NIGERIAN JOURNAL
OF
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND EVALUATION
A Publication of the National Association of
Educational Researchers and Evaluators
Volume 1, No. 1,1999
Table of Contents
Content
Seeing is believing: Direct observation and school management research
Dr. (Mrs.) Yetunde Ijaiya...................................................................
Page
1
An evaluation of the achievement of mathematics educational objectives
for SSS III students in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State
Dr. A. A. Akinlua...........................................................................
6
Reporting the results of educational evaluation
Dr. E.R.I. Afolabi...........................................................................
11
An overview of some techniques of evaluating counselling and counsellor
Education programmes in Nigeria
Mrs. Florence F. Akande..................................................................
17
An examination of cheating behaviour among secondary school students
Mrs. B. A. Omoteso........................................................................
24
Comparative analysis of the performance of students in measurement and
Evaluation course at Kwara State College of Education, Ilorin between
1994-1997
B. V. Landu...................................................................................
28
Factors responsible for students' lack of interest in social studies
O. E. Ojedokun and A. C. Anise..........................................................
33
Concept and Scope of Educational Research
J. B. Awolola...............................................................................
37
The place of research in educational administration
O. A. Adegun..............................................................................
42
v
SEEING IS BELIEVING: DIRECT OBSERVATION AND SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT RESEARCH
Dr. (Mrs.) Yetunde Ijaiya
Department of Educational Management,
University of Ilorin.
ABSTRACT
The paper observes the increasing interest by educational managers to find solutions to
educational problems through research but decried the over-reliance on questionnaires for data collection.
This paper therefore provides guidelines for effective use of observational methods. It explains the concept
and types of observation methods, their merits and limitations for data collection. The issues of validity and
reliability of observation methods are also discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Management is an important determinant
of school effectiveness. Most school problems are
also known to be management - based. Poorly
supervised schools are likely to be poor in
achievements and vice versa. As if in realization
of the important role of management in school
life, researchers arc showing increasing interest in
educational management. There have been several
studies on leadership behaviours of school heads,
teachers' job satisfaction and morale, job
performance and productivity, school inspection,
classroom management and discipline, school
finance, etc (Oyedeji, 1995, Oladimeji, 1995,
Ijaiya, 1998, Okhawere, 1998, Oluchukwu, 1998).
Influenced by the positivist (scientific) school of
thought, most of the studies were devoted to
finding relationship between aspects of school
management or behaviours which are thought to
influence others particularly pupils achievement.
Omoregie, for example, for example, (1995)
investigated the relationship between teachers'
morale and the authoritorianism of school heads
and found a significant relationship between
them. Some of the studies significant relationship
between them. Some of the studies also attempted
to find out if significant difference exist between
certain variables or teachers and principals' or
students' opinions (Peretomode, 1995, Ogundele,
1995, Okhawere, 1998, Ijaiya, 1998).
However, a common factor in most of
these studies is the methodology employed
particularly the data collection procedure. Most of
the studies adopted survey design with the
questionnaire as the data gathering instrument.
The samples invariably consist of principals,
teachers and their students whose opinions were
obtained via questionnaires. The implication here
is that researchers are attempting to understand
what happens in schools through the minds of the
same people whose role is under examination.
How accurate or objective can such data be?
While questionnaires remain popular over the
years and has its own merits, chief which are
opportunity to sample large number of subjects
and improved gcneralisability, its exclusive use in
research into school management to the exclusion
of direct observation calls into question the
validity and reliability of such data and the
conclusion that can be drawn from them.
Questionnaires, as popular as they are in
research methodology do have some inherent
weaknesses. First, the objectivity or honesty of
the respondent is not absolute especially when
questions border on personal information he is
ashamed of. Second, it is prone to bias. The
respondents view might be coloured by his own
personality which may not represent the correct
position of the situation. Third, it does not lend
itself to probing deeper into responses. External
problem of the questionnaire has to do with
teachers' general apathy towards completing
them. Researchers have had to beg teachers to
help complete questionnaires, some of who do not
bother to do so, while some leave many items
either untouched or mixed up in the process of
ticking. A fact that suggests halfhearted attention
or disinteredness.
The Problem
This article in motivated by the paucity of studies
employing direct observation of school activities
in spite of the urgent need for them. Even though
a tradition of ethnography (by anthropogists and
sociologists) and classroom observation had been
well established in countries like U.S.A and U.K.
for over four decades, it is virtually non-existent
here. Researchers here have shielded away from
entering the school or classroom to observe the
situation by themselves.
1
This is probably due to the relative case
which questionnaires can be administered and
the data analysed compared with direct
observation (Stubhs and Dalamount, 1976).
Teachers can help administer the questionnaires
for pick-up later. Direct observation on the other
hand, is morestaking. It requires the physical
presence of the researcher for a whole day, a
week or more or even a year depending on the
purpose of the study. However, the correlation
between questionnaire data and what actually
happens in schools remains unclear as noted by
Stubbs and Dalamont (1976). Explain what
direct observation methodology is, types of
observational methods, their merits, limitations
and data analysis. Also, issues of validity and
reliability are discussed with guidelines for using
observational methods effectively.
1)
Naturalistic Observation:
Here the ecological unit or behavioural
setting defined as the ordinary typical everyday
behaviour of the subjects is not tampered with or
is allowed to unfold without any intervention
intended. In some cases, the subjects of the
study are made unaware that they are being
observed. Though this is very difficult to
achieve, it can be managed. One way of
doing that is to appear many times in the location
prior to observation so that the subject get
used to seeing the researcher and so do not
have any suspicion i.e. his appearance is gradual
(Schweight, 1994).
Naturalistic observation is particularly
ideal for obtaining information about naturally
occurring behaviours. For some studies it is the
only option. Locations could be a school field,
assembly hall etc. For a researcher who is
interested in studying school life for a whole day
or a week or for longer period, naturalistic
observation is the best approach. School
inspectors, for example, do intend to observe the
school activities in the natural form especially
during full-scale inspection. The limitation,
however, is that their presence especially with
advanced notice always constitute some
intervention because schools then emback on
window-dressing to satisfy the inspectors.
Sociologists and anthropologists have employed
naturalistic observation to obtain vital
information about life in some communities or
ecological settings.
DIRECT
OBSERVATION
METHODOLOGY: WHAT IT IS
Social Science of which school
management is a part is about the study of
human behaviour the old adage 'seeing is
believing' is very much applicable. Direct
observation involves the physical presence of the
researcher to observe and record events both
verbal and non-verbal as they occur. This is "the
greatest asset or unique element of observation
over other data collection device" (Adams and
Schvaneveldt, 1985). Observational method is
much more than simply watching people or
event. It has to be carefully planned and properly
executed to derive its full benefits.
2)
Observation With Intervention
At times, some intervention is necessary
in the behavioural setting as the appropriate step
towards answering a research question. The
degree of intervention may vary however. Three
categories of intervention have been identified:-i)
Participant
observation
(ii)
Structured
observation and (iii) Field experiment
(Schwcigert, 1994).
TYPES OF OBSERVATION METHODS
Development in social science research
including classroom research has generated
many observation techniques.
Observation as a data - gathering
technique can be viewed from two basic
perspectives which influence the researcher's
decision-making about methodology namely (i)
The degree to which the natural ecology of the
study is to be tampered with i.e. the extent of
intervention by the researcher; and (ii) the
approach or method used in observing and
recording the data. In other words, observational
studies differ in the amount of intervention
imposed by the researcher and in the instrument
of observation. Based on intervention, two types
of studies can be identified namely: (l)
Naturalistic observation and (2) Observation
with intervention. Between the two extremes arc
different degrees of intervention (Schweight,
1994).
Participant Observation:This
is
intervention by participation i.e. The researcher
is an active participant in the activity he is
observing in its natural setting. He may disguise
or undisguise i.e. the subjects may not know that
he is watching them or they may be aware. This
method assists the researcher to obtain better
insight (an insider's view) about the behavioural
setting through his participation. A lecturer on
sabbatical can conveniently employ this method
to gather information about the reality of
management in the host school.
2
Through this same advantage, the
participant observer may get so much involved
in the activity to the extent that his own
behaviour may change and his observation
becomes biased. He might become sympathetic
or disgusted. To avoid this pitfall, Schweight,
(1994) suggested a careful definition or
delimitation of the study or the behaviours to be
observed and recorded prior to joining in the
activity. The researcher should also resist the
temptation to shift observation to new
developments during participation. The tools for
participant observation include, watching, asking
non-directive
questions,
listening
or
eavesdropping. Data recording could be carried
out immediately after the event in private or in
the presence of the other participants as in notetaking during teaching practice and inspection.
Objectivity is however highly essential. (Adams
and Schvanelvetdt, 1985).
of the experiment. (Schweigert, 1994).
II METHODS OF OBSERVING AND
RECORDING OF DATA
As earlier mentioned, observational
studies can be distinguished by the manner in
which the observation is carried out and the data
recorded. Two groups can be identified namely
(i) Formal rating techniques and (ii) Informal
types. A researcher has to determine which to
use before the observation begins.
i) Formal Rating Techniques:- In
formal
rating scales, what to observe is pre-determined
and specified. It therefore imposes absolute
structure and direction on what to observe. It
deals with only observable or overt behaviours
and also ignores all other behaviours not
included in the rating scale.
Rating scales have the advantage of
providing specific information. Data arising from
them demand "less synthesizing and organizing
by the researcher" (Adams and Schvaneveldt,
1985) p.234. In addition, their validity and
reliability are much easier to establish and the
more structured, the better the chances of
determining high level of reliability in
measurement.
The weakness of formal rating scales
however is the limitation of scope of behaviour
observed. Formal rating scales are already
popular devices in teacher education for teaching
practice evaluation of student teachers.
Structured Observation:This
is
intervention in which the researcher introduces
or imposes some minimal or substantial control
on the activity he is observing. He may or may
not participate. For example, a new rule (no
break period for that day) may be introduced by
the researcher with the cooperation of the
principal and he observes as well as records how
students react to the change in the schools daily
routine.
Field experiment:These are highly
controlled observational studies but still,
occurring in natural settings. In such studies a
behaviour that is relatively stable referred to as
the independent variable is manipulated by the
researcher who measures its effect on another
behaviour referred to as the dependent variable.
The intent usually is to find out whether a
significant relationship or significant difference
exists between or among the two or more
variables. This is usually stated using
hypotheses.
Field experiments, when properly
conducted may have greater external validity i.e.
Its generalisability beyond the specific subjects
than laboratory experiments. Their main
drawbacks however lie in possible confounds
such as non-equivalent groups, experimenter bias
or expectations, demand characteristics (i.e.
Subjects being influenced by any inkling
gathered about the purpose of the study and
which influence the outcomes of the
experiment), unequal treatment of the groups,
apart from the independent variable etc. All of
these are capable of limiting the internal validity
(ii) Informal Rating Techniques:- These
are
less structured meaning that they permit more
freedom of recording information. It involves
note-taking, diary keeping and gathering
information from informants. This is more
suitable for participant observation technique. To
its credits, informal rating scale could be high in
scope of behaviours covered and rich in
information. The researcher however has to
organize and synthesize the data so obtained
which can be cumbersome. Its major weakness
lies in the difficulty of establishing its reliability
and validity, though not impossible.
Guidelines for Effective use of Observational
Methods
Bogden (1972) cited by Adams and
Schvaneveldt (1985) made the following
suggestions:i)
recording data immediately
after the experience to avoid forgetting vital
information;
3
(ii)
recording before discussing with any
other person.
iii)
being careful in recording events
sequentially noting the setting, the actors and
important conversation. To these, Adams and
Schvanneveldt (1984) added.
iv)
remembering to record time of the day
and transitional flow between events as well as
v)
distinguish between raw data and
interpretive data.
vi)
The observer must be an intelligent,
insightful person and a good listener who must
be able to detach himself from the subjects of
observation.
vii)
providing sufficient time for observing
and recording.
viii)
honest or objective recording is highly
essential.
ix)
combining observation with interviews
and questionnaire especially open-ended type.
direct a behaviour is measured, the more one can
trust its validity.
External validity or generalisability of
observational studies has been subject of
controversy while naturalistic observations are
considered more generalisable beyond the
specific study, and others with varying degrees
(Schweigert, 1994). Cronbach (1975) cited by
Paton (1980) canvasses for caution in applying
generalization in educational research, noting
that social phenomena are too variable and too
context-bound
to
lend
themselves
to
generalization. Delamont and Hamilton (1986)
however believed that "despite their diversity,
individual
classrooms
share
many
characteristics" and the same is true across
schools such that "though the detailed study of
one particular context it is still possible to clarify
relationships, pinpoint critical processes and
identify common phenomena" (p.36).
Tools for Recording Observations
Recording observations have been made
easier through technological development. There
are now audio-visual aids, (e.g. camcorder, audio
recorders, Television etc) that can be used for
recording and play-back. Researchers here may
complain of inavailability of these materials in
the universities or inadequate funding of research
from which they can be purchased. However,
researchers can make do with rented video
recorders. They are particularly good for postobservation analysis. They, however, cannot
replace the researcher's presence. Note-taking
still remains a very powerful tool of recording
observations.
Reliability:This is concerned with how
consistent one gets the same result from the same
procedure of data collection. It is generally
resolved by calculating inter-observer reliability
using the results of two or more observer
reliability as well as split-half reliability.
CONCLUSION
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
In investigating school management,
direct observation is
highly essential.
Management is about human behaviour and
direct experience provides valuable insight into
their intricacies. It also affords the researcher the
opportunity of observing teachers and students in
their natural setting. It thus have the advantage of
improved validity and reliability over
questionnaires whose objectivity is doubtful.
This article therefore offers useful explanations
and guidelines on types, of observational
methods, their analysis, merits and limitations as
well as their validity and reliability.
For educational managers it is not
enough for us to conclude that some principals or
school heads are autocratic or that teachers lack
job satisfaction or their motivation is affected by
Principals" leadership styles etc, we need to go
further to find out how all these conditions are
manifested in the teachers' performance of their
daily duties in school. Direct observation is
therefore advocated in combination with other
methods especially interviews for data
collection. Observation methods must however,
be approached with caution and patience to avoid
jumping into conclusions or imposing our own
values on teachers and students.
ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA
Use of formal rating scales will
normally yield quantitative data and lend
themselves more readily to statistical analysis.
Informal rating techniques will on the other hand
give qualitative data, hence qualitative data
analysis. The data can however be converted to
quantitative data and then subjected to statistical
analysis. Qualitative analysis permits more
detailed description than quantitative analysis.
The research question and hypotheses determine
which of the procedures to select.
ISSUES OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
OF
OBSERVATIONAL
METHODS
VALIDITY
It refers to the extent to which a
measurement tool or technique measures what it
purports to measure. A simple way to look at the
validity of observational technique is that
suggested by Schweigert (1994) that the more
4
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5