ILORIN JOURNAL OF HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION (IJOPHER)
PUBLISHED BY
THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN
ILORIN, KWARA STATE
NIGERIA
VOL. 5. DECEMBER 2006
ISSN: 9795-6061
EDITORIAL BOARD
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
-
PROF. OLAWOLE O. OBIYEMI
MANAGING EDITOR
-
PROF. A.A. ADESOYE
ASSISTANT EDITOR
-
O. ‘LANRE OLAITAN
BOARD MEMBERS
-
PROF. L. EMIOLA
PROF E.A OGUNSAKIN
PROF. S.A. ADEYANJU Obafemi Awolowo University, IIeIfe
PROF. P.8. IKULAYO
University of Lagos.
PROF. D.G. OSHADIN
University of Benin, Benin City
PROF. D.I. MUSA
Benue State University, Makurdi
DR. A.E. TALABI DR. 0. OYERINDE
CONSULTING EDITORS - PROF. E.B. OKUNROTIFA
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.
PROF. K. VENKATESWARV Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
PROF. ABEL L. TPROPLA
Technikon Pretoria Republic of South Africa
PROF.). HANS DE RIDDER
Potchefstroomse Universiteit, Republic of South Africa
PROF. WALTER DECLIER
Universiteit Antwerpen, Belgium
PROF. MIKLOS BANHIDI — APACZAI Csere Janos Faculty, University of West
Hungary.
PROF. FRANK H. FU
Department of Physical Education, Hong Kong Baptist University.
ASSOC. PROF. KUNIYOSHI IDA
Department of Sport Culture, Osaka
University of Health and Sport Sciences.
DR. CRAIG MAHONEY
School of Sport Studies,
Roehampton Institute London
(University of Surrey)
PROF. RICHARD). FISHER
Department of Sport Science and Physical Education,
St. Mary’s University College, Strawberry Hill,
United Kingdom.
EDITORIAL NOTE
The Ilorin Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation (IJOPHER), is out
with a new look and a new mandate. We dare our contributors to send scholarly
articles to our journal and in return we will produce a quality journal.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Sexual Coercion among Married Women of Lagos State Sports Council, Nigeria
- OIYEMI, O. O. (Prof,), Ogunsanwo, B.A. (Dr.) & Makanjuola, W.B
1
2. Sport Facilities and Equipment Management Practice and Provision in
College of Education Jalingo. Taraba state
- Adesoye, Abimbola Abefe (Prof) & Ojo, Olusoja Sunday (Mr.)
6
3. Causes, Effects and Treatments of Cigarette Smoking among Adolescents:
An Overview — Olaitan O. Lanre
11
4. Perception and Attitude Towards Unprotected Sex Among Students of Kwara State
College of Education, Ilorin, Nigeria - Isaac O. Osho and Olabode O. Kayode 16
5. Correlation of Bureaucratic Features in Achieving Sports Management
Science Objectives in Nigeria – Obiyemi, Wole A. A. (Prof),
Ogunsanwo, B.A (Dr) & Ojo, O. S. (Mr)
21
6. Causes and Implications of Drug Abuse: A Case Study of a Typical Nigerian
Society - O. M. Peter - Ajayi (B.Ed)
27
7. Workplace Experience and Nurses Attitude towards people living with HIV/AIDS
in Ekiti State, Nigeria — Olanipekun, Kayode Olushola (MEd)
32
8. Knowledge of Primary Health Care Services and Health Practices Among
Female Nurses Working in Health Institution in Pankshin Town of Plateau State
- Yakubu Gorah Kajang Ph. D. & Bakari Mohammed
36
9. A Comparison of 20MST and 12 Minutes Run/Walk Test
- Abdullahi Ibrahim Darki
43
10. Sudden death in sports: the scientific evidences and Principles of cardiac
rehabilitation in a survivor— A review – Onigbinde A. T., Adedoyin R.A,
Johnson O. E., Obembe 0.A
45
11. Effects of Angle Variation on Arm Flexors Muscle Strength – ONIGBINDE, A. T.,
Talabi, E. A., Adedoyin, R.A, Johnson, O.E, Obembe, O.A
51
12. Bi-annual Nigerian University Sports Competition: A Means for Healthful Living
- Umaru Musa
59
13. Socio-economic Determinants of Female Leadership in Sports Organization:
The Way Forward -Kambayari, Apagu
64
14. Keeping Fit Through Exercise Programme: A Way Forward in Nigerian Society
- Prof. E. B. Okunrotifa
68
15. Religious Affiliation and Contraceptive Knowledge and Practice in Biu Local
Government Area of Borno State, Nigeria - Shallangwa A.M. (Ba.Ed) and
Jaramas M. O. (B.Ed)
74
16. The Relationship Between Transformational and Transactional Decision Making
Styles of Sports Administrators and Achievement of Sports Councils in Nigeria
- Dr. Musa Garba Yakasai
80
17. Perception of Soccer Fans about Placing in the Production of Professional Soccer
League Matches in Kano Township — Dr. Mohammed Baba Gambari
86
18. Sexual Behaviour of the Nigerian Senior Secondary School Female Students
- Dr. (Mrs.) Tehresa N. Ogwu
89
19. Use of Psychoactive Substances in Enhancing Snorts Performance: An Overview
- Dr. A. O. Abioye
95
20. The influence of some Bureaucratic Procedures on Sports Management Science in
Nigeria - Adesoye, A.A. (Prof), Ogunsanwo, BA. (Dr) & lbiloye, G. O. (Capt.) 98
21. Social Characteristics and Means Monarchical Age of Nigerian Female Athletes
and Non-athletes — Dashe, V. (Mrs)
105
22. Development Discipline Through Athletics - De. Henry Augustine Pufaa
110
23. Sports Facilities in the administration of Intramural Sports Programmes
- Akin-Taylor, M. A. (Ph.D)
115
24. Psycho-social Factors Influencing Sports Participation among Special Students in
selected Secondary Schools in Osun State — Ibraheem, T. O. & Jimoh, G. K. 124
25. Status and Problems of School Health Programme in Primary Schools in
Bida Local Government Area of Niger State — Sheshi Baba
124
26. Stress: Causes, Effect & Management — Oniyangi, S. O.
128
27. Implementation of Primary Health Care (PHC) in Asa and Moro
Local Government Areas of Kwara State - Dr. Shehu Raheem Adaramaja
133
CAUSES, EFFECTS AND TREATMENTS OF CIGARETTE SMOKING AMONG
ADOLESCENTS: AN OVERVIEW
By
OLAITAN, 0. ‘LANRE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL & HEALTH EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN
ABSTRACT
This paper reviewed causes, effects and possible treatments of smoking.
Cigarette smoking causes a variety of life threatening diseases, including lung
cancer, emphysema and heart disease. An estimated 430,000 deaths each year
are directly caused by cigarette smoking. Smoking is responsible for changes h
all parts of the body, including the digestive system. This fact can have serious
consequences because it/s the digestive system that converts food into nutrients
the body needs to live. Current estimates indicate that above one third of all
adolescents smoke. And while adult men seem to be smoking less women and
adolescents of both sexes seem to be smoking more. It is recommended that the
smokers should stop the habit and stay away from other smokers, they should
be campaigners against the use of cigarette and they should engage themselves
in diversionary, such as chewing gum, licking candies and above a/4 exercise
especially, long walk.
INTRODUCTION
Overtime, smoking has bean discovered to be rampant among the young
and the old. Before now, it was believed that smoking is only necessitated by the
weather which explains why it is acceptable in European and American countries
(Pinney, 1998).
In recent time research has shown that there is an alarming increase in
the rate of smoking among adolescent irrespective of the condition of the
weather or climate. In the northern past of Nigeria where the weather is so hot,
it was established that there is high sales of cigarette (Benson & Hedges
Research, 2004).
However, it was discovered that there are some other factors that
influence cigarette smoking other than weather. Some of these other factors
include-peer group influence, frustration, advertisement, lack of adequate
knowledge, parenting problem sense of belonging etc.
Furthermore, there are some effects of smoking that are adverse to the
smokers. These effects are heartburn, Crohn’s disease, gall stone, peptic ulcer,
liver disease to mention a few.
Adolescents and Cigarette Smoking
An adolescent is the person between the ages of 13 and 21 years. This is
the age between childhood and adulthood. A smoker is an individual who takes
cigarette for his satisfaction. According to Parkinson (1999) smoking is a product
of habituation, which is gradually established in an individual from simple drill to
a chronic phenomenon. It is one of the substances that produce is psychoactive
effect in nervous system. This implies having a temporary change in thoughts,
feelings, moods, actions which make the users susceptible to ideas which,
originally not his own (WHO, 1999).
According to World Health Organization chronicles (2001), a smoker is an
individual who smokes a stick of cigarette twice daily. Cigarette is a mixture of
gases, vapours and tiny suspended particles as it enters the mouth, each cubic
centimeter of smoking contains millions or billions of these particles. The
percentage of people who smoke in developing countries is higher than in the
United States (Surgeon General, 2004).
United State Department of Education (1999) recorded that cigarette
smoke contains some 4,000 chemicals, many of which are carcinogenic as well
as other toxins and irritation found in the smoke that can produce eye, nose and
throat irritations. Carbon monoxide (CO), another component of cigarette smoke
combines
with
haemoglobin
in
the
blood stream leading to carboxyl
haemoglobin, which interference with cigarette smoking reveal that the effect of
smoking is not limited to smoker alone, for instance inhaling of the puffed smoke
by non smokers especially in a closed environment can have negative effect on
non—smokers. Such effects are mild irritation, allergic reaction and cardiovascular stress, etc.
In Nigeria, according to the head of department, drug demand, ti1kriaI
Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), Oyo zonal office; one 2nnot deny the
fad that there are heavy social and economic investment in the growing and
processing of tobacco and also, in the manufacturing, provision and sales of
cigarettes; Cigarette smoking is becoming mare and more popular among
secondary school students. One can also say that, alcohol use and cigarette
smoking are gateway to other drugs. However, adolescent don’t just smoke, they
do it to be able to get involved in tasks that cannot be done merely.
Despite the fact that government realizes a lot of money from taxes
collected on the marketing of cigarettes, most government of the world has one
or the other against smoking. The Federal Government of Nigeria decree No 20
of 1990 constitution highlighted that cigarette advertisements must carry the
warning sign. The Federal Ministry of Health warns that “smokers are liable to
die young”. Also campaigns against cigarette smoking which include restricting
smoking in public areas, ban importation of cigarette and in mass media. Inspite
of all these efforts, the story is still the same.
The following among others are the types of cigarette most commonly
smoked in Nigeria - Consulate, v12, Flight, Gold leaf, 555 king filter, Benson &
Hedges, Sweet Menthol, Marlboro salon, St. Moritz, Rothmans, Slim mars,
Dunhill, etc.
CAUSES OF CIGARETIE SMOKING
1. Frustration
2. Influence of Bad Friends
3. Advertisement
4. Lack of adequate knowledge
5. Parenting problem
6. Sense of belonging
7. Weathers Condition
Frustration
Gitchell (1997) discovered that as an adolescent, you to solve problems.
You may be facing many situations for the very first time. This is because, you
are becoming independent from parents, establishing relationship with opposite
sex, working at a paying job, or saving to purchase a car. Each of these
situations may be a source of stress/frustration for you, thereby engaging
yourself into smoking. This will only relieve you of the stress for that particular
period.
Influence of Bad Friends
In most cases, smoking is done in social situations. What effect does
smoking cigarettes actually have on enhancing one’s sociability? Most people
who smoke cigarettes have the expectation that smoking will produce a
pleasurable social environment. Some have mistaken belief that smoking is a
“social” drug. However, a more realistic viewpoint is to classify smoking as an
“antisocial” drug. Adolescents who engage in smoking cigarettes experience a
social crutch rather than leaning healthful ways to interact with peers and how to
handle social situations successfully (Rolnick, 1998).
Advertisement
Adverts of cigarettes are being used to increase their sales. Today, styles
are used in advertising cigarettes. Most adolescents get enticed by either the
colour of the pack or holding of the stick. Advertisements could also be through
posters, handbills, radio jingles etc. (Hollis, 1997).
Lack of Adequate Knowledge
Parkinson (1999), in his opinion cited that most adolescents lack
knowledge about many of the things they engage in. In the case of smoking,
most adolescents do n have adequate knowledge of the effect of smoking. They
smoke just for fun of it and believe smoking regard them as being social in the
environment. This is common among students who are independent from
parents and other relations.
Parenting problem
Hughes (1999) observed that parents also contribute to the cause of
smoking. The fact that those parents are now very busy, leaving out monitoring
of their children and so causing the parent-child attachment to be weakened.
This is not helping to deter adolescents going into cigarette smoking. After
several sticks, such child will end up being an addict and then, it will be difficult
to control.
Sense of Belonging
While growing up an adolescent, you tend to move slightly away from
family love and exposing yourself to the world by making of friends. Adolescents
make close friends. Such close friends are those of the same age group with him.
They think, act and feel the same way. If any of the close friends is smoking, he
has the right to influence the interest of others towards it. He/she might go to
the extent of giving them wrong information about cigarettes smoking (Blame,
1995).
Weather Condition
Pinney (1998) opined that smoking is necessitated by the weather
condition which explains why smoking is rampant in European and American
countries.
In Africa, particularly Nigeria smoking is not based on weather condition
but just the interest or pleasure derived from it. According to Benson & Hedges
research 2004; northern part of Nigeria where the weather seems hot recorded
high sales in the purchase of cigarettes.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SMOKING
Among Adolescents, smoking has been shown to have harmful effects on
all parts of the digestive system, contributing to such common disorders as
heartburn and peptic ulcers. It also increases the risk of Crohn’s disease and
possibly gallstones. Smoking seems to affect the liver, too, by changing the way
it handles drugs and alcohol. Infact, there seems to be enough evidence to stop
smoking solely on the basis of digestive distress (Gerstein, 1996).
Heartburn
Heartburn is common among people who smoke. Heartburn happens
when acidic juices from the stomach splash into the oesophagus. Normally a
muscular valve at the lower end of the oesophagus, the lower oesophageal
sphincter (LES) keeps the acid solution in the stomach and out of the
oesophagus. Smoking decreases the strength of the oesophageal valve, thereby
allowing stomach acid to reflux or flow backward into the oesophagus (Agosti,
1994).
Grumman (1998) also stated that smoking seems to promote the
movement of bile salts from the intestine to the stomach, which makes the
stomach acid more harmful. Finally, smoking may directly injure the oesophagus
making it less able to resist further damage from refluxed fluids.
Peptic Ulcer
A peptic ulcer is an open sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum,
the first part of the small intestine. Though, the exact cause of ulcers is not
known. A relationship between smoking cigarettes and ulcers, especially are
more likely to occur, less likely to heal and more likely to cause death in smokers
than in non-smokers. This is because smoking does seem to be one of several
factors that work together to promote the formation of ulcers. For Example,
some research suggests that smoking might increase a person’s risk of infection
with the bacterium Helicobacter pylon (H. Pylon). Most peptic ulcers are caused
by this bacterium (Shiffman, Paty & Rohay, 1999).
Stomach acid is also important in producing ulcers. Normally, most of this
acid is buffered by the food we eat. Most of the unbuffered acid that enters the
duodenum is quickly neutralized by sodium bicarbonate, a naturally occurring
alkali produced by the pancreas. Some studies show that smoking reduces the
bicarbonate produced by the pancreas, interfering with the neutralization of acid
in the duodenum. Other studies suggest that chronic cigarette smoking may
increase the amount of acid secreted by the stomach. In other words, people
who smoke are likely to develop an ulcer especially a duodenal ulcer, ulcers in
smokers are less likely to heal quickly in response to otherwise effective
treatment (Cromwell & Bartosch, 1997)
Crohn’s Disease
Crohn’s disease causes inflammation deep in the lining of the intestine.
The disease, which causes pain and diarrhoea, usually affects the small intestine,
but it can occur anywhere in the digestive tract. Prochaska (1993). Research
shows that current and fanner smokers have a higher risk of developing Crohn’s
disease than non-smokers do. Among people with the disease, smoking is
associated with a higher rate of relapse, repeat surgery, and immune
suppressive treatment. In all areas, the risk for women whether current or
former smokers is slightly higher than for men. While smoking increases the risks
of Crohn’s disease is unknown, but some theories suggest that smoking might
lower the intestine’s defense, decrease blood flow to intestines or cause immune
system changes that result in inflammation.
Liver Disease
The liver IS an important organ that has many functions. Among other
things, the liver is responsible for processing drugs, alcohol and other toxins to
remove is evidence that smoking alters the ability of the liver to handle such this
may influence the does of medication necessary to treat an illness. Some
researches also suggest that smoking can aggravate the course of liver disease c
intake (Muter & Rolmick, 1996).
Gallstone
Cunningham (1996) in his work, suggested that smoking may increase the
risk of development gallstones and that the risk of developing gallstones and that
the risk may be higher for women. However, research results on these topics are
not consistent, and more study is needed.
TREATMENT OF SMOKING
“Medication is effective only when accompanied by a psychosocial
therapy” (Fiore, 1990). The food and Drug Administration label an all-smoking
treatment products states they are” recommended for use as part of a
comprehensive behavioral smoking treatment programme”. The statement is
based on the clinical belief that for “traditional” drug dependencies such as
alcohol, opioids and smoking, medication alone cannot induce stress. However,
Hughes (1993) gave this following as self practice which are as follows:
1. Staying away from other smokers.
2. Be a campaigner against the use of cigarette and tobacco.
3. Engage yourself in exercise and long walk.
4. Do not go hungry for a long period.
5. Avoid being lonely but engage yourself with things that are constructive.
6. Get rid of all cigarette products in your possession.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The area of cigarette smoking among adolescents is probably one of the
best examples of science helping out policy. To continue to more forward, we
must examine our beliefs about smoking its causes, effect treatments and
change them when the science contradicts them.
Based on these factors examined, the recommendations are
1. Drug Education especially smoking which is rampant among adolescents
should be taught at all levels of education particularly the secondary and
tertiary institutions.
2. Parents should guide their children by giving them proper upbringing. They
should always lay good examples for their children.
3. Parents should also know the type of company their children m with. This will
help such parent to- detect any change in the behaviour of their children.
4. Government should ban the advertising of cigarette on television in cider to
give a sound stand as regards the Decree No 20 of 1990.
5. Teachers should educate students about cigarette smoking, its and effect of
the body.
6. The government should create awareness programmes for students in both
secondary & tertiary institutions warning them against smoking.
REFERENCES
Agosti, V.(1994). The efficacy of controlled trials of alcohol misuse treatment in
maintaining
abstinence:
a
meta-analysis.
International Journal of
Addict/on, 31,759-769 (Medline).
Bensen & Hedges Research (2004). The sales of cigarette according to region.
http://www.cigarettesmoking.org
Blame, J D. (1995). Cigarette smoking and public enlightenment. New York;
National Institute for Drug Abuse.
Cromwell, J. & Bartosch W.J,(1997). Cost-effectiveness of the clinical practice
recommendation in the AHCPR Guideline for Smoking Cessation. JAMA
1997:1758:1759-1766
Cunningham, J. (1996).Advice versus extended treatment for cigarette smoking:
controlled study. British Journal of Addiction, 93, 159-170 (Medline)
Fiore, M.C. (1990). Pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation: an update.
Rockville; National Institute for Drug abuse.
Gerstein D.R, & Harwood, H.J.(1996). Treating drug problems: a study of the
evolution, effectiveness and financing of public and private drug treatment
system. Washington, DC National Academy press.
Gitchell, J.M t1997). Public health benefit or over-the-counter n/cot/he
medications. Tobacco Control, 6,306-310(Abstract)
Gruman, J. (1998). Health hazards and tobacco smoking. Chicargo; Saunders W.
B. Co. Ltd. Hollis, J.F (1992).Patent referral to a smoking cessation
program: who follows through? Journal of Family Practitioner, 34,739-
744(Medilne)
Hughes, J. R, (1995). Combining behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy for
smoking cessation: an update. In: Onken LS, Blaine JD, Boren JJ, eds.
Integrating behavior therapies with medication in the treatment of drug
dependence. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 921109 National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph.
Hughes, J . R. (1999). Co-morbidity and smoking Nicotine Tobacco Research, (In
press).
Miller, W. R, & Rolnick, S. (1996). Motivational interviewing: preparing people to
change addictive behavior. Now York: Guilford Press.
Parkinson, M.D. (1999). Health insurance coverage for smoking cessation service
Health Education, 20:185-206 (Medline)
Pinney, J . M.; Glynn, T, & Gruman, J. (1998). Treating tobacco dependence in
thee US:ad-hoc group findings and recommendation. Washington, DC:
Center for the Advancement of Health.
Prochaska, J.O. DiClemente, C.C & Velicer, W.F, (1993). Standardized,
individualized, interactive and personalized self-help programs for smoking
cessation. Health Psychology, 12,399- 405 (Medline)
Rolnick, S. (1998). Tobacco and society. Maryland; Lippincott Press Ltd.
Shiffman, 5, Paty, J .A & Rohay, J. (1999). The efficacy of computer-tailored
smoking cessation material as a supplement to nicotine patch therapy
used to quit smoking in the United State
Surgeon General (2004). Cigarette smoking rate in the US and developing
countries. http://www.tobaccosmoking.org
United States Department of Education (1999). Pharmacotherapy for smoking
cessation: invalidated assumptions, anomalies and suggestions for further
research. Journal of Consultant Clinical Psychologist, 6,751 -760 (Medline)