CHAPTER THIRTEEN
FOOD SECURITY, AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
AND COOPERATIVES IN NIGERIA
O.A. Omotesho1, J.K. Joseph2, A. Apata3 and A. Muhammad-Lawal4
1, 4
Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management
2
Department of Home Economics and Food Sciences
3
Department of Animal Production
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Ilorin
INTRODUCTION
The ultimate aim of agricultural production is to get agricultural products to
the consumers in the form that that will be useful to them. Food items including meat,
fish, milk and products, eggs and products, fruits, vegetables, cereals, legumes, roots
and tubers are some of the common agricultural products. Food has been defined as
something good to eat. It could be in liquid, semisolid and solid forms and are
necessary to carry out one or more of the life functions of the body in terms of health,
growth and normal functions of living organisms (Ricketts, 1983). The greatest world
major problem today is how to eliminate hunger and overcome poverty. This
challenge is greatest in the developing countries where people starve for lack of
adequate food and nourishment and where starvation and poverty go hands in hands.
The common strategy adopted has been increasing output of food in tonnage per year
through land clearing, improved machinery, better cultivation methods, improved
seeds, and improved animal nutrition, breeding and health without considering the
quantity and quality of the agricultural products (food) that get to the ultimate
consumer (Joseph, 1994, 1996; Omotesho et. al., 1995). To say the least, the roles of
the most active participants, women, in food production, processing and preservation
are relegated to the background. This chapter therefore highlights the importance of
food to man, the constraints militating against getting enough high quality food to the
consumers, and the role of women in food production, processing and preservation.
Besides, the chapter looks at the role of cooperatives in mobilizing resource-poor,
small scale farmers in Nigeria for improved production and improved livelihood.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FOOD
Food is necessary for health, growth and normal functions of living organisms.
It is the material that enables man to grow and reproduce himself (Lapedes, 1977).
Essentially food is a mixture of chemicals which could be separated into different
components having different functions in the body. The major constituents of food are
water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. Based on the knowledge of
the chemical constituents and their functions in the body, food are classified either as
proper foods (Carbohydrates, proteins and fats) for the supply energy or as accessory
foods (water, inorganic salts and vitamins) which are essential for life but do not
supply energy (Franson, 1972). In order to fully understand the importance of food to
man the individual chemical component of food is examined as follows:
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Water
The chemical formula for water is H2O. It is an important chemical in foods
and drinks. Water is present in all drinks and most foods. About 3/5 of human body is
water which is used for many purposes. It is an important component of cell, extra
cellular fluid and blood among others. The body of a 65Kg man contains
approximately 40litres of water of which 25litres are within the cells and about
15litres in the extra cellular fluids (Davidson et al.,1975). Man losses water from the
body regularly as water vapour in the air he breathes out, as sweat (evaporative water
loss) and in the waste (urine and faecal water) he gets rid of. It is known that man
losses between 3 and 4 pints of water every day and sometimes more depending on the
activities he is engaged in. The water lost through these processes must however be
replaced. This is because water is necessary for all chemical reactions which take
place in living organisms. It plays an important role in life processes such as food
digestion.
Carbohydrates
As the name implies, carbohydrates contain carbon attached with hydrogen and
oxygen atoms which are always present in the same proportion (i.e. 2H: O) as they are
found in water. Carbohydrate is one of the most important chemicals occurring in
foods. They are synthesized by green plants from water and carbon dioxide under the
influence of sun light (process of photosynthesis). Seeds, fruits and roots contain
concentrated supplies of carbohydrates (Davidson et al.,1975). Carbohydrates are
known to supply most of the energy in almost all human diets. It has been reported
that in the diets of the poor people especially in the tropics, up to 90% of the energy
comes from carbohydrates (Davidson et al., 1975). Although sugars and
polysaccharides all have similar calorific value or heating effects on the body, they
also tend to confer different properties on foods. Some polysaccharides cause gelling,
thickening, body filling and emulsification effects in foods. Sugars are known for food
sweetening.
Broadly speaking, carbohydrate can be classified as sugars and
polysaccharides. Sugars usually consist of small sweet-tasting molecules. Simple
sugars which include pentoses (5 –carbon atom sugars) and hexoses (6- carbon atom
sugars) are known as monosaccharides. Hydrolysis of pentosans in wood, corn cobs,
oats hulls, hay and gums will produce pentoses. Fructose is found free in ripe fruit and
honey. Galactose occurs in combination with glucose to form lactose (milk sugar) a
disaccharide (Frandson, 1972). When two sugar units (monosaccharides) are joined
together it is referred to as a disacchride. Examples are sucrose (common sugar, cane
sugar or beet sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose (malt sugar) and cellobiose which is
a disaccharide formed from cellulose by the action of cellulase from microorganisms.
On hydrolysis, sucrose is converted to glucose and fructose, maltose to two molecules
of glucose and lactose to glucose and galactose.
If between two and nine sugar units (monosaccharides) are joined together to
form a chain, the resulting carbohydrate is known as oligosaccharide. This includes
trisaccharide raffinose that consists of one molecule of glucose, galactose and fructose.
Raffinose is commonly found in sugar beets and cottonseed (Lapedes,
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1977). A combination of ten or more sugars (monosaccharides) gives rise to
polysaccharides. Most polysaccharides are formed from hexoses. However, a few,
including the petosans are composed of pentose (Frandson, 1972). Common
polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, insulin, pectin and edible gums.
Through the process known as hydrolysis, polysaccharides are converted into simple
sugars.
Fats and Oils
Principally fats consists of glycerides esters of fatty acids and they are soluble
only in organic solvents such as petroleum ether, chloroform and xylene. They are
insoluble and also completely immiscible with water. Though, there is no scientific
difference between oils and fats, oils are generally liquid at edible temperatures while
fats are solid or plastic at ordinary temperature (Lapedes, 1977).
The two major groups are animal fats and vegetable oils. Animal fats are
products of the meat packing industry and are obtained by processing the fatty tissue
of hogs, cattle, sheep and fowl (Lapedes, 1977). Edible fats are also obtainable from
animals such as whale (Lapedes, 1977). Butter is a special type of animal fat produced
from milk. Vegetable oils in general are likely to contain more of the unsaturated type
of molecule than animal fats. Good sources of edible vegetable oils include soybeans,
cottonseed, peanuts, corn germ, olives, coconut, rapeseed, sesame, sunflower,
safflower, cocoa beans and various oil palms.
Fat is one of the major classes of food products that supply the energy
requirements of man and animals. They are characterized by high energy content as
they supply about 9.3 cal/g, which is over twice that of proteins and carbohydrates. Fat
and oils also serve as carriers for fat soluble vitamins A,D,E and K. Fats aid the
absorption of these vitamins from the intestinal tract. They are also the source of poly
unsaturated or essential fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids) required
for structural development of tissues and prevention of fat -deficiency disease, which
in man manifests itself as eczema. Fats and oils in the diet increase palatability and
enhance the flavour (flavouring oils) of foods. Fats and oils provide a lubricating
action, increase the satisfaction of eating and delay the onset of hunger. In bakery
product, fat improves texture (Lapedes, 1977).
Proteins
Protein is the most important of all the nutrients required by human beings for
survival, growth and development. The word protein means “primary or “holding first
place”. Proteins are of importance in all biological systems playing a wide variety of
structural and functional roles. They are the basic component of hair, tendons,
muscles, skin, cartilage, enzymes, hormones, haemoglobin and chromosomes. Thus,
proteins play fundamental role in the process of life. Basically, ingestion of protein is
needed to supply amino acids for the formation of new and depleted body protein and
as a source of various other body constituents derived from the amino acids (Lapedes,
1977). Excess amino acids absorbed to the body lose their nitrogen by a combination
of processes of transamination and deamination. The nitrogen is largely converted to
urea and excreted in the urine while the carbon
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moiety is utilized for energy supply in the body. Kwashiorkor disease is associated
more specifically with a lack of dietary protein.
Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some contain
sulphur, phosphorus or iron (Lapedes, 1977). It is a polymeric compound made up of
various amino acids as the monomeric units (Lapedes, 1977). Proteins are complex,
high molecular weight, large-colloidal molecules containing a high percentage of
amino acids. Protein usually contains from 50 to 1000 amino acids residues per
polypeptide chain (joined by peptide bonds) (Lapedes, 1977).
Amino acids which are the building blocks of protein consist largely of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen in various configurations plus one or two amino groups (NH2)
(Frandson, 1972). Of the 20 amino acids present in mammalian proteins, about ten can
either not be synthesized at all or cannot be synthesized rapidly enough by the animal
body to permit normal growth (Lapedes, 1977; Fradson, 1972). They are therefore
known as essential amino acids (lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine,
isoleucine, threonine, methionine, valineand arginine). The remaining ten are called
non – essential amino acids (glycine, alanine, serine, cystine, tyrosine, aspartic acid,
glutamic acid, praline, hydroxyproline, citrulline) because the body can synthesize
them in quantities enough for normal growth.
The Biological Value (BV) of proteins are measured based on the quantity and
quality of its component amino acids (the building blocks). High quality protein
should contain all the essential amino acids in the exact proportions required by the
animal, while lower quality protein may completely lack one or more of the essential
amino acids. Proteins can be obtained from animals as well as from plants, they are
however not equally nutritious. Animal proteins have higher Biological Value than
plant protein because they have better complement of essential amino acids. Legumes,
meat, fish, milk and egg are good sources of protein.
Proteins are generally classified into simple proteins, conjugated proteins or
derived proteins. Simple proteins on hydrolysis yield only amino acids or their
derivatives. Their examples are albumins, globulins, albuminoids, histones and
protamis. Conjugated proteins consist of simple proteins conjugated with non-protein
radical. Examples include nucleoproteins (protein plus a carbohydrate group),
phosphoprotein (protein plus phosporus containing group), haemoglobin (protein plus
hematin) and lecithoprotens (protein plus lecithin). Derived proteins on the other hand
are break down products of naturally occurring proteins, examples are metaproteins,
coagulated proteins, proteoses, peptones and peptides.
Vitamins
Vitamins are essential organic constituents of the diets, which the body
requires in small amounts for its metabolism. Vitamins are present in food in minute
quantities when compared to the other components of the diets such as proteins, fats,
carbohydrates and minerals (Lapedes, 1977). The amount of vitamins required for the
normal functioning of the body is so small that they probably function as catalysts in
similar ways as enzymes. Although the quantity required by the body is small, the
body cannot make it for itself, at least in sufficient quantity and therefore must be
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supplied in foods. Vitamins are often not related chemically and differ in their
physiological actions (Lapedes, 1977; Frandson, 1972). They are normally classified
based on their solubility characteristics. Fat-soluble group consists of vitamins A, D, E
and K while water soluble group consists of the various B-vitamins including
thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, B6, panthothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, B12, 2aminobenzoic acid, inositol and choline, as well as vitamin C or ascorbic acid
(Lapedes, 1977).
Vitamins have been reported to function as co-enzymes, active parts of enzyme
systems, which catalyze many of the various anabolic and catabolic reactions of living
organisms necessary for the production of energy; the synthesis of tissue components,
hormones and chemical regulators; the detoxification and degradation of waste
products and toxins (Lapedes, 1977). Specific dietary vitamins requirement variations
between different animal species have been associated with the ability of the animal to
synthesize the particular vitamin and also on the presence of organisms in the
digestive tract that may synthesize some of the vitamins (Frandson, 1972).
Vitamins are found spread almost universally throughout the animal and plant
kingdoms, functioning in essentially the same type of biochemical systems in the
lowest and highest forms of life (Lapedes, 1977). Best sources of the vitamins include
meat (niacin), fish liver oils (vitamin A), fish oils (vitamin D), pork (thiamine), liver
(thiamine, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, folic acid), whole grains (thiamine, B6,
inositol, chlorine), citrus fruits (vitamin C) and yeasts (niacin, B6, biotin, paminoenzoic acid).
Metabolic limitations and the rapid excretion of vitamins make nutritional
replenishment of the tissues a daily task. Deficiencies of any of the vitamins will lead
to the correspondent vitamin deficiency symptoms such as beriberi (thiamine), anemia
(vitamin B12, B6, folic acid), scurvy(vitamin C), rickets (vitamin D), hemorrhage
(vitamin K), pallegra (niacin), night blindness (vitamin A), loss of hair (riboflavin,
biotin, pantothenic acid), retarded growth (vitamin B6, folic acid, pantothenic acid)
and dermatitis (vitamin B6, pantothenic acid).
Minerals
In diets substances that are not chemically combined with carbon constitute the
inorganic matter of foods. They are known as minerals and trace elements. Total
mineral matter content (the inorganic constituents) of food is usually determined by
burning a sample of food until the ash formed contains no carbon. They are all present
mostly in the form of simple salts, some of which are water soluble (e.g. salts of
sodium and potassium) while most of the other elements (but not iodine and fluorine)
are relatively insoluble (Davidson et. al., 1975). The essential minerals are
phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, zinc,
chlorine, fluorine, sulphur, iodine, cobalt, molybdenum and selenium. While most of
these essential minerals are required by man in reasonable quantity, only traces of
some are needed. The trace elements which are required in diet and their
recommended daily intake are cobalt (0.045 – 0.09g), copper (0.6 – 2mg), zinc,
manganese (8mg), molybdenum and selenium.
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Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and sulphur are important components of
bone and other supporting tissues (Davidson, et. al., 1975). Iron, iodine and fluorine
are respectively of major importance for the formation of hemoglobin, thyroxine and
for teeth resistance to caries (Davidson, et. al.,1975). Magnesium, sodium and
potassium are required for the complex enzyme systems and protein reactions within
our body cells. Some of the trace elements are known to be components of vitamin
(cobalt in cobalamin–vit. B12) and enzyme systems and are therefore essential
nutrients (Davidson et. al., 1975). Milk, cheese, meat, fish, eggs, offal, bread,
potatoes, green vegetables are good sources of iron, calcium, phosphorus, while
magnesium, sodium, potassium and the trace elements are more than enough in our
average diets. An excessive concentration of any of these elements in the tissues has
adverse effects and should therefore be prevented (Birch et. al.,1977; Davidson et. al.,
1975).
It is instructive to note that different components of food are required at
different levels for healthy and active life. The next subsection of this chapter
therefore looks at various issues affecting availability and accessibility as they relate
to the developing countries including Nigeria.
FOOD SECURITY ISSUES
Food security has been described as an important aspect in any consideration
of wealth and economic sustainability of a nation. It is generally defined as access by
all people at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life (World Bank,
1986). Important aspects to be considered in food security issues include the
availability of food stuff, the quality of the diet, the stability of supplies over time and
space and access to food produced (Honfoga and van den Boom, 2003). The World
Health Organisation (WHO, 1985) recommends an intake of between 2500 –
3400Kcal of energy per person per day. It is recommended that an individual should
consume between 65-86g crude protein per day out of which 35g (or 40%) must be
animal protein. While many developing countries have energy intake that is far below
the minimum recommended daily per capita intake, the world today faces the greatest
challenge of overcoming inadequate consumption of protein (especially animal
protein), vitamins (vitamin A, C and folic acid) and minerals (iron) which may result
in various deficiency symptoms (diseases).
Increased resource use and improvements in technology and efficiency have
increased global food production more rapidly than population in recent decades
(Wiebe, 2003). World food and agricultural production, based on current trends, will
therefore be sufficient to meet demand in the decades ahead. However, the world still
faces a serious food crisis, at least as perilous and life-threatening for millions of poor
people as those of the past. Although there is variation in the estimate of the food
insecure people all over the world, available statistics show that a large proportion of
the world population have problem of food insecurity. It was observed that more than
eight hundred million people still remained food insecure (Wiebe, 2003; FAO, 2005a).
According to a World Food Program estimate, hunger affects one out of seven people
on the planet. In 1996, the World Bank estimated that more than one billion of the
world’s people did not have enough food to lead healthy and productive lives
(Gebremedhin, 2000).
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Food insecurity remains a global threat and human tragedy. It is by any
measure a miserable picture, which does not reflect well on the efforts that have gone
into the hunger alleviation programmes on which enormous sums of public funds have
been lavished (Abdulaziz, 2002). The persistence of hunger in the developing world
means that ensuring adequate and nutritious food for the population will remain the
principal challenge facing policy makers in many developing countries in the years to
come (Stamoulis, et.al., 2004). Food insecurity is a particularly serious issue in many
low income countries. For instance, sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia stand out as
the two developing-country regions where the prevalence of human malnutrition
remains high. The largest absolute numbers of undernourished people are in Asia,
while the largest proportion of the population that is undernourished is in Africa, south
of the Sahara In terms of proportionality, this was estimated at 34 percent in Africa
and 23 percent in South Asia. (FAO, 1998). Though nutrition insecurity is generally
being reduced worldwide, the problem is actually growing worse in Africa. This is due
to increasing population growth and poor progress in efforts directed at reducing food
insecurity in many countries in the continent. Estimates of the overall numbers of
undernourished people in Africa have actually been rising over the past few decades
from 111 million in the period 1969–71, to 171 million in 1990–92, to 204 million in
1999–2001(Benson, 2004). In sub–Saharan Africa, poverty is increasing and food
security situation is deteriorating (Hazell and Haddad, 2001). With an estimate of sixty
thousand people majority of whom are children dying each day of hunger, food
insecurity is considered a common phenomenon in Africa. Majority of the deaths
related to food insecurity are reported to occur in sub-Saharan Africa. In virtually all
rural sub-Saharan Africa, fluctuation in food security has become a fact of life that
majority of the people have to contend with (Milich, 1997). In Sub-Saharan Africa, the
total number of hungry people increases each year. Given that food deficits are
projected to rise, the problem probably will only get worse (Trueblood and Shapouri,
2002; Paarlberg, 2002).
In view of its global dimension, the international community has placed the
elimination of famine and hunger on its agenda. The participants at the food summit
organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 1996 pledged to reduce
the number of hungry people by half by the year 2015 (World Food Summit WFS,
1996b; FAO, 2005b; Meade and Rosen, 2002). Thereafter, the World Food Summit
(WFS, 1996b), put in place action plan for reducing the number of undernourished and
eventually achieving food security for all (Meyer, 2001). It is worthy of note that the
rate at which hunger is being reduced is slow (FAO, 2005b). This implies that the
1996 World Food Summit (WFS) target of halving the number of hungry people from
800 million in 1990–1992 to 400 million by 2015 may not be met. Unless the anaemic
trend in hunger reduction observed since the beginning of the 1990s is strengthened, it
will take many decades before the number of hungry people is brought down to 400
million. Hence, meeting the needs for adequate and nutritious food for large segments
of the world population will continue to be at the centre of the development debate on
food policy for many years to come (Stamoulis, et.al., 2004).
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Consequences of Food Insecurity
Food insecurity and hunger are forerunners to nutritional, health, human and
economic development problems. They connote deprivation of basic necessities of
life. As such, food security has been considered as a universal indicator of households’
and individuals’ personal well - being. The consequences of hunger and malnutrition
are adversely affecting the livelihood and well - being of a massive number of people
and inhibiting the development of many poor countries (Gebremedhin, 2000).
Malnutrition affects one out of every three preschool-age children living in
developing countries. This disturbing, yet preventable state of affairs causes untold
suffering and presents a major obstacle to the development process. It is associated
with more than half of all child deaths worldwide. It is therefore the bane of a major
waste of resources and loss of productivity which are common occurrences in
developing countries. This is because children who are malnourished are less
physically and intellectually productive as adults. As such, malnutrition is a violation
of the child’s human rights (Smith et. al,, 2003).
More than 800 million people have too little to eat to meet their daily energy
needs. Most of the world’s hungry people live in rural areas and depend on the
consumption and sale of natural products for both their income and food. It tends to be
concentrated among the landless or among farmers whose plots are too small to
provide for their needs. For young children, lack of food can be perilous since it
retards their physical and mental development and threatens their very survival. Over
150 million children under five years of age in the developing world are underweight.
In sub - Saharan Africa, the number of underweight children increased from 29
million to 37 million between 1990 and 2003 (United Nations, 2005).
Furthermore, poverty, hunger and malnutrition have been identified as some of
the principal causes of increasing and accelerated migration from rural to urban areas
in developing countries. Unless these problems are addressed in an appropriate and
timely fashion, the political, economic and social stability of many countries and
regions may well be seriously affected, perhaps even compromising world peace
(FAO, 1996). This is because hunger and poverty can provide a fertile ground for
conflict, especially when combined with factors such as unequal difficulty in coping
with disasters (Untied Nations, 2005). Hunger and malnutrition are the major causes
of deprivation and suffering targeted by all other Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs). This is illustrated by Diouf (2005) as follows:
Hungry children start school later, if at all, drop out sooner and learn less while they
do attend, stalling progress towards universal primary and secondary education
(MDG 2).
Poor nutrition for women is one of the most damaging outcomes of gender inequality.
It undermines women’s health, stunts their opportunities for education and
employment and impedes progress towards gender equality and empowerment of
women (MDG 3).
As the underlying causes of more than half of all child deaths, hunger and malnutrition
are the greatest obstacles to reducing child mortality (MDG 4).
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Hunger and malnutrition increase both the incidence and the fatality rate of conditions
that cause a majority of maternal deaths during pregnancy and childbirth (MDG 5).
Hunger and poverty compromise people’s immune systems, force them to adopt risky
survival strategies, and greatly increase the risk of infection and death from
HIV/AIDS, malaria and other infectious diseases (MDG 6).
Under the burden of chronic poverty and hunger, livestock herders, subsistence
farmers, forest dwellers and fisher folk may use their natural environment in
unsustainable ways, leading to further deterioration of their livelihood conditions.
Empowering the poor and hungry as custodians of land, waters, forests and
biodiversity can advance both food security and environmental sustainability
(MDG 7).
Solutions to Food Insecurity
The concept of food problem is complex and goes beyond the simplistic idea
of a country’s inability to feed its population. Though, the issue of serious food and
nutrition problem is associated with less developed countries, the main dimensions of
the problems in individual countries have however not been subjected to serious
analysis. This has encouraged misleading generalizations about the causes, effects and
remedies for the problem (Ojo, 1991). The fight against hunger therefore demands an
integrated set of actions which simultaneously addresses the causes of food insecurity
(Committee on World Food Security CFS, 2005).
The root problem of inadequate access to food is poverty. This is in the sense
of the failure of the economic system to generate sufficient income and distribute it
broadly enough to meet households' basic needs. The problem can be addressed by
either giving food directly to the poor (non-market distribution of aid); increasing their
incomes so that they have greater entitlement to food through the market (given
existing marketing costs); and/or reducing the costs of food delivered through markets
by fostering technical and institutional innovations in farm-level production and the
marketing system (Jayne et.al., 1994).
The 1996 World Food Summit reaffirmed that a peaceful, stable and enabling
political, social and economic environment is the essential foundation which will
enable states to give adequate priority to food security and poverty eradication.
Democracy, promotion and protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms,
including the right to development and the full and equal participation of men and
women are essential for achieving sustainable food security for all (FAO, 1996).
Attaining food security is therefore a primary responsibility which rests with
individual governments.
Access to the components of nutrition security, over and above those required
for food security, is also a challenge that must be addressed. Investments in education,
sanitation, and access to health care must continue and be increased if the advances
required in nutrition security are to be made. Ultimately, the responsibility of ensuring
food security for all lies with national governments who have the duty of establishing
the conditions and institutions necessary to enable their citizens have access to the
basic requirements of food and nutrition security. The basic determinants of food and
nutrition security in any one African country will never be
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exactly the same as those of another. This is because of the different historical factors,
agro ecological conditions, economic comparative advantages and institutional
structures at play in each of the countries. As such, a single detailed policy and action
prescription will not enable national governments in different countries to effectively
address malnutrition. It must however be recognized that all African countries can
attain nutrition security if sufficient commitment exists. Political will must be applied
and dedicated efforts made to marshal the human, institutional, and material resources
necessary for the task (Benson, 2004). For there to be improvement in food and
nutrition security situation of a country, national governments must address a number
of issues including the following:
 Provision of access to sufficient quantities of food items. This may require
formulation of policy for sustained, broad-based, economic growth. It is
estimated that, to end hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa by 2050, a 3.5 percent
annual average growth rate in per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is
necessary in the region.
 Direct nutrition interventions to provide food to those suffering from acute
hunger and malnutrition and nutrition information and supplements to women
of childbearing age and young children are necessary. Such interventions are a
vital component of any effort to build the quality of human capital, encourage
economic growth, and improve standards of living.
 Enhancing the means to acquire food, whether through cash incomes or access
to productive resources. Considering the importance of agriculture as a source
of income to rural households, there is a need for improvement in their
agricultural production. The effectiveness of on-farm production determines
the level of access to food enjoyed by both farmers and the broader population
to whom they are linked through the market. Increased food supplies
simultaneously increase the income of farming households and reduce the
prices people pay for food in the marketplace, both of which enhance nutrition
security. Moreover, increases in the production of both food and non - food
crops contribute to the broader economy, both in rural areas and in urban
manufacturing centers.
 Levels of education should be improved, particularly for girls, because the
knowledge imparted is critical both to achieve nutritional security and to
enhance productivity for economic growth. This is also to ensure that people
can provide themselves and their dependants with nutritionally balanced,
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hygienically prepared food.
 Provision of clean water, adequate sanitation and effective health services.
This is very important for the individuals to benefit from the food consumed.
Poor health situation of the individuals may prevent them from having
nutrition security.
 Efforts must be made to open national markets to international trade, both
within Africa and globally, as national food availability should not depend
upon national food production alone. The nutritional security of the population
of a country is enhanced by the degree to which it invests in building the
institutional and legal frameworks and physical infrastructure needed to
facilitate open, reciprocal and free trade.
 The issue of gender equity must be addressed, as a close link exists between
improved child nutrition and the extent to which women participate in making
economic decisions within their households. Greater social equity enhances
women’s access to resources thereby increasing the diversity and quantity of
food they can provide and improving the level and quality of the care they can
give to their dependents.
 Locally conceived and implemented action has been shown to be the most
effective way to improve food and nutrition security. National governments
should give broad direction to local efforts and facilitate the success of such
efforts through resource allocation, institutional support, and the provision of
necessary expertise.
 Central governments should ensure that budgetary allocations reflect the
central importance that food and nutrition security have for the welfare of all
people, as well as the immense economic benefits they provide for relatively
little cost. In this regard, donor funding should be viewed as a secondary
resource, and used to complement the resources allocated by governments.
 Dedicated advocacy should be used to inform policymakers at all levels of the
critical role that improved nutrition plays in development and poverty
alleviation. Without this, it is unlikely the malnourished will receive any
attention in any planning and resource allocation decisions made in the
democratic, decentralized, bottom-up political systems emerging across Africa.
The need to improve food and nutrition security must be communicated
effectively and understood widely; its significance for the welfare of all
members of society must be recognized. Ultimately, advocacy must build the
political will needed to ensure that resources are provided to help individuals
and households attain food and nutrition security.
GENDER ISSUES IN AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN
NIGERIA
Gender is a concept used in social science analysis to look at roles and
activities of men and women. The focus of gender analysis is not on biological
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differences between men and women but rather on their experiences as members of
the society. A common assumption is that gender analysis focuses only on the status of
women in the society. While gender analysis gives us insight into issues affecting
women, it is focused mainly on the relationship of both men and women to the social
and economic structure of a society. Gender analysis is not necessarily about
developing programmes for women, although it makes it possible for more to be learnt
about the particular issues affecting women. Gender analysis is therefore a tool for
understanding and for learning more about the activities being done by men and
women in society and the problems and opportunities that each face in doing those
activities.
As Nigeria faces the challenges of developing her agricultural communities,
one of the most important areas of concern is the problem of inadequate integration of
women in agricultural development process. This may be due to the fact that very little
is known of the gender variation in the various stages of agricultural production. The
next sub-section of this chapter focuses on the importance of gender analysis in
agricultural and rural development
Circumstances Surrounding Gender Analysis in Agriculture
The subject of gender is an increasingly important component of rural development
policies all over the world.




The subject of gender is an increasingly important component of rural
development policies all over the world.
Many of the products and services that rural society can offer are traditionally
made or provided by women.
The assumption that only rural men are farmers while their women counterpart
are farmers’ wives have however led to the failure of many national and
international agricultural development policies and programmes in the past
from effectively achieving their objectives.
There is little or no attention is paid to the peculiar and very important roles of
women despite the fact that they represent a strong productive force in
subsistence agriculture. Farming techniques and trainings as well as loans
scheme for small scale farming therefore tend to be exclusively introduced to
men.
Advantages of Gender Analysis in Agriculture
The following advantages can be derived from gender analysis in agriculture:
(a) It helps to examine gender based differences in access to resources and to
predict how different members of households, groups, and societies will participate in
and be affected by agricultural development progrmmes
•(b)
Gender analysis useful in identifying different needs of men and women that
will help them to achieve sustainable agricultural production.
134
•(c)
It is required in analysing the different responsibilities of men and women that
might constrain their participation in agricultural production
(Constraints to
participation).
Gender analysis is needed to understand different stakeholders’ capacity to
participate in any given intervention programme in agriculture. e.g. given different
levels of education or autonomy (Ability to participate).
•(d)
•(e)
It is required for the determination of the effects of agricultural programmes and
technologies on men and women participants.
•(f)
It permits planners to achieve the goals of effectiveness, efficiency, equity, and
empowerment through designing policy reform and supportive program strategies, and
•(g)
Gender analysis is needed to develop training packages to sensitize development
staff on gender issues and training and strategies for beneficiaries
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA
The agricultural sector is one of the most important components of the
Nigerian economy. Its importance can not be over-emphasized as productive
agriculture offers many benefits: food for domestic consumption, raw materials foe
agro-allied industries, employment that generates income, which in turn encourages
other industrial, commercial and service activities, and export markets for foreign
exchange earning. Indeed, agriculture use to make significant impact on Nigeria’s
Gross Domestic Product until the oil boom era of the 1970s and early 1980s, when
there was change in emphasis away fro agriculture. While the annual rate of
population growth is estimated at between 2.5 – 3%, that of food and agricultural
production is growing at between 1.4 -2%. The production of agricultural crops and
livestock has therefore not kept pace with population growth and rising demand. this
scenario has weakened the contribution of agriculture to the development of the
national economy.
Crop production
Crops production in Nigeria is centered on a range of food and cash crops.
Subsistence farming is the dominant system for field crop production where farmers
produce food mainly to feed themselves and their families and sell if there is any
surplus. Cultivation is done manually using hoe and cutlass and is characterized by
low external inputs. As a consequence, annual yields are very much below the
optimum and economic profit is low. At commercial level, crops are produced
principally for cash purposes b relatively few medium and large scale farmers as well
as private companies with large sized farms where mechanization has been adopted
for growing crops.
Majority of the resource-poor farmers adopt the multiple cropping systems
135
as risk diversification strategy. In such systems, different crops are grown together.
Farm practices commonly used include bush burning, mulching, weeding and
fertilization. Because of the decline in the crop yield due to continuous cropping on
the same piece of land, there is the need for increased use of chemical and organic
fertilizers to supplement the nutrient content of the soils to enhance productive
capacity. However, high cost, unavailability when needed, inappropriate
recommendation and untimely application are the limitations to the effective use of
chemical fertilizers. The high prices of most of the staple food stuffs are indications of
the failure of the agricultural sector of the Nigerian economy.
Animal Production
The animal sub-sector serves as the major source of protein of high biological
value needed to ensure optimum health for the nation. Livestock industry contributes
about 5% to the Gross Domestic product of the Nigerian economy. The management
systems for producing these animals vary form intensive, semi – intensive to
extensive. Most of the livestock are managed in traditional extensive system in
smallholdings where they subsist on household and farm wastes. Despite the vast array
of animal resources, the prices of milk, meat and eggs keep increasing, thus placing
these products out of reach of the average Nigerian. The daily consumption of animal
protein in Nigeria averages 7g per person as compared with 35g recommended for
proper growth, health and survival. It is obvious that there is poor growth in animal
protein production. The problems affecting food production in both animal and crop
production are similar and complex.
Constraints to Agricultural production
A wide range of constraints has been identified as being responsible for the impasse in
agricultural production. The major ones are:
1. Drudgery in farm work arising from inadequate or lack of opportunity for
mechanization at various stages especially land clearing and cultivation.
2. Inadequate supply of essential farm inputs like improved seeds, quality
breeding stock, finished feeds, vaccines, drugs and fertilizers at the right time.
Most of these are also scarce and expensive and a large number of the farmers
have poor technical know-how of their uses.
3. Land acquisition and land tenure system. Under the customary laws, land
136
ownership is based on community holdings. This makes it difficult for farmers
to acquire more land for agricultural production.
4. Poor genetic potentials of indigenous breed of animals, low accessibility to
veterinary services and high incidence of diseases and pests that result in high
mortality of farm animals.
5. Inefficient agricultural extension services to transfer improved technologies
and practices in crop and livestock husbandry to the farmers as well as form
the link between the agricultural research centres and farmers. Much of the
technologies generated for the purpose of improving agricultural production
are still on the shelf unadopted.
6. Paucity of essential infrastructural facilities such as access feeder roads to
farming areas for input injection and produce evacuation, schools, clinics,
water supply and markets. This also accounts for rural –urban migration.
7. Inadequate storage and processing facilities for agricultural produce especially
for highly perishable livestock products including fruits, vegetables and root
crops. A large percentage of harvested produce is wasted yearly due to poor
storage at the peak of harvest.
8. Little or no control over physical elements of weather and climate. Since
rainfed type of agriculture is the general practice nation wide, delay in rain fall
or poor distribution pattern will lead to low yield of crops.
9. Poor access to credit. Resource-poor farmers have little or no collateral
security, high interest rate and difficult lending conditions imposed by
financial institutions.
10. Shortage of funds for agricultural development programmes and research.
11. Poor continuity in the execution of planned agricultural programmes due to
frequent changes in government policy and administration.
Self sufficiency in agricultural production can be achieved if the highlighted
constraints are properly tackled and an enabling environment created by governments
at federal, state and local government levels. The strategic thrust should be that of
putting in place favourable conditions for farmers to have access to available resources
and services. Part of the solution is to institute workable policies to encourage the
growth and development of farmers’ cooperatives at community and national levels to
ensure that individual farmers have easier access to inputs, credits and insurance.
AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES IN NIGERIA
Resource-poor farmers remain the bedrock of agricultural production
especially in the developing countries including Nigeria. They account for over 90%
of all agricultural output in Nigeria. They are however burdened with high and rising
prices of farm inputs, low efficiency of farming techniques employed, inadequate
production infrastructure, poor pricing and heavy constraints in obtaining credits and
insurance. All of these are further compounded by the general economic downturn and
government drives to remove all subsidies on inputs such as fertilizers, vaccines
137
and foundation stock. Consequently, the cooperative option comes into focus as a
viable way to effectively mobilize farmers to form groups and pool resources so as to
become more effective in agricultural production.
A cooperative is a voluntary association of people usually of limited means
who have joined together to achieve common economic interest through the formation
of a democratically controlled business organization, making equitable contribution to
the capital required and accepting a fair share of risks and benefits of the undertaking.
The forerunner to modern day cooperatives was started in 1844 by the Rochdale
Pioneers in England with the ideals of universality, democracy, liberty, unity and
fraternity, self help, equity and justice.
The introduction of cooperatives in Nigeria in 1935 by the colonial government
marked the beginning of using cooperatives for the development of the agricultural
sector of the Nigerian economy. Government has over the years been encouraging the
growth and development of the organization through legislation, administration,
financial assistance, technical assistance as well as educational development.
Since the majority of our food producers are the resource –poor farmers that
face many obstacles and have limited means, the cooperative option provides the best
avenue for mobilizing their resources for enhanced agricultural production. Under the
structure of cooperatives, farmers can form themselves into groups, which represent
their interest and where they also find new strength in working together. Presently,
many types of cooperatives exist across the country. There is however a growing trend
of adopting the multi-purpose approach. Farmer cooperatives focusing essentially on
production, processing and marketing of crop and livestock products are very few.
Nevertheless, well organized farmer’s cooperatives can perform the following roles:
 Protection of members from exploitation by middle men through cooperative
marketing of agricultural produce.
 Enabling members take advantage of economies of scale in production,
processing and marketing of agricultural produce.
 Helping members in mobilizing resources within society for agricultural
operations and marketing.
 Assisting in the training and education of members in modern agricultural
practices and use of agricultural inputs.
 Provision of essential manufactured goods for farmers in rural areas.
Problems of Agricultural Cooperatives in Nigeria
(1) Absence of felt need among members. Cooperatives were generally introduced
by government and there is therefore the absence of felt need essential to the
survival of the spirit of cooperative.
(2) The cooperative movement is still in its infancy as only about 1% of the
farming population is involved in cooperatives. Besides, less than 20% of the
total agricultural export crops is marketed through cooperative. The proportion
is even less for staple food crops produced and consumed locally.
(3) Poor management of cooperatives as most people in the management cadre
138
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
usually lack experience and are not well trained.
Financial assistance from cooperative credit unions is insignificant because of
their limited resources. More over, banks are not so willing to give credit
facilities to farmers because of hazards involved in agriculture.
Inability of cooperatives to become a mass movement in spite of government
funding and support.
Lack of active membership.
Dishonesty and corruption among members and management staff occupying
administrative positions in the societies
Deliberate ganging up by the capitalist to frustrate cooperative advancement
and growth in order to protect their own business. This can be accomplished
through the use of influence on banks not to grant financial assistance to
cooperatives. They can also carry out organized manufacturing, trading or
supply establishment to the detriment of cooperatives.
Farmers’ cooperative movements should be strengthened, controlled and owned by
farmers themselves while government presence should be limited to training of
manpower for co-operatives and developing national policies that will make it easier
for farmers to groups to groups themselves.
Conclusion
The prevailing low productivity in agriculture gives causes for much concern.
Looking inward to increased agricultural production remains an absolute necessity for
ensuring satisfactory food supply to the citizenry. To this extent, farmers, policy
makers, government and non-government agencies concerned with agricultural
development must respond positively to the considerable challenges of achieving self
–sufficiency in food production and providing agricultural raw materials for industrial
economy. The realization that the resource-poor farmers form the core of the Nigerian
agricultura brings this group to the centre stage of efforts to move the agricultural
sector forward.
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