows that the calculated x2 value of 520.53 is greater than the
critical value of 26.30 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Therefore, the null
hypothesis that says health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are
not significantly related to their drug habit is rejected. This means that the health
problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are significantly related to their
drug habit.
14
520.53
Table 7:
Chi-square (X2) showing the relationship between
health problems and sexual behaviour of the
respondents
Questions
Yes
%
No
%
No
%
Total
8.4
1350
resp.
1. Do you use condom?
729
54.0
(a) Sexually transmitted diseases
164
12.1
(b) Abortion
136
10.1
(c) Child abandonment
106
7.9
(d) Rape
47
3.5
(e) Teenage pregnancy
101
7.6
(f) All of the above
37
3.7
(g) Others
9
0.7
(h) No response
750
55.6
1350
100
508
37.6
113
2. Do people experience any of these
difficulties due to physical inactivity?
Total
X2 = 141.51, df = 16, critical value = 26.30, P < 0.05
Table 7 shows that the calculated x2 value of 141.51 is greater than the
critical value of 26.30 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Therefore, the null
hypothesis that says health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State is
not significantly related to their sexual behaviour is rejected. This implies that
the health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State are significantly
related to their sexual behaviour.
DISCUSSION
The results of the Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient and chisquare as presented in the results revealed that health problems suffered by the
people of Kaduna State are significantly related to their lifestyles. This finding is
in agreement with the report of Ogunbiyi, (2002) who stated that there is a
15
X2
significant relationship between disease conditions suffered and the lifestyles of
rural and urban women in Kaduna State.
Talking about health problems and lifestyles, Asuni, Schoenberg and Swift
(1994) reported that unhealthy lifestyle accounts for more than 60% deaths in
Africa, apart from being responsible for a number of chronic and degenerative
diseases. On the relationship between health problems and sedentary lifestyle or
physical inactivity, Dishman and Sallis, (1994) submitted that sedentary lifestyle
contributes significantly to the occurrences of obesity, cancers, high blood
pressure, osteoporosis, diabetes and premature mortality. On the association
between nutritional habit and health problems, WHO (1998) reported that poor
dietary habits results into poor health, malnutritional diseases, impaired
intellectual development, premature deaths, obesity and cardiovascular diseases.
Larbi et al (1983) and Molarius, (2003) observed a close association between
alcohol consumption and cases of hypertension, obesity, liver cirrhosis, loss of
weight, mental delusion, poor reaction time and physical injuries. The submission
of these authors is concomitant with the finding that lifestyle factors are
significantly related to health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna. On
health problems and drug habit, Folawiyo (1988) and NDLEA, (1998)
documented a number of problems associated with the abuse and misuse of
drugs. The problems include automobile accidents, child abuse, unproductivity at
work, assault and murder, suicide attempts, depression, anxiety, hallucinogenic
reaction, aggressive tendencies, liver problems, ulcer of different types, brian
damage and abusive utterances. Indiscriminate sexual practices or behaviour is
also associated to the problems of sexually-transmitted diseases including
HIV/AIDS.
16
Conclusion
Health problems suffered by the people of Kaduna State is significantly
related to their smoking habits, alcoholic lifestyle, sedentary lifestyle, nutritional
habit, drug habit and indiscriminate sexual behaviours.
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of the study, the following recommendations
are made to reduce likely health problems associated with unhealthy lifestyle and
increase life expectancy among the people of Kaduna State in particular, and
Nigeria in general.
1.
In an attempt to discourage unhealthy lifestyle among the people of
Kaduna State, the government of Kaduna State, through the state
ministry of health, should organize mobile film shows, documentary
films, public lectures and, if possible, visitations to hospitals and other
social institution for community members where patients and inmates
suffering from health-related lifestyle problems could be better
evaluated and managed.
2.
Also, to discourage smoking, alcohol consumption and the use of
stimulant drugs among teenagers and young adults (16-25 years old
individuals). The sales of cigarettes alcohol and hard drugs should be
banned within and around the school premises. The counselling unit of
our school (secondary and post-secondary schools) should be more
alert to their responsibilities by giving qualitative guidance and
counselling to the students. Parents and guardians should also assist in
this regard.
3.
In an attempt to reduce sedentary lifestyle and heath-related
complications of obesity, hypertension, overweight and cardiovascular
diseases common among the urban dweller, the existing local
government areas in the cities should, as matter of urgency, be
encouraged to established and run weight reduction and fitness
17
centres and recreational centers for the community members since
they says “prevention is better than cure.”
4.
Kaduna State government should develop a comprehensive framework
to address factors influencing health, ranging from social, economic
and environmental determinants to individual behavioural patterns.
The strategy will advocate health-promoting actions such as exercise,
balance diet and abstention from alcohol, drug abuse, tobacco
smoking and indiscriminate sex.
18
REFERENCES
Agboso, R.N. (1998). Health Related Lifestyle of Urban and Rural Fulani in
Kaduna State. “ An unpublished M.Sc Thesis”. Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria
Asuni, T. Schoenberg. F and Swift, C. (1994). Mental Health and Disease in
Africa. Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited.
Burada, B. (1994). Lifestyle and Health. Socio-ecological Perspective. Journal
International, Billbao, 1:4.
Dishman, R.K. and Sallis J.F. (1994). Determinants and Interventions for
Physical Activity and Exercise. In C. Bouchard; R.J Shepherd and T.
Stephens (Eds.). Physical Activity, Fitness and Health: International
Proceeding and Consensus Statement. Human Kinetics. Champaign, IL.
214-238.
Douglas, H.S. (1978). Alcoholism: A Separate Lifestyle. Leisure Today:
Selected Readings Edited by Larry, L.N. American Association for
Leisure and Recreation, an association of the American Alliance for
Health Physical Education and Recreation.
Folawiyo, A.F.A. (1988). Promoting Effective Health for All by the Year 2000:
Myths and Realities. Journal of Nigeria Association for Physical, Health
and Recreation. Special edition, September, 7: (2) 61-78.
Jenks, C. (1993). Culture, London: Routledge.
Larbi, E.B; Cooper, R.S. and Stamler, J. (1983). Alcohol and Hypertension.
Archives of Internal Medicine. 143: 28-9.
Molarius, A. (2003). The Contribution of Lifestyle Factors to Socio-economic
Differences in Obesity in Men and Women – a Population Based Study
in Sweden. European Journal of Epidemiology. 18:227-234.
National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (1998). Drug of Abuse and Their
Effects. A Monograph for Public Enlightenment Purpose.
Ogunbiyi, R.B. (2002). Effects of Lifestyle on Health: A Study of Rural and
Urban Women in Kaduna State. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis submitted
to the Department of Physical and Health Education, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria.
19
World Health Organisation (1998). Population Newsletter: Symposium on
health and mortality. Geneva, No. 64.
World Health Organisation (2002). Obesity, Preventing and Managing the
Global Epidemic: Report of the WHO Contribution on Obesity. World
Health Organisation, Geneva.
20