EFFECTIVENESS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT WORKSHOP IN REDUCING
STRESS AND INCREASING APTITUDE FOR BUILDING SOCIAL CAPITAL
Sheila Regina Murray-Johnson
B.A, California State University, Northridge, 1996
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2010
EFFECTIVENESS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT WORKSHOP IN REDUCING
STRESS AND INCREASING APTITUDE FOR BUILDING SOCIAL CAPITAL
A Project
by
Sheila Regina Murray-Johnson
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Jude Antonyappan, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Sheila Regina Murray-Johnson
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format
manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for
the Project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Teiahsha Bankhead, Ph.D., L.C.S.W
Division of Social Work
iii
________________
Date
Abstract
of
EFFECTIVENESS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT WORKSHOP IN REDUCING
STRESS AND INCREASING APTITUDE FOR BUILDING SOCIAL CAPITAL
by
Sheila Regina Murray-Johnson
This project examined the effectiveness of brief stress management workshop on stress
reduction and increasing the aptitude for building social capital capacity. Data for this
project derived from study participants who were one of the three groups of graduate
students who participated in the stress management workshops conducted as part of a
study on stress management to increase the aptitude for social capital. Study findings
indicate that there is a moderate to high level of stress among graduate students. There
was a moderate correlation between the students stress scores and their characterization
of the workshop as being helpful. Conclusions from this study lead to practice
implications that revolve around the need to plan and implement more stress reduction
programs to alleviate stress among college students and increase their aptitude for
building social capital.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Jude Antonyappan, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I must first give thanks to God for giving me the strength and perseverance to get
through this program. It is only through God’s grace and mercy that all things are
possible.
To the best men in my life, my three sons: Isaiah Amir, Israel Ahmad and Ilijah
Armon, I love you and through thick and thin it’s all about you guys. I hope that I have
inspired all of you to be the best people in life. The world is yours. I love you; appreciate
you and thank you guys, so much for loving me during all the crazy times.
To my mother, Chlora Murray, thank you for loving me, pushing, encouraging
and reminding me of why we do what we do in this world.
To all my family and friends much love for all your support.
To my thesis advisor, Dr. Jude Antonyappan, words cannot express the gratitude I
have for you. Dr Antonyappan you are a phenomenal person. I am so blessed to have had
the opportunity to begin and end my Masters Program with you in my life. Thank you for
all your support, guidance and patience.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. ix
Chapter
1. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND OVERVIEW ………………………………….1
The Problem ...................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ............................................................................. 2
Coping Skills..................................................................................................... 3
Stress and Employment......................................................................................4
Stress and College Students ...............................................................................5
Suicide and Students… ......................................................................................6
Social Networks .................................................................................................7
Student Population at Sacramento State ............................................................7
Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................8
Study Questions ..............................................................................................10
Definition of Terms..........................................................................................10
Assumptions.....................................................................................................12
Limitations........... ............................................................................................12
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................ 13
Introduction…….. ........................................................................................... 13
General Aspects of Stress ............................................................................... 13
The Impact of Stress on Our Lives and Health ................................................14
Positive Stress… ..............................................................................................15
Negative Stress………………. .......................................................................16
Stress Theory by Selye ....................................................................................17
Stress Theory by Lazarus .................................................................................18
Role Performance and Stress on College Students ..........................................20
vi
Role of Stress on Vulnerable Populations .......................................................22
Stress and Black College Students...................................................................23
Black College Women Struggles .....................................................................24
Latina College Women Struggles ....................................................................26
Stress and Social Stressors Faced by Women in Graduate School Programs .26
The Effectiveness of a Stress Management Workshop....................................28
Stress and Social Network Support Systems ...................................................29
3. METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 33
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 33
Study Design ................................................................................................... 33
Profile of the Participants................................................................................ 34
Study Purpose ..................................................................................................34
Sources of Data ...............................................................................................35
Human Subject Protocol ..................................................................................35
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................35
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 36
4. DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 37
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 37
Demographics ..................................................................................................37
Findings ...........................................................................................................37
T-Test for Paired Data .....................................................................................38
Aptitude for Social Capital ..............................................................................39
Correlation of Workshop and Stress Test Table...............................................48
Summary ......................................................................................................... 49
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................50
Summary……………………………………………………………………. .50
Summary of the Study Findings from the Tables…………………………….51
Stress Workshop .........…….…………………….…………………………...52
Micro Level………………………………………………………. .................52
vii
Macro Level. ....................................................................................................53
Mezo Level. .....................................................................................................54
Implications for Social Work Practice. ............................................................55
Research……….…………………………………………………. .................56
Appendix A. Stress Checklist Questions..................................... ..................57
Appendix B. Social Capital Measurement Tool Pre- Test…………… ........ 58
Appendix C. Social Capital Measurement Tool Post- Test……………… ...61
References……………… ................................................................................64
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Table 4.1 T-Test for Paired Data Assessing the Statistical Significance of Pre
and Post Stress Test Score Differences………………………………………..38
2.
Table 4.2 Average Difference of Pre- Stress and Post Stress Scores………….39
3.
Table 4.3 Effectiveness of the Stress Management Workshop and Number of
Group Involvement…………………………………………………………….40
4.
Table 4.4 Involvement and Participation in Student Group…………………...41
5.
Table 4.5 Involvement and Participation in Community Group………………42
6.
Table 4.6 Involvement and Participation in Neighborhood Group…………...43
7.
Table 4.7 Involvement and Participation in Parent Group…………………….44
8.
Table 4.8 Involvement and Participation in Spiritual Network/Church Group.44
9.
Table 4.9 Involvement and Participation in Political Advocacy Group ……...45
10.
Table 4.10 Confident about Developing a Circle of Persons for Meeting
Needs………………………………………………………………………….46
11.
Table 4.11 Developing Mentoring Relationship for Making Important
Decisions………………………………………………………………………46
12.
Table 4.12 Frequency of Participants Maintaining Contact with Family and
Friends……….……………………………………………………………......47
13.
Table 4.13 Correlations of Workshop and Pre and Post Stress Scores……….48
ix
1
Chapter 1
PROBLEM STATEMENT AND OVERVIEW
The Problem
According to the World Health Organization, stress is the number one health
problem in the industrialized world. The problem is so prevalent that the American
Academy of Family Physicians reports that the majority of patient visits are for stressrelated problems (Manganiello, 2009). The American Medical Association (AMA)
reports that stress is a factor in more than seventy-five percent of sickness today
(Manganiello, 2008).
American Psychological Association (2008) reported that two -thirds of
Americans say they are likely to seek help for stress. Forty- four percent of Americans
within the 18-29 age group and forty-six percent between the 30-49 age group stated they
are concerned about the levels of stress in their everyday lives. Fifty- two percent of
respondents reported lying awake at night or having insomnia as a direct result of stress.
Forty-eight percent reported overeating or eating unhealthy foods to manage their stress,
while one in four skipped a meal in the last month due to stress. As a result of the direct
stress, many Americans reported the situations causing them the greatest stress as we
entered into the year, 2010 was finances at sixty-three percent, forty-four percent stated
national security, and thirty-one percent reported job security. When stressed, Americans
are notorious for developing bad habits. The coping mechanism many Americans use has
led to twenty-two percent of the population to have poor eating habits which has resulted
2
in higher rates of obesity and fourteen percent reported drinking alcohol and sixteen
percent reported smoking to manage their stress. Some did choose positive ways to deal
with stress; forty-five percent use exercise, forty-four percent utilize religious and
spiritual activity and fourteen percent utilize massage and yoga (Manganiello, 2008).
When individuals are stressed, their ability to obtain social capital is decreased.
With the assistance of the stress management workshops, it is hoped that the individual
will learn to manage the stress therefore increase their social capital. This study
specifically examines the effectiveness of stress management workshop for students with
the assumption that when stress is at the lowest levels, the capacity for social capital
building will increase.
Background of the Problem
Stress is a common element in the lives of every individual, regardless of race or
cultural background (Garrett, 2001). The current statistics for workplace stress reported
that sixty-five percent of workers believe stress is directly related to their occupations,
twenty-nine percent believe that management is doing nothing about it, and forty-nine
percent believe that stress is at a high when there is a lack of confidence in the
management team. Studies show that chronic job stress can not only raise your blood
pressure, double your risk of dying suddenly or of dying slowly from heart disease or
diabetes, but it can also make you psychologically miserable and destroy your marriage
while having a devastating impact on your children. Job stress is now the single greatest
source of stress for American, European and Asian adults.
3
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (2001) reported the reason for job stress is due to, “The nature of work is
changing at whirlwind speed. Now, more than ever before, job stress poses a threat to the
health of workers and, in turn, to the health of organizations. Job stress is now the single
greatest threat to employee health.” (Manganiello, 2008).
Coping Skills
The mechanisms utilized by Americans as means for coping with stress vary
within each ethnic group. Material provided from Mental Health America, cited at eightytwo percent Blacks were by far more likely than other groups to use prayer or meditation
as a way to deal with stress and anxiety. Thirty percent of Native Americans and twentyeight percent non-Hispanic Whites are more likely to engage in unhealthy coping skills to
deal with stress. White respondents drink, smoke or do drugs when feeling stressed out.
Asian Americans are least likely to smoke, drink or use drugs to cope. At seventy-seven
percent, Asians also have the highest likelihood of talking to a family member/friend or
exercising to manage stress levels. In regards to gender, the report cited forty-two percent
of women were significantly more likely than thirty-one percent of men to eat as a coping
mechanism for stress. Forty-two percent of people living with mental illnesses are more
likely to drink, smoke or do drugs to relieve stress, or take prescribed medications, thirtyseven percent talk with family, seventy-four percent eat, forty-five percent cut or injure
themselves, three percent or fewer than one percent of overall pointed to self-injury
(National Mental Health Association, 2008).
4
Stress and Employment
High levels of stress or even low levels sustained over a long period of time can
lead to reduced employee performance and thus require action by management. From the
individuals standpoint even low levels of stress are likely to be perceived as undesirable.
Many workers reported that management fails to empower them with the ability to
perform effectively. What management may consider as ‘a positive stimulus that keeps
the adrenaline running’ is a very likely to be seen as ‘excessive pressure’ by the
employee. Stress has an emotional impact on all type of organization.
The United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2007)
report stated stress related disorders are the most prevalent reason for worker disability.
According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008), neurotic reaction to
stress is the fourth disabling workplace injury. A 1990 study by Foster Higgins & Co
indicated that corporate health benefits cost the average company forty-five percent of
after tax profits with sixty to ninety percent of those benefits going to assist workers with
symptoms that are directly related to stress.
Reports by APA (2004) regarding stress and the workplace, sixty-two percent of
Americans say work has a significant impact on stress levels, which is higher than home
stress. The majority of workers at forty-five percent list job insecurity as a significant
impact on work stress and sixty-one percent stated that heavy workloads rounds out the
work place stress. What was universal throughout reports on workplace stress was the
fact that one in four workers has taken a day off from work to cope with stress.
5
Stress and College Students
A survey conducted by the Associated Press and Music Television Station (MTV)
(2007), reported the stress of college students throughout the United States found that
four out of ten college students report they feel stressed often. One out of five say they
feel stressed most of the time. One out of four students experienced daily stress and one
in ten had thoughts of suicide. Obviously, stress is a major problem for college students
throughout the United States. Stress causes many issues with emotional and physical
health. One of the most frightening consequences of college student stress is suicide due
to depression. College students have a unique cluster of stressful experiences or stressors
(Garrett, 2001). According to Ross, Neibling & Heckert (1999), there are several
explanations for increased stress levels in college students. First, students have to make
significant adjustments to college life. Second, because of the pressure of studies, there is
strain placed on interpersonal relationships. Third, housing arrangements and changes in
lifestyle contribute to stress experienced by college students. In addition, students in
college experience stress related to academic requirements, support systems, and
ineffective coping skills. Tinto (1998) model of student progression indicated that based
on Sanford’s (1967) theory of challenge and support, there is a three-stage model of
college acclimation: (a) separation, (b) transition and (c) incorporation. Tinto suggested
that students need to learn what behaviors are necessary to be successful during their
college years. Stress has a direct relationship on the rate student’s graduate with a
bachelor’s degree and those who go on to attend graduate school. Stress is increased for
6
members of traditionally unrepresented minority groups. There needs to be a forum to
explore ways to minimize stress within these groups.
Suicide and Students
In 2005, the National College Health Assessment (NCHA) surveyed 17,000
college students. Twenty five percent of the students reported they have "felt so
depressed it was difficult to function" three to eight times in the past 12 months. Twentyone percent of the students reported that they "seriously considered suicide." In 2003, a
survey conducted at Penn State University (PSU) found that forty-two percent of their
students felt depressed at least once in the past year. Ten percent of PSU college students
seriously considered suicide. According to the 2005 National Survey of Counseling
Center Directors, 154 college students committed suicide. Suicide is the second leading
cause of death among college students. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) reported in 2007, that suicide rates have been rising steadily among the young and
had nearly tripled between 1952 and 1995 and by 2004, suicide was the third leading
cause of death among youth and young adults aged 10--24 years in the United States.
Data retrieved from the Big Ten Student Suicide Study (Silverman et al., 1997) from
1980-1990, indicated that 7.5 in every 100,000 students had successfully committed
suicide. The student suicide rate of 7.5 in every 100,000 was half the national suicide
rate, 15.0 in every 100,000 for a sample match by age, gender and race. The number of
suicides in the 20-24 age groups was forty-six percent and thirty-two percent among
graduate students. Older students 25 and over had significantly higher risks of suicide.
7
Social Networks
Billings and Moos (1981) suggested, “Social networks may serve as both a source
of a buffer against stress”. That is by creating a social network; an individual is risking
potential stress because of the inevitable eventual loss of a member of the network and or
potential conflicts that may arise between members. Currently at California State
University Sacramento (CSUS), to assist minority students with support and resources,
was the formation of the Black Alumni Chapter (BAC) that was founded in 2008. The
goal of the organization as stated by President Jackie Morris–Henderson “is to provide
professional, scholarship and social networking opportunities, and promote community
engagement and activism”. The back to school workshop held on September 24, 2009,
attended by this researcher, introduced the students to alumni and peers who are actively
involved in various aspects of campus life. The goal is to link undergraduate students
with a mentor who will provide the student with the social capital to be successful in
college life and employment for a prosperous future.
Student Population at Sacramento State
The total student population for CSUS in 2008-2009 was 29,011. The number of
undergraduates was 24,506 total students, with 18,690 full-time and 5,816 part-time.
4505 students were enrolled in a Masters Degree program with 2,459 full-time and 2,046
part-time. The gender data was woman 13,979 (57%) and men 10,527 (43%). Racial
identity data, Blacks 4,256 (7%), American Indian 227 (1%), Asian/Pacific Islanders
4,713 (19%), Latino/Latina 3,541(14%), Caucasian 9,801(40%), International 2% and
8
others 17%. The average age of the CSUS students was 23 years (College Profile, 2009).
Theoretical Framework
The Cognitive Relational Theory developed by Lazarus and Folkman, is a system of
psychotherapy based on the premise that distorted or dysfunctional thinking, which
influences a person's mood or behavior, is common to all psychosocial problems. The
focus of therapy is to identify the distorted thinking and to replace it with more rational,
adaptive thoughts and beliefs. The Cognitive Relational Theory assists the individual
with the adaption and management of stress in life by providing those who support them
with the tools to give assistance with strategies and interventions.
Bronfenbrenner, Ecological Theory of development reflects the influence of five
environmental systems, microsystems, mesosytems, exosystems, macrosystems and
chronosystems. Microsystems is defined as the setting in which the individual lives.
These contexts include the person's family, peers, school, and neighborhood. It is in the
micro system that the most direct interactions with social agents take place; with parents,
peers, and teacherTheMesosystem is the relationship between microsystems or
connections between contexts. The Exosystem involves links between a social setting in
which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context.
The Macrosystem describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts
include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and
ethnicity, and the chronosystem is the patterning of environmental events and transitions
over the life course, as well as socio-historical circumstances.
9
The Empowerment Theory defined by Robbins, Chatterjee, and Canda (1998) as
the process in which individuals and groups gain power, access to resources and control
over their lives. By utilizing the empowerment theory, students gain the ability to achieve
their personal goals and aspirations in that the theory is based on the concept that most
individuals have the power internally to make positive changes within their own lives.
The empowerment theory presents the idea that the power to change is in the individual.
It further addresses the idea that stratification, racism, oppression and inequality are all
parts of social barriers, which hinder an individual’s ability to succeed.
The need for self-esteem is seen as the basis for our identification with groups and
therefore our need to see the groups we belong to as positively distinctive is the Social
Identity Theory. The social identity theory contrasts with accounts of group formation,
which stress the functional basis for the existence of groups and intergroup conflict. In
the workplace, there is normally a mix of both functional and psychological reasons for
conflict between groups.
The Verbal Persuasion Model is used to encourage others, give instructions,
suggestions and advice presented in the form of counseling or coaching to illuminate the
positive and negative aspects of performance strategies. This includes feedback or
instructions about ones abilities and is administered by a credible, trustworthy source
(Gist & Mitchell, 1992). Verbal persuasion has been identified as a tool and instrument in
the development of self-efficacy.
10
Study Questions
This study was designed to examine the role of a brief stress management
workshop for graduate students and whether this reduction improves the perception of
aptitude for social capital building as indicated by the scores on the integrative
intelligence and social capital aptitude scale.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are relevant to this study.
Anxiety – Perceived to be a source of harm, loss threat or challenge.
Appraisal – A central concept in the transactional view of stress. The concept focuses
attention on the way someone understands the demands the environment is making of
him or her.
Aptitude – An individual’s ability to learn or to develop proficiency in an area if provided
with appropriate education or training.
Attitude – A personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or
events in a given manner that can, nevertheless, be changed or modified through training
as a sort of mental shortcut to decision making.
Burnout – A state of physical emotional, intellectual and spiritual exhaustion
characterized by feelings of helplessness and hopelessness (Kramen–Kahn Hansen,
1998).
Coping – A constantly changing set of cognitive and behavioral efforts used to manage
11
specific external and or internal demands one appraises as taxing or exceeding ones
resources (Lazarus, 1977).
Distress – Anxiety, severe strain or mental suffering resulting from exhaustion.
Eustress – The stress of achievement, triumph and exhilaration that provides life with
meaning and satisfaction.
Motivation – The extent to which an individual is engaged by the work role he or she
occupies.
Resiliency – The process of coping successfully or overcoming various levels of
adversity. The development of competence in the face of severe stress or hardships.
Self-actualization – The idea of a hierarchy of needs suggests that the desire to fulfill
one’s potential is the final cause of motivated behavior.
Self-concept – Totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to self
as an object (Matthews-Armstead, 2002).
Self-efficacy – The belief in one’s ability to perform a task, or more specifically, to
execute a specified behavior successfully.
Social Capital – The network of social ties (family, friends, neighbors, clubs, classmate,
etc.), who can provide information and access to employment, emotional and financial
support.
Social Network – Refers to the structure of social relationships. They relate to the
existence, quantity and type of relationships in a person’s life (Cohen, 1992).
12
Social Support – Is the physical and emotional comfort given to us by our family, friends,
co-workers and others.
Strain – The outcome of an inability to deal effectively with stressors.
Stress – Amount of physical or emotional pressure levied upon a person.
Stressor – A situation or event that has the potential to cause change or stress.
Stress Management Techniques – Employed to lower the levels of anxiety experienced
by an individual in order to improve performance.
Assumptions
The assumptions to be considered in this study include the ideals that this workshop
will have an impact on students stress and improve their aptitude for social capital. For
researchers the impact will be beneficial for developing strategies for helping their clients
build social capital.
Limitations
The study was conducted with a non-random convenient sample with the students
from the College of Health and Human Services of California State University
Sacramento (CSUS). The findings cannot be generalized to any other population as it has
limited external validity.
13
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
This literature review presents the six themes that emerged from the review of
journal articles, books, and electronic resources on the relevance and efficiency of Stress
management programs and the effect of stress on college students. The purpose of this
study was to examine the effectiveness of stress management workshop on graduate
students in the College of Health and Human Services at California State University. The
researcher hopes that the workshop will help them develop positive aptitude for social
capital building and stress management. This knowledge it is hoped will help them to
maximize their educational opportunities and leverage their human and social capital for
stress management and enhance their career advancement.
The themes discussed are general aspects of stress, positive and negative stress,
understanding of stress based on Selye and Lazarus, role performance and stress in
student’s lives, role of stress on vulnerable populations, stress and social stressors in
women and the effectiveness of stress management workshops.
General Aspects of Stress
Stress is a common element in the lives of every individual, regardless of race or
cultural background (Garrett, 2001). Stress is the response the body has to the demands
made upon it. Stress is a daily part of all-individual’s lives. Stress according to Heins, et
al., (1984) is not something that can be measured directly therefore it is usually assessed
14
using physiological measurements or self-report measures.
The most comprehensive model of stress is the Biopsychosocial Model of Stress
(Bernard & Krupatl, 1994) involves three components: external component, an internal
component and the interaction between the external and internal components. The
external component involves environmental events that precede the recognition of stress
and can elicit a stress response. The internal component is the set of neurological and
physiological reactions to stress. The interaction between external and internal
components, which involves the individual’s cognitive process.
The Impact of Stress on Our Lives and Health
The situations that occur in our daily lives are called stressors and the scale of
stress that we experience is directly related to how we react to the stressors. Everyone has
a different threshold for stress. The stress paradigm is severe stressors or change in life
events that are menacing or uncontrollable to some degree and produce a strain from
which individuals seek relief by engaging in coping activities intended to restore
equilibrium (Kleinman, 1980).
There are three different classifications of stress, which have an impact upon a
person. Acute stress is the most common form of stress and it comes from demands and
pressures of recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute
stress is temporary, considered thrilling and exciting in small dosages but exhausting
when there is a lot. Acute stress does not have enough time to cause extensive damage
and the symptoms are emotional distress, which is a combination of anger, irritability,
anxiety and depression. The physical symptoms are muscular problems, tension
15
headaches, back and jaw pain, muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles, tendon and
ligament problems. Physical issues also include stomach, gut, and bowel problems such
as heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhea, constipation and irritable bowel
syndrome. It also leads to elevated blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, sweaty palms, heart
palpitations, dizziness, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet shortness of breath and
chest pain. Episodic acute stress is a part of life for those whose lives are frequently
chaotic, disorderly and crisis driven. People who have episodic acute stress are over
aroused, short tempered, irritable, anxious and tense. The majority of the symptoms that
are evident in acute stress are evident for prolonged periods, and there is no relief due to
the sufferer being resistant to change. The final symptom is chronic stress, which is the
grinding stress that wears one down. Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds and lives.
Chronic stressors do not see any hope for the future; they never see a way out of a
miserable situation. Chronic stress kills through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke and
even cancer.
Positive Stress
Positive stressor or eustress as cited by Dr Hans Selye (1982) in our lives helps us
to thrive, excel and enjoy life. Positive reaction of stress can drive individuals to achieve
and to enhance their potential to the fullest. Positive stress is evident in increase
productivity at work, personal life; it is described as a feeling of happiness. When we are
positive in our attitude and ways, our immune system functions at an optimal level and
we are able to resist illness, infection and cancer. Positive stress influences your body to
produce a number of chemicals including endorphins, serotonin and dopamine, which
16
help to provide relaxation. Evidence supports the body pushes you to complete a job
because of the excitement and achievement that comes from the chemical your body
produces with positive stress.
Negative Stress
Negative stress is the parallel of positive in that it reduces our productivity in
work and play. When stress becomes chronic, serious physical or psychological problems
result. Some of these problems are lack of focus and concentration. There is a reduced
feeling of wellbeing, which makes individuals susceptible to illness. For some when
stress is high, heart attacks and panic attacks can occur. With negative stress, there are no
positive thoughts, which then lead to unfortunate situations, directly related to
preoccupation and the inability to focus and or concentrate. The symptoms that arise from
negative stress may also be found in the symptoms of depression. These symptoms
include avoiding social contact. Socializing is one of the basic human needs. The immune
system functions poorly and as stated, one is most susceptible to illness. A linkage has
been found between acute stress, heart disease and stroke. The physiological stress
response has serious affects on the heart and circulatory system, by increasing the heart
rate and restricting the arteries. Weight gain and loss is another symptom. Studies show
that the stress hormone, cortisol causes an increase in abdominal fat. Many people
become anorexic, bulimic and have binge eating disorders. Sleep difficulty is also
reported. Stress contributes to gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome,
ulcers and inflammatory bowel disease. Even if one does not experience this degree of
gastrointestinal issues, they do have stomach discomfort, nausea, constipation or diarrhea.
17
Studies show that when our brains are under negative stress, they manufacture an excess
amount of a hormone called ACTH. This hormone inhibits our body’s production of
white blood cells, which makes up our immune system and are vital for warding off
disease. Cancer is one of the diseases that studies have shown has been shown in
prevalent in those with high stressors. Due to it being a disease of a weakened immune
system. Stress when it turns into distress is capable of destroying your life. A certain
level of stress is necessary for optimal performances: however too much stress may result
in decreased performance and health. Stress has been shown to have a relationship with
suicidal ideation, smoking and drinking (Hudd, et al., 2000). Unmanaged stress is a major
cause of burn out and eventual impairment.
Stress Theory by Selye
According to Selye (1974), a noted pioneer in the field of stress theory, stress is a
"nonspecific response of the body to any demands made upon it". In other words, as
demands are made on an individual or as situations arise, the body attempts to adjust or
adapt to the situation in order to reestablish normalcy. It is further stated that there is a
series of physiological reactions that occur in response to environmental demands or any
noxious stimulus. Some familiar reactions to demands made on the body include
increased heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure and blood glucose level. Selye
defined stress as a non-specific or generalized response to a variety of environmental
stressors. This mobilization is referred to as general adaption syndrome. The general
adaption theory is characterized by three stages. The first stage is the alarm reaction in
18
which the body’s defenses against stress are activated. The second stage is the resistance
stage. In this stage, the organism adapts to the stressor. The final stage is the exhaustion
stage, which is characterized by the organism’s inability to resist, which in turn results in
a breakdown. Selye stated that depression and sometimes death can occur as a result of
exhaustion. It is difficult to define stress due to the many factors that contribute to it.
Selye (1982) stated that few people define the concept of stress in the same manner or
even bother to attempt a clear-cut definition. According to Selye, an important aspect of
stress is that a wide variety of dissimilar situations are capable of producing the stress
response such as fatigue, effort, pain, fear and even success. Dr Selye stated, “Stress is
the salt of life” and he coined the phrase “eustress” in that he believed strongly in good
stress.
Stress Theory by Lazarus
In the 14th century, the word stress was regarded as hardship, straits, adversity or
affliction (Lazarus, 1999). According to Lazarus (1999) the bases of appraisal theory is
that individuals are continuously assessing their relationship with the environment in
regards to their well-being. There are three kinds of appraising which include primary,
secondary and reappraisal. In primary, we evaluate whether or not what is occurring is
relevant to the individuals values, goals commitments, beliefs about self and the world
and situational intentions. When we appraise a situation as stressful, the event is seen as
harmful, threatening and challenging to ones growth. In the secondary appraisal, a person
forms an impression of his or her ability to control or cope with harm, threat or challenge.
19
Reappraisal deals with the changing nature of appraisals, new information is assessed and
that information may increase or decrease the stress.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) developed the model of Cognitive Relational
Theory to aid in explanation of the processes of stress and coping. The model assists
individuals with the adaption and management of stress in life by providing helpers and
educators with strategies and inventions. Lazarus and Folkman, viewed the effects of
stress as more than a response to environmental demands, but it is also related to personal
perception. If an individual perceives a situation as stressful, then it is indeed stressful. In
addition, if an individual is susceptible or vulnerable to the negative effects produced by
stressors, the situation may pose a threat or may be harmful to the individual.
Vulnerability is then defined as a lack of resources in a situation that holds some personal
importance. Furthermore, an individual's well-being may be at risk whenever their
resources to manage the stressful situation are limited or depleted. Overall, when multiple
demands are made on an individual, they usually experience intense feelings of stress
related to role-ambiguity, role-strain and role-overload (Dziegielewski, et al., 2004).
In Dr Lazarus, Transactional Model (1984), he defined stress as an imbalance
between people’s perception of the demands placed on them and their perception of the
resources available to cope with those demands. The model breaks the stressor-stress link
by proposing that if stressors are perceived as positive or challenging rather than a threat,
and if the stressed person is confident that he/she possesses adequate rather than deficient
coping strategies, stress may not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor.
20
The model proposes that stress can be reduced by helping stressed people change their
perceptions of stressors, providing them with strategies to help them cope and improve
their confidence in their ability to do so.
Role Performance and Stress on College Students
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development cited, “a critical developmental
task of adolescence is the achievement of autonomy, which is characterized as the ability
to make decisions independently and to manage life tasks with limited dependence on
others (Erikson, 1968). The college years are a time of exploration, growth and change
both in terms of a student’s intellectual development and in all other areas of
development. Colleges and universities have broadened the scope of their interest in
student lives, as theory and practice have shown the interrelationship between growth in
the intellectual area and growth in social vocational, emotional and other areas (Caple,
1996). College students across campuses are faced with a common set of situations to
handle. These situations include, but are not limited to, negotiating the academic
environment, living and interacting with strangers, mentally and physically separating
self and parents and dealing with financial responsibilities. Students must learn how to
manage their time and to balance the demands of classes and relationships. The National
College Health Association survey given yearly, has shown that stress has been the top
issue for college students since 2000. Out of 80,121 responses, thirty-three percent of the
students cited stress as the number one academic stressor. The top five impediments to
academic performance success were (1) stress, (2) cold/flu/sore throat, (3) sleep
21
difficulties, (4) concern for friends /family, (5) depression/anxiety disorder. Ross et al.,
(1999) cited the top five sources of stress for college students were; (1) change in sleep
habits, (2) vacations and breaks, (3) change in eating habits,(4) new responsibilities and
(5)increased class workload. Students experience stress over struggling to meet academic
demands, which include concern over grades. Older students during this time are also
learning to manage multiple roles and time constraints while being employed and taking
care of their families. Too much stress can interfere with preparation, concentration and
performance. Students have a fear of failure in relation to their grades and academic
work. To fall short of one’s or others’ expectations in school, job/athletics or activities
one risks both external and internal costs, threats to academic or career prospects,
disapproval, rejection, humiliation, guilt and hurt to self esteem , fear of failure can
motivate or tear a student apart (Schafer, 1996). Test anxiety has been reported as the
main cause of academic stress, which makes most students vulnerable to stress during
exam time. Stress can be a positive aspect of learning if students experience stress as a
challenge and exhibit an increased capacity to learn (Roberts & White, 1989).
College students have a unique cluster of stressful experiences or stressors
(Garrett, 2001). According to Ross, Neibling & Heckert (1999), there are several
explanations for increased stress levels in college students. First, students have to make
significant adjustments to college life. Second, because of the pressure of studies, there is
strain placed on interpersonal relationships. Third, housing arrangements and changes in
lifestyle contribute to stress experienced by college students. In addition, students in
22
college experience stress related to academic requirements, support systems, and
ineffective coping skills. As college student, there is a higher occurrence of stress. By
obtaining resources, and learning to control stress, students can be more productive
academically, socially and emotionally when they are provided with the tools to handle
stress. The National Strategy for Suicide Prevention’s Objective 4.3 calls for increasing
“the proportion of colleges and universities with evidence-based programs designed to
address serious young adult distress and prevent suicide” (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services , 2001).
Role of Stress on Vulnerable Populations
Minority students are dealing with stressors encountered by college students in
general, however their experiences are compounded by their struggles with social
alienation and feelings of pressure to assimilate (Dalton, 1991). Few stress models
incorporate ethnic and cultural considerations. According to critics of Holmes and Rahes,
their 1967 life events model, which measures life events omits events common to the
poor and or minorities (Thoits, 1983).
Phinney & Haas (2003) reported a unique set of stressful experiences among
ethnic minority, first generation college freshmen. The sources of stress included difficult
financial challenges, domestic responsibilities, responsibilities related to holding a job
while in school, and a heavy academic load. They also experienced conflicts in time
management, pressure associated with their academic workload and problems within
their family. Cultural imperialism involves the universalization of a dominant groups
23
experience and culture and establishing it as the norm (Young, 1990). Those living under
cultural imperialism find themselves defined by the dominant group. As Young (1990)
points out: “Consequently, the differences of women from men, American Indians or
African from Europeans, Jews from Christian become reconstructed as deviance and
inferiority. To the extent that women, Africans, Jews, and homosexuals must interact
with the dominant group whose culture mainly provided stereotyped images of them,
they are often under pressure to conform to and internalize the dominant group’s image
of their group”. As history has shown, it is evident that a group’s possession of highly
effective power increases its chances of getting what it desires. The development of
discontent among the disadvantaged and outrage among the oppressed are often aborted
by the socialization and indoctrination institutions of society. The family, school,
religious institutions and the media socialize and indoctrinate the oppressed to obey
authority and to keep them aware that punishment for disobedience will be severe, so
they view the disadvantages they suffer as legitimate and they have faith that they will be
compensated for them in the afterlife (Deutsch, 1973).
Stress and Black College Students
On most college campuses, Black students enroll and graduate at rates far below
those of their white peers (Zea, Reisen, Beil & Caplan, 1997). The majority of all
students face some difficulties adjusting to college life; however, Black students face
additional challenges with levels of institutional attachment and less satisfaction with
their college experience than their White peers, frequently citing conditions to racism and
discrimination (Styles, 1987). Black students have to work with racial prejudice and
24
racism. Racial prejudice relates to negative attitudes, thoughts and beliefs about an entire
group of people (Nieto, 1992). Black students experience stress generated by having a
racial group membership. The resources that are available for students at campus do not
take into account intervention or counseling services that target the cultural sensitive
issues of racial discrimination, isolation and coping along with self-control and selfesteem for minority students. When working with this population one must take into
account the historical impact of the need to address stress among students from various
racial backgrounds. Address issues concerning socioeconomic status, gender and racial
identity (Ponterotto & Casas, 1991). It is evident that a group’s possession of high
effective power increases its chances of getting what it desires.
Black students must overcome many oppressive forces against them, economic
instability, lack of employment, lack of educational programs, and lack of available
resources within the Black community. These forces have made achievement difficult to
attain. Oftentimes, young Blacks do not take advantage of educational and occupational
opportunities owing to an unconscious fear of a loss of cultural identity (McAdoo, 1997).
The cultural micro-aggressions and devaluation of an individual of color that exists in
educational institutions contributes to the difficulties that Black’s encounter when they
attempt to achieve academic upward mobility.
Black College Women Struggles
Female educators, for example Lucy Slowe, Howard University’s Dean of
Students in the late 1970’s, found that Black women faced multiple challenges when
entering college. First, they had little experience in public or community affairs; second,
25
they had internalized traditional beliefs about women’s roles due to gender-bound
upbringing; and third, they had adopted a self-defeating perspective on life (HamiltonHoward, 2003). For many Black women, there has been an internalizing of the multiple
oppressions of White America, and thus a continuing of the self-defeating view about
Black life and engendered feeling of inferiority to European Americans. The argument
that very little has changed for Black women in higher education over the past fifty years
remains true. Stereotypes and inequities continue to exist and create alarming roadblocks
for them as they attempt to gain educational and economic equality in this society
(Hamilton-Howard, 2003).
Black women in higher education face greater risks and problems now more than
in the past. Therefore, it is up to faculty and administrators to improve these issues
(Hamilton-Howard, 2003). Today, more Black women are enrolled in mainstream
colleges, but more of these women graduate from colleges that are predominantly Black
(Slater, 1994). Black institutions argue that Black colleges and universities serve a
population that would be ignored by white institutions. Black institutions have a long
history of success in educating poorly prepared students and therefore Black colleges are
important social, cultural, and economic resources within their communities (Allen,
1992).
Despite the effects of discrimination and the cloud of poverty that lies over many
Black families, some have managed to acquire the needed education, skills, and
achievement to become economically secure. Successful Black women have overcome
the adaptive reaction to the caste like status of Blacks. This has lead to the realization of
26
lowered school achievement, which adds another oppressive force preventing Black
women from academic advancement (Ogbu, 1994).
Latina College Women Struggles
Latinos especially Latinas are faced with the demands of their environment,
which is a mascosimism culture that caters to the dominant male population. This is also
rooted in their own internal, culturally bound values and commitments that further hinder
their acceptance into Anglo society. To understand the academic hurdles that Latinos,
both male and female, face, consider these facts: Though they are currently the nation's
largest minority population, they are also the least educated. They trail all other groups in
college degrees while leading the country in high school dropouts (Elkins, 2004). As
stated with Black students, it is important to be aware of the cultural differences in the
utilization and types of social support for Latino students. The background of the
majority of the Latino culture is “familism”, which is the strong family attachment and
the sense of loyalty and reciprocity between family members, which contributes to a
meaningful life for Latina/os (Keefe & Padilla, 1987).
Stress and Social Stressors Faced by Women in Graduate School Programs
Studies have shown that women, 25 years and older have become the fastest
growing college population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009). Women in
graduate school also have the greatest risk for suicide. Many of the graduate students
hold several roles, which may include motherhood and student at the same time. Maternal
role behavior requires an attitude of selflessness or absorption in the needs of others
(deBeauvoir, 1969). The role of a student requires an attitude of self-centeredness or
27
absorption in the needs of oneself. There is the friction when the maternal and student
roles collide and they pose conflicting expectations. Role expectations are “the
prescriptions and proscriptions held by members of a role set. They may deal with what
the person should do, what kind of person should he be and what he should think or
believe and how he should relate to others (Neuman, 1995).
Perceived multiple role stress is generated when meeting the demands of ones role
interferes with meeting the demands of another role and it is not clear to the individual
exactly how the demands of both roles should be met. Female students, especially those
who are mothers, maternal role is defined by Rubin (1967) as a complex social and
cognitive process that is learned. According to biology, the identity as a mother has no
basis in biology, one need not have given birth to the child. Nor does it have a basis in
gender; one can be a male who mothers.
The most common stressors reported among woman and others were lack of
academic and social support, academic program inflexibility, financial hardship,
responsibility overload, role conflict, difficulty maintaining relationships and negative
stereotypes placed on professional woman (Nelson & Quick, 1991). Women have a
higher level of self-imposed stress and reported more physiological reactions to stressors.
Woman feel pulled apart by different obligations, which include: (1) mounting financial
burden, (2) worries about the time away from families, careers and being out of the
workforce, (3) uncertainties about the future job market. Women graduate students with
lower incomes indicated they had more stress while those with stronger support from
families and friends had less. Higher perceived role demands had more stress and role
28
strain. Women reported that emotional and financial support from spouses/partners is
difficult. Research supports that husbands/partners of women pursuing degrees in social
science are threatened by the women because they feel that the knowledge the woman are
acquiring in these areas may promote insight into male behaviors and motivation, which
may mean a change in their relationship (Edwards, 1993). Women’s values and life plans
have changed over the last few years and they are focused on career goals, with the same
emphasis that men are, without losing any of the importance they place on family and
goals (Fiorentine, 1988).
The Effectiveness of a Stress Management Workshop
The essence of stress is a feeling of doubt about one’s ability to cope and manage
stress. A stress management workshop is intended to modify the perception of stress, by
removing the external stressors. From the stress management workshop, one will learn
how to become familiar with the feelings of stress that are brought on as anxiety builds
within from stress. The tools that one can utilize to manage stress are visualization,
relaxation, and breathing technique, all of which are taught in the stress management
workshop. The most important aspect of a stress management workshop is the teaching of
Mindfulness. Mindfulness involves bringing your attention into the present moment, so
you can be aware and notice what is going on in the here and now. By learning to be in
the present moment more of the time, you will not only reduce your stress but you will
also connect to deeper levels of who you are. When you are mindful of what you are
thinking, you can stand free of your thoughts, instead of becoming possessed and defined
by them. If you train to be mindful, you will pull the plug on stress and its consequences,
29
including anxiety, depression, panic, self-doubt, and a variety of serious health problems.
It is your thoughts that drive your stress. Your mind is always thinking automatically and
discursively. It wanders without any clear purpose from one subject to another, often
times darting back and forth toward concerns that leave you worried and anxious. If you
learn how to be mindful, you will learn how to control your thinking and your emotional
reactions to what you are thinking (Manganiello, 2009).
Stress and Social Network Support Systems
Investing in college campus mental health programs and suicide prevention
programs can yield benefits far beyond the contribution these programs make to the
personal well-being of students. The promotion of social networks on college campus to
reduce stress and suicide set up goals to reduce student isolation and promote feelings of
belonging, encourage the development of smaller groups within the larger campus
community (JED foundation, 2010). In various surveys, the results have shown that a
demonstrated negative relationship between perceived effectiveness of support services
and the degree of work-school role conflict experienced. Hammer, et al., (1998)
recommended restructuring class schedules to better accommodate working students;
stress management and coping skills workshops and teaching students how to negotiate
for flexibility in work schedules. Stress management workshops can help students filter
out stress by learning how to control, challenge and change destructive behaviors.
Social support is thought to be a multifaceted construct that is inclusive of
personality, personal relationships and larger social structures (Sarason et al., 1996).
30
Others define it as the feeling of being accepted, loved or being prized by others. It is a
variety of material and emotional supports a person receives from others. Social support
is defined as information that leads to one or more of three outcomes: (a) a feeling that
one is cared for; (b) the belief that one is loved, held in high esteem and value and (c) the
sense that one belongs to a reciprocal network (Cobb, 1976).
Social support can be defined as a variety of tangible and intangible support a
person receives from others. For many, it is thought of as a moderator of the adverse
effects on several stressors (Cohen & Syme, 1985). Social support as coping strategy
involves seeking out others for support (Stone, Helder & Schneider, 1988). Evidence
suggests that the availability of social support as well as its receipt, may influence the
manner in which an individual copes with a situation as well as the outcome of these
coping efforts (Sarason et al., 1996). Students do not typically seek support from
individuals who have helped them in the past due to significant changes in their support
networks, which are notably in flux. College students generally meet an entirely new set
of friends in each classroom. Gender plays a role in seeking support. Taylor and her
colleagues (2000) identified a physiological pathway that purportedly influences female
support seeking behavior during times of stress. They point to the hormone oxytocin in
combination with other female reproductive hormones as contributing to females need to
“tend and befriend” as a response to environmental stressors.
Strategies to empower college students to manage stress may prove to be
beneficial. According to Dziegielewski, et al., (2004) programs that identify stressors and
31
provide information on stress reduction and burnout prevention can help students learn to
better cope with stressful experiences. Subsequently, better coping skills are associated
with decreased anxiety levels and decreased risk for academic failure. The common
theme throughout the literature suggests that stress is a common theme among college
students. When stressful experiences are greater than the coping resources, multiple
problems often arise. Hence, programs that assist in the identification of stressors, and
focus on prevention of burnout, and counseling regarding coping strategies should
enhance student success (Garret, 2001).
Dziegielewski, et al., (2004) cited a college study in which each student
participated in a 45-minute seminar on stress management. The objectives for the stress
management seminar were to assist students in identification of personality styles and
patterns of behavior, provide general information on stress, and to identify signs of stress.
In addition, the seminar participants were taught specific stress reduction techniques. The
results of the study suggested that stress management seminars that provide general
information on stress, and teach effective ways to reduce stress are beneficial in
strengthening a person's coping skills. Consequently, if coping skills are effective in
decreasing stress and feelings of anxiety students have a greater chance for academic
success.
D’Augelli. A & Hershberger, S, 1993 study comparing Black and White
freshman, reported that Black students reported less availability of support than Whites
did. Social support was not related to academic performance; it was associated with
32
psychological and physical well being for both Black and White students. With this in
mind, Sacramento State University has created the Black Alumni Chapter with an
objective of connecting minority students with mentors, who can provide the foundation
for success.
As is evident from preceding literature review, the role of short-term management
workshop reducing stress has not been explored by researchers in this field. Although
studies discussed throughout reference different levels of stress and the impact of stress
on individuals, the need for highly specific short-term stress management workshops has
not been identified therefore, it is the hope of this researcher that this project will fulfill
that existing knowledge gap.
33
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter presents the study purpose, data collection including tools for data
collection, human subject protection and data analysis. This project examined a brief
stress management workshop with regard to its effectiveness in increasing aptitude for
social capital. The rationale for this project is that it is important for those in the social
work profession to learn ways to address stress in self, co-workers and clients.
Study Design
The design implemented will be used as a way to explore the outcome for social
capital gains if a stress management workshop is utilized by graduate students. The
design used for this workshop consisted of one group pre and post-test design and one
group post- test only, a pre-experimental design. Pre-experimental designs by nature do
not meet the threat to internal validity such as history, maturation and therefore the
external validity is limited. According to Royse (1995), “pre-experimental designs do not
have the complexity of an experiment; however this design is popular and often used in
evaluation of social service programs”. The use of the Social Capital Measurement Tool
(Appendix B& C) and the Stress Checklist Questions (Appendix A) were utilized. The
one group pre-test and post-test design is relevant to measuring the stress level before and
after the workshop project because it evaluated the effectiveness of the stress
management workshop. One group post-test only has relevance for the social capital
34
measurement as it avoided the testing effects since the workshop was only two hours in
length; therefore, we cannot generalize the findings of this study for other populations
due to the limited number of participants.
Profile of the Participants
The secondary data that was used for this study came from a sample, which
consisted of twelve (12) Sacramento State University Masters of Social Work three year
Weekend Cohort Students. The students are part-time, mature adults, employed full time
in fields within social services and the criminal justice system. The students ranged in age
from twenty-eight to sixty-two. The majority of the students were white, and female. In
the study group, there was one, thirty-seven year-old, Hispanic male, one, thirty-seven
year-old, Black female, one, thirty-two year-old, Asian female, two, sixty- two year old
White females, six, twenty-five to thirty- year-old, White females, and one, forty-three
year-old, White female. The research assistant on the project recruited the participants.
Participants were recruited by word of mouth and flyers. Participation from students was
solicited during regular class sessions. Students were informed about the nature and
purpose of the study. Those students who expressed interest in the study were given a
date and time of the workshop. The data utilized in this project was secondary data
obtained from faculty members involved with the project; therefore, a consent form was
not necessary for this researcher.
Study Purpose
The purpose of the study was to measure how effective the stress management
workshop was in reducing the stress and increasing aptitude for social capital building.
35
Sources of Data
The data tools utilized for this project were Social Capital Measurement Tool,
Effectiveness of Workshop Helpfulness Tool and Stress Check List.
Human Subject Protocol
In accordance with the thesis requirement at California State University
Sacramento, a human subject application was submitted to the Chair of Human Services
from the Division of Social Work. The Committee approved the proposed study, human
subject approval as exempt protocol # 09-10074, as there are no human subjects engaged
for this study by these researchers in this study. The secondary data collected for
measuring the effectiveness of a “Stress Management Workshop on Reducing Stress and
Social Capital Building Capacity”, by Dr. Antonyappan and Dr. Eggman for their
university IRB approved research, the “Effectiveness of Stress Management Workshop in
Stress Reduction and Social Capital Building” will be used for this study. Permission to
use the data collected has been obtained from the above named, two faculty members.
The application included the consent form, survey utilized for the study. The researcher
received approval prior to initiating data analysis.
Data Analysis
The secondary collected data was analyzed using software program, Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0. After the data was coded and
entered into the SPSS program this researcher was able to run an array of statistical
procedures to determine collective significance in the information the participants shared.
The researcher ran descriptive statistics on all quantitative questions throughout the
36
questionnaire. In doing so, the researcher was able to organize and summarize data as
well as evaluate the extent of variations and if each of these variables had value and the
degree to which variables were related to each other (Salau-Din, 2003) and furthermore
included mean, medium, mode and standard deviation.
Frequency distribution entails the visual images of scores and each score that is
recorded on the data set has the ability to not only be organized, but also be represented
and displayed by graphs, tables or grams to determine the analysis (Salau-Din, 2003).
The frequency results that were found in this study were organized and displayed using
tables. Parsons r was calculated to establish correlation between the Stress Checklist
scores and the rating of the effectiveness of the workshop.
Limitations
The limitations to conducting a project as this, is that statistical analysis cannot be
meaningful with twelve (12) subjects due to assumptions required for conducting tests
which involved a minimum number of subjects to be fifteen (15) and nominal
distribution. Although the number of the study was twelve (12) participants, a t-test and
correlation analysis was conducted along with descriptive statistics.
37
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
This chapter presents the findings of the data analysis using the secondary data
that was collected from a study conducted by two faculty members from CSUS. The
workshop consisted of twelve (12) Masters in Social Work (MSW) CSUS weekend
cohort students from various counties in Northern California who completed the sixquestion stress checklist and the fifteen-question Social Capital measurement tool. The
questions were multiple choices, closed ended questions.
Demographics
The participants involved in the project workshop consisted of one, thirty-seven
year-old, Hispanic male, one, thirty-seven year-old, Black female, one, thirty-two yearold, Asian female, two, sixty- two year old, White females, six, twenty-five to thirtyyear-old, White females, and one, forty-three year-old, White female. The majority of the
students were White and female. Demographics played a major role in how some
questions were answered by participants.
Findings
The questions were quantifying opinion-based items. The questions were typically
grouped together, rated and or responded on a Likert-type scale. The Social Capital
Measurement Tool consisted of fifteen (15) questions and the Stress Checklist consisted
of six (6) questions. The lower the score, the more stressed the participants were and the
38
higher score indicated more satisfaction for overall appraisal of workshop. Participants
indicated lower score for high stress after their participation in the workshop. Scores of 112 indicated a strong clinically diagnosable stress level. If the participants score was 1318, their stress level is seen as moderate and scores of 19-30 stress level is very low.
T-Test for Paired Data
Research has proven the negative impact and destruction that stress can lead to if
one does not learn ways to mange it effectively. Stress and individuals reaction has been
shown to have direct implications on the individual, family and community. T-test for
paired data was conducted to find the statistical significance of the difference in the
means scores of the pre and post stress test.
Table 4.1
T-Test for Paired Data Assessing the Statistical Significance of Pre and Post Stress Test
Score Difference
Paired Differences
Mean
Pair Post Stress
1
Score
Pre Stress
Score
Std.
Deviation
2.50000
Std. Error
Mean
3.55477
95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference
Lower
1.02617
Upper
t
df
Sig. (2tailed)
.24141 4.75859 2.436 11 .033
39
Table 4.2
Average Difference of Pre- Stress and Post Stress Scores
Mean
Pair 1
N
Std. Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Post Stress Score
21.3333
12
4.31347
1.24519
Pre Stress Score
18.8333
12
4.38662
1.26631
As evident in Table 4.1, the higher the score on the Stress Checklist, the lower the
stress levels. Participants had moderate to low average test scores prior to the workshop,
18.8333. After the workshop, stress scores came down to very low stress levels 21.3333.
The researcher wanted to know if this difference was statistically significant and as the
table indicates, it was significant. As table 4.1 indicates the probability was less than
P<.05 at (P.03) Therefore the findings are statistical significant that the Stress
Management workshop was effective in bringing the stress level somewhat down for the
participants.
Aptitude for Social Capital
The second grouping of tables was directly related to the participant’s use of
social capital and social networks. The participants answered questions, which directly
related to what groups they were members of and the groups were Student Groups,
Community Groups, Neighborhood Groups, Parent Groups, Spiritual Network/Church
Groups and Political Advocacy Groups. The categories used to represent the level of
involvement were Leader, very active, somewhat active and not active. According to the
40
NASW, it is important for social workers to advocate for their families and be involved
with making social change.
Table 4.3
Effectiveness of the Stress Management Workshop and Number of Group Involvement
N
Minimum Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
Effectiveness of the
Workshops
12
2.00
5.00
4.0833
.99620
Number of Groups
Respondents Intend to be
Part of to Help Meet
Challenges in Life
12
.00
6.00
2.0833
2.31432
The participants’ choices to complete the question of the effectiveness of the
workshop had various values. The highest value was five for very helpful, 4-moderately
helpful, 3-neutral, 2-not helpful and 1- not helpful at all. The minimum answer was 2,
and 5 was the maximum. Overall, the participants felt that the workshop was helpful for
them to increase social capital, which was supported by the fact that the majority of the
participants stated they would participate in the one or more of 6 groups listed above.
41
Table 4.4
Involvement and Participation in Student Group
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Leader
1
8.3
8.3
8.3
Very Active
5
41.7
41.7
50.0
Somewhat Active
2
16.7
16.7
66.7
Not Active
4
33.3
33.3
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
As was repeated throughout the literature review, the more involved students are
in the educational/school environment, the more social capital they are able to acquire.
Students groups can be defined as any group with direct contact within the educational
environment. The participants were able to choose their level of involvement in student
groups. The data showed that the highest percentage 33.3% (n= 4) students were not
involved in any aspect of the student groups. There was one student involved in a
leadership role while 41.7% (n=5) participants were very active within the student group.
42
Table 4.5
Involvement and Participation in Community Group
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Leader
1
8.3
8.3
8.3
Very Active
2
16.7
16.7
25.0
Somewhat Active
5
41.7
41.7
66.7
Not Active
4
33.3
33.3
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
It was evident in the answers that the participants provided that even with all their
commitments and current responsibilities in their lives which are focused on their
education and employment at this time, many have still found time to be involved with
community groups 41.7% (n=5). There were not any options as to what specific
community groups or how the participants are involved. All of the participants are
currently employed by social services and therefore it may be assumed that some are
involved with community groups as a part of their employment.
43
Table 4.6
Involvement and Participation in Neighborhood Group
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Percent
Valid Leader
2
16.7
16.7
16.7
Very Active
1
8.3
8.3
25.0
Somewhat
Active
3
25.0
25.0
50.0
Not Active
6
50.0
50.0
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
The rate of involvement and participation in neighborhood groups indicated that
16.7% (n=2) participants were leaders, while 50% (n=6) were not involved in any aspect
of their Neighborhood Group.One of the issues, which have led to the decline of
neighborhood and decrease in social capital, is the lack of Neighborhood Groups. With
the pressure of finances and family responsibilities, many people have failed to capitalize
on the wealth of social capital that is available within their communities. Networking and
Co-op groups have been shown to be successful. In the past members utilized neighbors
for emotional support, childcare, transportation and neighborhood watch.
44
Table 4.7
Involvement and Participation in Parent Group
Cumulative
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Percent
Leader
0
0
0
0
Very Active
2
16.7
16.7
16.7
Somewhat Active
4
33.3
33.3
33.3
Not Active
6
50.0
50.0
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
The involvement in the Parent Group varied. Thirty-three percent, 33.3%. (n=4)
participants stated that they were somewhat involved in a parent group while the
majority, 50 %( n=6) were not active at all. Considering the age of the participants in the
workshop, the majority of the participants had completed child-rearing years and did not
feel it was necessary for their involvement with a parent Group.
Table 4.8
Involvement and Participation in Spiritual Network/Church Group
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Leader
1
8.3
8.3
8.3
Very Active
3
25.0
25.0
33.3
Somewhat Active
2
16.7
16.7
50.0
Not Active
6
50.0
50.0
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
45
Research has evidence to support the idea that those who seek relief through the
church network and spiritual group are usually non-whites. The majority of the
participants in this group were White, 9 out of 12. The response by the participants
supported the data reported by Mental Health America, (2008) who cited at 82% Blacks,
30% Native Americans and 28% Non-Hispanic were by far more likely than other groups
to use prayer or meditation as a way to deal with stress and anxiety, while Whites are
more likely to engage in unhealthy coping skills to deal with stress.
Table 4.9
Involvement and Participation in Political Advocacy Group
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Leader
0
0
0
0
Very Active
1
8.3
8.3
8.3
Somewhat Active
5
41.7
41.7
50.0
Not Active
6
50.0
50.0
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
Participants were not actively involved in any political advocacy. While 41.7%
(n=5) were somewhat involved, 50% (n=6) were not involved at all. This is important to
note that Social workers have an obligation to get involved in the political arena s to
advocate for necessary changes and resources, which benefit our families and
communities in which we serve in.
46
Table 4.10
Confident about Developing a Circle of Persons for Meeting Needs
Cumulative
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Percent
Yes
10
83.3
83.3
83.3
No
1
8.3
8.3
91.7
Somewhat
1
8.3
8.3
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
The majority of participants, 83.3% (n=10) answered yes to being confident about
developing a circle of persons for meeting their needs. This is evidence in support of how
much the participants value their social capital and feel that they are supportive of them.
Table 4.11
Developing Mentoring Relationships for Making Important Decisions
Cumulative
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Percent
Yes
7
58.3
58.3
58.3
No
5
41.7
41.7
100.0
12
100.0
100.0
Total
The majority of the participants 58.3% (n=7) felt that developing a mentoring
relationship was important. Sacramento State Black Alumni Chapter (2009) belief is that
if a student has a mentor, they can be successful in college with this social capital.
47
Table 4.12
Frequency of Participant Maintaining Contact with Family and Friends
N
Minimum Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
Intend to Maintain
Significant Telephone
Contact with Friends
12
1.00
4.00
1.8333
1.26730
Intend to Maintain
Significant Telephone
Contact with Extended
Family
12
1.00
5.00
2.5833
1.56428
Intend to Maintain
Significant Contact with
Friends via Email
12
1.00
4.00
2.5000
1.38170
Intend to Maintain
Significant Contact with
Extended Family via
Email
12
1.00
7.00
3.0000
2.13201
Valid N (listwise)
12
The third group of tables illustrates the ways and frequency with which the
participants intend to stay connected with extended family members and friends. As we
continue to evolve in our technology, our reliance on computers and cellular telephone
has allowed us to maintain contact with friends and family. While we have been able to
build our social network in these ways, we have taken the “emotional” support piece by
not having face-to-face contact with those in our network. Facebook, MySpace, Instant
and Text messaging, Twitter and You-Tube have taken the place of human contact and
allow us to communicate with others. Table illustrates the majority of the participants
48
intend to maintain contact with extended family members by email and by telephone. The
results showed that the participants valued maintaining family connections.
Correlation of Workshop and Stress Test Table
Table 4.13
Comparison of Effectiveness of the Workshop and Pre and Post Stress Scores
Effectiveness
of the
Workshops
Effectiveness of the
Workshops
Pearson Correlation
-.007
.839
.983
12
12
12
Pearson Correlation
.066
1
.666*
Sig. (2-tailed)
.839
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Post Stress Score
1
Post Stress
Score
.066
N
Pre Stress Score
Pre Stress
Score
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.018
12
12
12
-.007
.666*
1
.983
.018
12
12
12
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 14.4 illustrates the findings of the relevance of a stress management
workshop on a pre and post-test questionnaire for participants. Pearson r correlation was
calculated between the pre and post-test stress scores and the helpfulness of the
workshop. There was a moderately strong positive correlation between the post-test score
.983 and the effectiveness of the workshop. It was significant to note there was a
moderately strong positive correlation between the post stress scores and the
49
effectiveness of the workshop. In other words, those who found the workshop effective
also had a high score on the stress checklist prior to the workshop. Because the scale is
rated in such a way in that high score means less stress. It is evident that those who had
reduced their stress levels also found the workshop to be effective. Despite the fact that it
was a short-term stress management workshop, it helped students reduce their stress level
and develop positive aptitude for social capital building as discussed in the findings from
the table.
Summary
All the participants reported that the stress management workshop was helpful in
their lives in that it presented different tools they could utilize to alleviate their responses
when stressed. The need for social capital and feel connected to someone was evident
with the answers that participants provided. The participants are willing to maintain
contact with their social network via email, Face book or telephone. Many of the
participants felt confident that they have individuals in their lives that they can depend on
in a crisis.
50
Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Stress is rated as the number one health issue in the industrialized world, yet we
as a society have not done enough to prevent stress. Nor has society provided the
necessary tools to learn how to prevent, manage and control stress in our lives. The
evidence presented indicates that stress continues to make a major impact on several
aspects of life including the social capital. Evidence from the literature review and the
study on how to work with stress, indicates that the workshop can be used as an
empowerment tool to indicate the need to make necessary life changes.
As we continue to struggle with the state of the economy consumers are being
asked to spend more money, yet receive less goods, which causes stress due to financial
issues. Additionally workers are asked to produce more at work to compensate for
workers lay off yet they have to work with fewer resources as well. Millions of dollars
are spent on healthcare, lost wages and poor production due to the direct impact of stress
on individuals. Companies are becoming financially crippled by the affect of stress,
unhealthy workers mean less production. The more individuals have stress related
concerns, the more workdays are lost. Insurance and health care premiums are at a high
due to the overwhelming numbers of stress claims, which in return affects workers if they
are to leave the job it is difficult for them to obtain health insurance, based on preexisting conditions they may have claimed based on stress.
51
Summary of the Study Findings from the Tables
The secondary data that was collected, presented evidence, which was in direct
agreement with the literature review obtained for the project. The T-test for paired data
obtained from the pre stress and post stress data, which indicated that the stress
management workshop was effective in lowering stress levels of the participants. The
analysis regarding the effectiveness of the stress management workshop and number of
group involvement findings indicated that the more groups the participant was involved
in six, the less stress was evident. With regards, to the participant’s role in groups and
their level of commitment, the majority of participants were “not active” in four of the
groups, neighborhood, parent, Spiritual network/church or political advocacy groups.
Spiritual network/church and parent groups were listed in the research as important
support for stress management by way of social capital. For the highest percentage of
involvement was a “somewhat active”, which was involvement in the parent and
community groups. The leader group had no participants’ involved in the role of a
“leader”. The average for being “leaders” was one participant (n=1) out of twelve and it
involved four groups, student, community, spiritual network/church and neighborhood
groups. The student group had the most “very active” members with five participants
(n=5). The participant’s confidence in developing a circle of persons for meeting their
needs, ten (n=10) of the twelve (n=12) participants were confident. Seven of the
participants were willing to develop mentoring relationships. Regarding how frequent
participants’ maintained contact with extended family and friends. Five of the
participants indicated they would maintain contact with extended family by telephone,
52
and seven indicated by email. The use of the computer is taking the place of human
contact, whether it is face to face or voice. The final table illustrated that the workshop
was effective in reducing the participants stress level in that there was a noted difference
between the pre and post stress scores.
Stress Workshop
The stress workshop for two hours conducted at CSUS for graduate students
encouraged the students to work on ways to alleviate or work with the stress in their
lives. The post workshop feedback from the participants indicated that they felt the
benefits of the calm time, which aided in relieving some of their stress and anxiety. This
shows any amount of time set aside for relieving stress can increase productivity
Recommendations
Micro Level
Stress affects families on various levels. With the status of our poor economy, life
at home for many individuals home is not the nurturing environment of the past. Life is
hard and the demands on the person of millions around the world have overwhelmed them
to the point there are more reported cases of child abuse and neglect, domestic violence,
alcohol and substance abuse, suicide and homelessness. Workers bring home stress from
their employment, children bring home stress from school and it starts a domino affect
within the home. Tempers are short and flared and that is when negative and detrimental
situations occur. One of the most disturbing facts related to stress was that young people
between 10-24 years of age have the highest rate of suicide. As we learn to deal with
stress, we need to role model for the youth that stress can be overcome. Youth need to be
53
taught that not all stress is detrimental to their health and that they can overcome and
thrive. A factor that causes stress for many minorities is racism. While it continues to be
stated that the world is color blind, reality is that we are different and individuals are
judged by the color of their skin regardless of their education, wealth or positions. Black
women are stereotyped as being strong. When stress occurs in their lives, many will not
seek the support they may need, so that they are not judged or seen as being weak.
Macro Level
Policy makers need to recognize and understand the importance of identifying
stress as a factor for allocating funding and resources. Money is available for programs
once an individual has been diagnosed but there is not money earmarked for prevention.
We need to approach fighting stress with as much venom as we do for the war on drugs.
Stress and the secondary diseases kill more people than drugs. The stress workshop for
two hours, which we conducted for the graduate students at CSUS, illustrated and
encouraged the students to seek positive ways to alleviate stress in their lives. The
workshop did not state that all stress would be eliminated after the event. The goal was to
teach and educate the students that they have the tools within to conquer stress related
issues. If time is set aside for relieving stress, the outcome is increased productivity.
Campus resources have campaigns on site to inform students of the impact and
devastation that can occur by untreated stress. The job of educating the college student on
stress is presented in a non -threatening, non-clinical manner that is appealing to the
lifestyle of the average twenty-something college student. The goal of the program is to
54
help the student learn to recognize the signs of stress, and to be informed of the location
and resources available to assist them through crisis moments. It is stressful to leave
home as a freshman and enter a new world where there is “freedom”. Many students may
already have mental health issues which are exacerbated with the stress of college and
they begin to engage in risky behaviors such as the use of substances. This has led to the
high number of successful and attempted suicides among college students. These
students are the future and if they cannot handle the stress of college, how will they be
able to handle life itself, society has to develop the means to equip and prepare them for
the world. Campus life resources for students encourage them to take time out to take
care of themselves. Students need relaxation areas to free their minds from the stress of
academics. The manner individual’s deal with stress at this age directly affects their
ability to be successful.
Mezo Level
The impact of stress has been shown to increase cost for the employer while
decreasing the productivity of the workers. The U.S National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health reported, “Stress related disorders are the most prevalent reason for
worker disability”. With these grim statistics, companies need to be encouraged to
implement wellness programs. The idea that there are accessible, affordable on site
resources and services; counseling, stress management and weight programs, designed to,
promote wellness among the employees after all, a healthy, happy worker is a productive
worker. At Sacramento County, two programs provide valuable services for employees.
Free to low cost mental health services provided through the Employment Assistance
55
Program (EAP). Through EAP, employees and their families can receive counseling
services for a maximum of six weeks. Sacramento County has an enticement based
attendance program. Employees receive a paid 8 hour day off, if they have not been
absent from work for more than 8 hours in a six month period. This incentive is to
encourage employees to be at work, which for management means more productivity.
Implications for Social Work Practice
Social workers recognize that their commitment in the social services field is not
based on financial gains. Social worker is one of the lowest paying occupations with one
of the highest level of education requirements. With the economy at an all time low, job
loss has affected everyone. In the field of social work and social services there has been a
drastic reduction in the workforce, which was already not able to shoulder the
responsibility, and care of protecting the elderly, children and the challenged. The field of
social work is not exempt from issues with stress. Social workers, have the image as
being invincible, super human, and therefore able to handle all demands placed upon
them. The academic expertise is also seen as an assets however in reality social workers
do not know how to take care of themselves, because they are trying to take care of others
first. They have been educated about the importance of maintaining self, repeatedly
through school and trainings. Social workers not only carry the burden of their own
personal situations, they take on the second hand trauma from their clients. These
situations lead to high levels of burnout within the social work profession. Social workers
are undervalued, underpaid and overworked. Social workers have to utilize their social
networks in order to prevent burn out within the field. Implementing stress management
56
workshops will help to develop the supporting, caring environment necessary for social
workers to stay on the job and to continue to help those who do not have a voice in the
community. Social workers need to be equipped with the tools necessary to deal with the
stress in their own lives and still be able to make important decisions regarding the lives
of others. The current economic situation has triggered massive layoffs in Sacramento
County within the Department of Health and Human Services and Department of Human
Assistance. These departments provide valuable services and care for families. The
layoffs have caused a domino effect, not only is there a loss of employment, loss of
income, loss of benefits, loss of self esteem, loss of social networks eventually there are
losses of lives. The impact for the workers who remain employed is they have workload
increases due to worker decrease. The workplace anxiety has increased and trust in
management is at a low due to the belief that management does not care. As a social
worker experiencing stress through others and within their own lives, there needs to be a
forum to protect social workers from stress.
Research
Evidence supports the need for more research on the impact of stress management
programs. While plenty of data has been collected to show the affects stress has on our
lives there is minimal information about resource options, which can help to alleviate the
stress that kills us. It appears that most companies would rather pay the employee to be
stress leave from work, then to promote wellness programs. We recognize that not all
stress is negative, as explained with eustress but as most things received in abundance,
stress in a great quantity can kill.
57
APPENDIX A
Stress Checklist Questions
1. Minor problems and disappointments upset me excessively.
Strongly agree
agree neutral
disagree
2. I feel inadequate or suffer from self-doubt
All the time
frequently
sometimes
rarely never
frequently
sometimes
rarely never
3. I feel tired.
All the time
4. I experience flashes of anger over a minor problem.
All the time
frequently
sometimes
rarely never
5. I notice a change in my sleeping or eating patterns.
All the time
frequently
sometimes
rarely never
6. I suffer from chronic pain, headaches, or backaches.
Strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
strongly disagree
58
APPENDIX B
Social Capital Measurement Tool Pre-Test
1. How many resources do you access on campus in an academic year? Please check
all that apply
Writing center
Financial Aid
Scholarships
Student Health Center
Physical Exercise Opportunities
Noon Time Health Activities
Student Organized Spiritual Activities
Student Organized Relaxation Activities
Team Building Activities
Transportation-Ride Share
Security Services
2. Please indicate your degree of participation in the groups that you are a member
of by using the following schema
59
Leader 1
Very active 2
Somewhat active 3
Not active 4
Student Groups
Community Groups
Neighborhood Groups
Parent Groups
Spiritual Network/Church Groups
Political Advocacy Groups
3. How many of the groups that you are a member of would you consider as assets
to you in meeting you challenges in life? Please explain in the space below
4. During stressful times in your life how many contacts can you rely on for help?
5. At times of emergency, do you have social contacts who could help you?
6. What resources do you currently have for managing stress in your life?
7. What is the frequency of your visits with friends?
8. What is the frequency of your visits with family?
9. How often do you maintain significant telephone contact with friends?
10. How often do you maintain significant telephone contact with extended family
members?
60
11. How often do you maintain significant email contact with friends?
12. How often do you maintain significant email contact with extended family
members?
13. Do you have a mentor?
14. Do you have someone whom you consult for making important decisions?
15. Do you have a circle of persons to rely on for meeting those needs that you cannot
meet on your own?
61
APPENDIX C
Social Capital Measurement Tool Post-Test
1. How many resources do you access on campus in an academic year? Please check
all that apply
Writing center
Financial Aid
Scholarships
Student Health Center
Physical Exercise Opportunities
Noon Time Health Activities
Student Organized Spiritual Activities
Student Organized Relaxation Activities
Team Building Activities
Transportation-Ride Share
Security Services
2. Please indicate your degree of participation in the groups that you are a member
of by using the following schema
62
Leader 1
Very active 2
Somewhat active 3
Not active 4
Student Groups
Community Groups
Neighborhood Groups
Parent Groups
Spiritual Network/Church Groups
Political Advocacy Groups
3. How many of the groups that you are a member of do you intend to consider as
assets to you in meeting you challenges in life? Please explain in the space below
4. How many contacts of yours you actively plan on developing for access to help
you during stressful times in your life?
5. How hopeful are you that at times of emergency, you will have social contacts
who could help you
6. Are you hopeful that you will be able to develop and maintain resources to help
you manage stress in your life?
7. Is there a change in the frequency of your visits with friends that you intend to
have?
8. What is the frequency of your visits with family that you intend to have?
63
9. How often do you intend to maintain significant telephone contact with friends?
10. How often do you intend to maintain significant telephone contact with extended
family members?
11. How often do you intend to maintain significant email contact with friends?
12. How often do you intend to maintain significant email contact with extended
family members?
13. Do you plan on having a mentor?
14. Do you intend to develop a mentoring relationship with someone whom you
consult for making important decisions?
15. Do you feel confident about developing a circle of persons to rely on for meeting
those needs that you cannot meet on your own?
16. On a scale of 1-5 how helpful was this workshop in helping you increase your
readiness for increasing you social capital?
Very Helpful-5
Moderately Helpful-4
Nuetral-3
Not Helpful-2
Not helpful at all-1
64
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